Confidential- Compiled notes is only for the circulation of course GLC-208 students

Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology

(Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad

Lecture Material
Course: Economic Geology and Indian Mineral Deposits- Theory

by
Prof A S Venkatesh
Prof./AGL & Instructor of the course

Lecture Notes-2

Ore forming processes and magmatic ore deposits

The subject of economic geology deals principally with the mode of occurrence,
distribution, origin, classification and association of all minerals and rocks of economic
importance and systematic studies in this direction are scheduled to lead to the discovery of new
deposits and further extension of the existing ones.

Scope:

Scope of this subject includes the study of metalliferous ores ( for eg., iron, manganese,
copper, gold etc) and non-metalliferous deposits (such as mica, limestone, gemstones etc).

Classification of metallic and non-metallic minerals:

Metallic Mineral deposit types

1. Ferrous Metals ( Fe, Ti, Cr, Mn etc)

2. Non-Ferrous Metals ( Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb, Ni etc) , PGE etc )
3. Noble Metals ( Au, Ag, Pt, Os, Ir etc)
4. Light Metals (Al, Li,Be, Mg etc)
5. Rare earths and dispersed Metals (La, Ce to Lu) and (Sc, Ga, Rb, Cd etc)
6. Rare and Scarce Metals (W, Mo, Sn, Co, Hg, Bi, Zr, Cs, Nb, Ta etc)

Non Metallic Materials

1.Fossil Fuels (Coal, Petroleum and natural gas)

2.Structural and building material (Granite, Khondalite, Dolerite, Slate, Gypsum, etc)
3.Ceramic materials (Clays, Feldspar, Bauxite, Magnesite, Barite etc)
 4.Metallurgical and Refractory materials (Fluorspar, Graphite, Magnesite, dolomite, Bauxite,
Zircon etc)
5.Industrial and manufacturing materials (Asbestos, Mica, Talc, Barite etc)
6.Chemical materials (Salt, Borates, Ca, Mg, Cl2, Bromine, Nitrates etc)
7.Abrasives and abrasive materials (Corundum, Emery, Garnet etc)

Economic Geology and relation with other branches

Economic geologists determine the location, extent, quality and value of deposits of ore
and non-metallic substances while mining engineers develop these deposits into mines.
Economic geologists can successfully cooperate with mining engineers in predicting the
probable difficulties during mining operations, mine development and in solving unforeseen
problems.
Metallurgists and mineral engineers are concerned primarily with the convenient recovery
of metals and alloys from their ores, which are in turn, contain useful as well as useless minerals
(gangue minerals). Studies on the location, mineralogical composition, texture and structure of
deposits, which come within the domain of economic geology are, however are of great use to
the metallurgists and mineral engineers in adopting suitable and economic methods for the
beneficiation of ores and for extraction of metals (alloys) form them by the way of: 1) Liberation
of wanted particles from the unwanted particles by means of size reduction and 2) Concentration
of the valuable part (as concentrate) and rejection of the gangue ( tailings).

Ore minerals and Gangue minerals

Ore Mineral:

A mineral from which one or more metals or metallic compounds can be extracted
economically is known as ore mineral. eg. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2 ), hematite (Fe2O3), galena
(PbS), sphalerite(ZnS) etc.

Gangue minerals:

Gangue minerals include any minerals in an ore deposit that have no economic value.
Gangue minerals are normally non-metallic minerals. Gangue minerals are associated, usually
worthless, non-metallic materials of a deposit usually discarded in treatment of ores. Some
gangue minerals considered worthless today might prove to be of economic value tomorrow. eg.
A big fluorite vein encountered during mining of copper ores.
Common gangue minerals:
Oxides- quartz, hematite etc
Carbonates- calcite, dolomite
Sulphates- Barite, Gypsum
Silicates- Feldspar, clays
Miscellaneous- Flourite, pyrite, pyrrhotite etc.

Ore:

Ore is an aggregation of ore minerals and gangue from which one or more metals may be
extracted at a profit. Thus, copper ores of Singhbhum are made up of chalcopyrite, chalcocite,
cuprite, pyrrhotite etc., which constitute the important ore minerals and are associated with
gangue. The lead-zinc ores of Zawar, Rajasthan are composed of two important ore minerals i.e
galena and sphalerite which are associated with dolomitic, quartzitic and phyllitic gangue. Ores
must allow profitable extraction of metals or metallic compounds and should be therefore be
payable to the desired extent. Mineral deposit can be mined at profit depends upon shape, depth,
location and size and also on transport, cost etc.
A simple ore is one from which a single metal can be extracted. eg. Hematite (Fe).
Complex ores on the other hand yield several metals. eg., base metals (Au, Ag may be
recovered) galena ( in addition to Pb, Cd , Ag etc may be recovered), sphalerite etc. Some of
common association of metals in ores are Au&Ag, Ag & Pb, Pb,Zn&Cu, Cu & Au, Fe&Mn,
Fe&Ti, Ni &Cu, Ni &Co, Cr &Ni, Cr &Pt, Mo& Cu, Zn &Cd, W&Sn etc. These are
economically mineable aggregates of ore minerals.

Ore- Gangue relationships:

The study of ore-gangue relationships is especially important to the engineers and

geologists who determine how to concentrate ore minerals. The grain size of both ore and
gangue will establish how finely the ore must be ground. Relative wetting abilities, specific
gravities and magnetic properties between the ore and gangue minerals limit the mechanisms by
which ore can be separated from the gangue after crushing.

Introduction to depositional textures

Texture of a particular rock/ore/ore mineral/mineral denotes the geometric arrangement of

various mineral phases occurring in a ore/rock. This can be found out based on megascopic
characteristics and best by microscopic characteristics. Ore deposits formed with various
textures, depending upon the 1) nature of the mineralizing fluids, 2) the physical and chemical
characteristics of the host rocks and 3) mode of emplacement In syngenetic deposits- a category
including sedimentary, magmatic segregation and some pegmatitic ores- the textures will reflect
the proximity to i) a source or ii) the rates of crystallization. Further a) resorption of early
formed crystals (sweating like) may produce peculiar textures in magmatic segregation ores. Eg.
Leopard texture exhibited by chromite, podiform chromite, spotted chromite b) diagenetic
changes may modify the texture similar to the one in banded iron ores.
In hydrothermal process, ores may be deposited either by open-space filling or
replacement. Open space filling may likely be accompanied by some replacement. Some of the
textures developed may indicate whether the metals were carried in solution or as colloids.
Hence the ores formed by these processes can be broadly grouped into three types based on their
depositional textures: a) Open- space filling, b) Replacement and c) Colloids.

Genetic aspects of metalliferous deposits

Most of the common ore-forming elements are present in magmas and ordinary rocks, in
amounts ranging from a few parts per billion to several thousands of parts per million. The
formation of a mineral deposit represents the convergence of a set of favourable circumstances
leading to a significantly higher concentration of one or more elements in limited portion of the
Earth’s crust.

The required concentration factor that is defined as the ratio of the average concentration
of an element in a mineable mineral deposit to its average crustal abundance is highly variable
and depends not only on the particular element but also on the type of the deposit. The
concentration factors range from about 5-10 for geochemically abundant elements (e.g., Al and
Fe) to about 100-1000 for less abundant elements (e.g., Cu, Zn and U). Selective concentration
of one or more ore constituents to form a mineral deposit is achieved by combination of some of
the following: a) extraction of the constituents from magma, rocks and oceans; b) transportation
of the constituents in a fluid medium from source regions to the sites of deposition; and c)
localization of the constituents at certain favourable sites (for e.g., gold deposit at Hutti, base
metal deposits of Rajasthan etc.).

Processes of Ore Formation

Minerals are formed in nature by different processes. The ore forming processes may be
grouped in to the following four broad categories and the details are given in Table 1: a)
Magmatic processes; b) Sedimentary processes; c) metamorphic processes and d) hydrothermal
processes. Some important processes leading to the formation of ore deposits are briefly
discussed below:

A) Magmatic Concentration Process

During consolidation of magmas, the constituent minerals solidify in descending order of

their meting points. Minerals with high meting points crystallize earliest while the minerals with
lower meting points follow. Magmatic deposits are further classified as: 1) Early Magmatic
Deposits: Early magmatic deposits resulted from straight magmatic processes. 2) Late Magmatic
Deposits consist of igneous ore minerals that have crystallized from a residual magma toward
the close of the magmatic period.In the process, under favourable conditions some minerals of
economic value concentrate. For eg. While still in molten condition, Cr, Fe &O in the magma
may combine to form chromite. Cr crystals are heavy and therefore sink to the bottom of magma
chamber and accumulate as a concentrate.

Classification of magmatic deposits:

1. Early Magmatic:
a. Dissemination: Disseminated crystallization without concentration: eg. Diamond,
Panna, M.P.
b. Segregation: Crystallisation, differentiation and accumulation: eg. Chromite,
Singhbhum dt., Jharkhand.
2. Late Magmatic:
a. Gravitative liquid accumulation
i. Residual liquid segregation: Crystallisation, differentiation and residual magma
accumulation: eg. Chromites & Vanadiferous, Titanomagnetite of Mayurbhanj
Dt. Orissa.
ii. Residual liquid injection: Crystallisation, differentiation. Residual magma
accumulation with filter pressing and/or injection: eg. Pegmatites hosted mica
deposits, Giridih, Jharkhand.
b. Immiscible Liquid accumulation
Immiscible liquid segregation: Immiscible liquid segregation and
accumulation: eg. 1. Magmatic ilmenite deposits ; 2. Ni-Sulphide deposits.

Magmatic deposits are related to the process of magma evolution and its emplacement in
the crustal level.
 The two ends of the magmatic process are: orthomagmatic and magmatic-hydrothermal
processes.

Orthomagmatic ore deposits are directly related to the magmatic differentiation process.
The silicate melt-crystal equilibria dominate the process of ore formation. Ex.: Chromite
deposits associated with mafic-ultramafic rocks and Ni-(Fe)-Cu sulfide deposit of similar
association.

Magmatic-hydrothermal deposits are explained by crystal-volatile equilibria. Ex.: Sn-W

deposit of felsic association.

– Early magmatic ore deposits: Cumulate deposits – fractional crystallization

processes can concentrate metals (Cr, Fe, Pt)
– Late Magmatic ore deposits: Pegmatites – late staged crystallization forms
pegmatites and many residual elements are concentrated (Li, Ce, Be, Sn, and
U)
– Orthomagmatic
– 1. Cu-Ni Deposits
– a) Komatiite (ultramafic lava-hosted)
b) Impact Melt
c) Mafic intrusive rocks
– 2. PGE’s
a) Stratiform in mafic intrusions
b) Mafic magmatic breccias
– 3. Diamond Deposits
a) Kimberlites
b) Lamprolites and lamprophyres
– 4. Chromite Deposits
a) Layered intrusion-hosted
b) Ophiolite-hosted
– 4a) Magnetite-apatite-vanadium deposits
– 5. Deposits Related to granites
Pegmatites
Uranium

MAGMATIC CONCENTRATION
During consolidation of magmas, the constituent minerals solidify in descending order of their
meting points. Minerals with high meting points crystallize earliest while the minerals with
lower meting points follow. In the process, under favourable conditions some minerals of
economic value concentrate. For eg. While still in molten condition, Cr, Fe &O in the4 magma
may combine to form chromite. Cr crystals are heavy and therefore sink to the bottom of magma
chamber and accumulate as a concentrate.
Ore minerals crystallize earlier than silicate minerals and some ore minerals crystallize later; and
in still others they remained as immiscible liquids until the crystallization of the host rocks.
Classification of magmatic deposits:
1. Early Magmatic:
a. Dissemination: Disseminated crystallization without concentration: eg. Diamond, Panna, M.P.
b. Segregation: Crystallisation, differentiation and accumulation: eg. Chromite, Singhbhum dist.,
Jharkhand.
2. Late Magmatic:
a. Gravitative liquid accumulation
i. Residual liquid segregation: Crystallisation, differentiation and residual magma accumulation:
eg. Chromites & Vanadiferous, Titanomagnetite of Mayurbhanj Dist. Orissa.

ii. Residual liquid injection: Crystallisation, differentiation. Residual magma accumulation with
filter pressing and/or injection: eg. Pegmatites hosted mica deposits, Giridih, Jharkhand.
b. Immiscible Liquid accumulation
i. Immiscible liquid segregation: Immiscible liquid segregation and accumulation: eg. 1.
Magmatic ilmenite deposits ; 2. Ni-Sulphide deposits.

ii. Immiscible liquid injection: Immiscible liquid segregation, accumulation with injection. : eg.
Same as above.
Definitions: 1) Early Magmatic Deposits: Early magmatic deposits resulted from straight
magmatic processes. 2) Late Magmatic Deposits consist of igneous ore minerals that have
crystallized from a residual magma toward the close of the magmatic period.
Early Magmatic Deposits:
The ore minerals crystallized earlier than the rock silicates and in part presumably have
separated by crystallization and differentiation.
Dissemination: Simple crystallization of a deep-seated magma insitu will yield a granular
igneous rock in which earlier formed crystals may be disseminated throughout. The diamond
pipes of South Africa are examples. The diamonds are sparsely disseminated throughout
Kimberlitic rocks. They crystallized (phenocrysts) in a former deep magma chamber (in high
pressures) and were transported with enclosing magma and perhaps even continued to grow
before final consolidation occurred in the present pipes. The resulting deposits of this class have
the shape of the intrusive, may be a dyke, and pipe. Eg. The disseminated Corundum in
nepheline syenite in Ontario, Canada. If the differentiation during cooling and consolidation
is not possible, the grains of ore minerals may crystallize in various parts of the host rocks
resulting in the formation of "disseminated" deposits. Eg. Majhgavan pipes (Panna Dt).
Diamond pipes occur in ultrabasic intrusive pipe rocks.
Segregation: The Early formed ultramafic and mafic crystals separate out from the main melt
and differentiate or settle down due to high specific gravities. Such a process is called as
magmatic segregation. The segregation may takes place by the sinking of heavy early formed
crystals to the lower parts of magma chamber by marginal accumulation or by constrictive
flowage.
The mineral deposits formed by early magmatic segregation are generally lenticular and
relatively small size. Eg. Bushweld igneous complex of South Africa. Stratified bands of
chromite, chromite and chromite-platinum reefs. The mechanisms proposed for such
segregation are : 1) Sorting out of crystals by movement within the magma. 2)
Immiscible sulphide or oxide segregation from the main silicate melt. Good examples of
such segregated deposits are Cr, Cu, Fe (Ilmenite), Ni and Platinum deposits in mafic
and ultramafic rocks. Indian examples: chromite deposits around Jojohatu in Singhbhum
dt., Jharkhand occur in layered form within the dunitesm peridotites and serpentinites.

Late Magmatic Deposits:

They are consolidated fractions of the magma left after crystallization of the early-formed rock
silicates. Consequently, the ore minerals of late magmatic deposits are later than the rock
silicates and cut across them embay (enclose) them and yield reaction rims of alteration products
around the margins of enclosed silicate minerals. They are resulted from variations of
crystallization, differentiation, gravitative accumulation of heavy residual liquid and liquid
separation of sulphide droplets (called as immiscibility), like droplets of oil out of water.
The late magmatic group now includes most magmatic deposits of Fe& Ti, chromites showing
cross cutting relationship and platinum pipes of Bushweld complex. A residual magma liquid
enriched in Fe, Ti and volatiles could collect in the interstices of previously formed rock grains.
If freezing occurred at this stage, the result would be late disseminated grains of magnetite. Or
alternatively, the residual ore liquid may forcefully be squeezed out, or it may quietly be drain
out to settle on an underlying solid layer. There it may solidify, or while still as fluid it may be
subjected to pressure that may cause it to be injected as an injection in to fractures.
A) Gravitative liquid accumulation:
Residual liquid segregation: This is a process mainly occurs as crystallization,
differentiation and residual magma accumulation. Eg. Bushweld Titanomagnetite layers,
Platinum. In India: Hazaribagh Magnetite, Jharkhand. In certain mafic magmas at a
certain stage, the residual part becomes enriched in iron, Ti & volatiles. Magnetite was
the last to crystallize in mafic magmas, it lies moulded around or fills the interstices
between early formed grains of Ca plagioclase or other mafic (darker) minerals. With
advancing crystalllisation, there will be a mush of crystals in diminishing liquid in which
the crystals
will be growing riches in excess of iron. Any of the two possibilities occur at this stage:
1). If the silicate crystals (Ca-plagioclase and others) grow to touch each other and
freezing occurs, the result would be granular igneous rock with intersticial magnetite. Eg.
Mafic sills of Connecticut, USA iron ores.2). The heavy iron rich residual liquid drain
downward to collect below as a segregation resting on a solid floor of early formed
sunken crystals.

Residual liquid injection: The iron rich residual liquid accumulated in the manner as above
may be subjected to movement. A gentle tilting of the host rock may cause it to be decanted and
move laterlly. The squeezing out of a residual liquid from the silicate interstices termed as filter
pressing. However, if a late gravitative liquid accumulation were subjected to pressure, the
mobile liquid already collected as a concentrated body could be forced out en massse to to a
place of less pressure. It might be injected along the primary structure of the already
consolidated parent intrusive to give rise condordant bodies of oxides. Eg. Kiruna iron ore
deposits, Sweden.
Residual liquid Pegmatitic injection: The formation of pegmatites, results from the injection
of late magmatic fluids containing the ingredients of the late rock forming minerals (more acidic
silicate minerals) along with much water, CO2 , concentration of rare elements and metals.
Many such pegmatites are valuable mineral deposits and mined for industrial minerals. These
form irregular bodies of intrusives. Pegmatites of economic importance are associated with
felsic igneous rocks such as highly differentiated granitic or quartz dioritc rocks. The chief
industrial minerals in complex pegmatites are feldspar, mica, quartz, gemstones, rare earths etc
and the economic metals are tin, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, uranium etc.
B. Immiscible liquid segregation:
This is a process concerns immiscible liquid separation, accumulation and injection. In other
works this is a process of immiscible sulphide melt in a late stage of cooling magma.
Enrichment of sulphides upon consolidation gives rise to a mafic igneous rock with sulphide
segregation. The deposits formed in the magma consist of pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-pentlandite,
nickel copper ores with accompanying platinum, gold, silver and others. Eg. Ni-sulphide
deposits of Insizwa, South Africa. If a sulphide rich fraction accumulated and subjected to
disturbance before consolidation, it might be squirted out toward places of less pressure, such as
sheared or weak zones. They intrude older rocks. Eg. Vlack fontain mine, South Africa, Nickel
deposits of Norway.

– Sources of metals in the formation of magmatic ore deposits

– Upper Mantle or Lower Crust (top 100-200 km). Partial melting takes place here to
generate magma mostly of silicate composition with trace metals and volatile
constituents (CO2, H2S, SO2, HCl, HF, H2).
– Upper Crust - assimilation of ascending magma with upper crust. Assimilation my
change magma composition and add valuable constituents and also volatile component.

– Minerals are concentrated within a body of igneous rock by magmatic processes like
crystal settling.
– Magmatic process such as partial melting, fractional crystallization, and crystal settling
in a magma chamber can concentrate ore minerals containing valuable metals.
– As minerals crystallize from a magma body, heavy minerals may sink to the bottom of
the magma chamber
– Concentration of ore constituents present in magma is triggered by crystallization
– Three major magmatic differentiation important during the orthomagmatic stage are:
liquid immiscibility, gravity settling and filter pressing
Liquid immiscibility
As magmas cool, they can split into two liquids of different composition and density.
– One of these liquids is the silica-rich melt. It has the most volume
– The other, typically much smaller in volume, can be rich in metal oxides, sulfides
or carbonates.

Summary: Magmatic minerals and associated economic minerals

Platinum: mafic and ultramafic rocks ( eg. Norite, peridotite etc.)

Chromium: Peridotite, anorthosite etc.
Titanomagnetite and Ilmenite: Gabbro, anorthosite.
Magnetite: Syenite etc.
Nickel-Copper associations: Norite etc.
Corundum: Nepheline syenite etc.
Diamonds: Kimberlite.
Pegmatitic minerals: Differentiated granites.

References:

1. Mishra, K C. 2000. Understanding Mineral Deposits. Kluwer Acad

Publ. P. 845.
2. Evans, A.M. 1997. Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals- An
Introduction, Geoscience, Texas.
3. Jenson, M l and Bateman, A M 1981. Economic Mineral Deposits. John
Wiley and sons.
4. Rao, T C and Gokhale, KVG 1978. Ore Deposits of India – Their
distribution and processing. Thomson Press Ltd.

Material compiled from author’s own work and from many eminent scholars work and due
acknowledgements to all such workers