SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Department of Visual Communication

MEDIA, CULTURE
AND
SOCIETY
(Only for SRM IST syllabus)

Compiled by:

Dr. Rajesh. R
Head, Department of Visual Communication
College of Science and Humanities
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
 MEDIA, CULTURE AND SOCIETY- Dr. Rajesh. R

Unit I

Mass Media- Definition, Nature & Scopes; Historical Development of

Mass Media; Understanding Mass Media; Characteristics of Mass Media;
Significance of media Impact of Mass Media on individual, society, and
culture; Power of Mass Media; Functions of Mass Media; Types of Mass
Media- Print, Electronic, Traditional & New Media; Media and Social
Institutions; Sociology of Mass Media- Cultural Studies, Multiculturalism
& Media Culture.

1.1 Mass Media:

Mass media is the primary means of communication to reach

the vast majority of the general public. The most common
platforms for mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio,
television, and the internet. The general public typically relies
on the mass media to provide information regarding political
issues, social issues, entertainment, and news in pop culture.

Broadly, ‘medium’ or ‘media’ refers to the channel passing

messages from the source to the receiver. Mass media are the
channels used for mass communication. The mass media
includes television, radio, newspaper, magazine, sound
recording, and film, which refers to the people, policies,
organizations, and technologies that produce and distribute
mass communication.

Mass media refers to channels involving communication with

large numbers of people. Media is traditionally seen as ‘one-
to-many’ communication, where ‘one’ refers to the sender
(Film Director), who simultaneously communicates to many
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people (viewers). However, this definition hides several

issues, such as how large an audience has to be before it
qualifies as ‘mass.’

1.2 Nature of Mass Media:

Mass media is communication meant to a large group or

groups of people in a short time, which can be written,
spoken, or broadcast. Some of the most popular forms of mass
media are newspapers, magazines, radio, advertisements,
social media, television, the Internet, and films. Mass
communication refers to the technology used to communicate
quickly with a large group of people. There are other forms of
communication.

Being able to reach a large number of people quickly is

valued, especially in society, politics, and commerce, and
corporations control it. The mass media industry employs
professionals to conceive, produce, promote and deliver
communication products that are specifically designed to
meet the goal of attracting large audiences.

These products may be sold as objects (screening or DVDs),

exhibited for the price of a ticket or subscription, or offered at
no cash cost to consumers to create an audience for paid
advertising (television or radio broadcasts). Apart from that,
some mass media use combinations of these funding sources;
most newspapers and magazines are sold directly to the
reader but depend on selling advertisements for their
profitability.
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1.3 Scope of Mass Media:

There are various aspects of scope in mass media; they are;

• Audience Scope: The communicator must identify the
target audience of the communication. It will also allow
the communicator to tailor the transmission to the
audience's particular needs. The communicator must
make sure that the target audience is identified.
Communication may be forwarded or copied without the
distribution list, at which point the target audience
definition is lost.
• Subject Scope: A communication should always clearly
identify the subject scope of the communication. It is the
specification of the information covered by the
communication.
• Purpose: Communication will always have a sense.
Good technical communication will always have a goal
for the reader. In most technical communications, the
purpose of the communication must be clear to the
recipient.

Communication opens scope like advertising, films,

newspapers, magazines, websites, Television channels, radio,
corporate communications, press information bureau, central
information service, etc. A mass communication course
requires many skills, such as creativity, imagination,
spontaneity, innovation, and flexibility.

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1.4 Historical Development of Mass Media:

The history of mass media traces the medieval European

cathedral architecture functioned as the first mass medium of
religious communication by offering biblical stories and
spiritual information to a largely illiterate population through
painting, sculpture, and other visual arts.
• Printing Press: The mass media started as an
‘industrial-era phenomenon’ with Gutenberg’s printing
press. It was the first form of mass media in 1450. The
printing press spread news faster than anything before
its time and introduced the printing of newspapers and
books.
• Photography: Photography was invented in the 1820s,
and methods for reproducing photographs in the print
media were improved throughout the century, making
such media more attractive to consumers. In addition,
the development of still photography led to the invention
of the motion picture, an entirely new means of
communication that showed great potential for mass-
media application.
• Telegram: The next arrival is the telegraph. It was
created by Samuel Morse and was the first electronic
communication means. It used Morse code incorporating
dots and dashes to spell words in the late 19th century.
• Telephone: The follow-up of the telegraph was the
telephone, which Alexander Graham Bell invented in
1876. The phone was surprisingly first used as a radio,
not the telephone that is known today. From this

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invention, one can now communicate virtually

anywhere, anytime, and anywhere very quickly.
• Phonograph: The phonograph was invented by Thomas
Edison in 1877. It was the first technology that was
designed to reproduce sound recordings.
• Kinetoscope: In 1891, Thomas Edison’s Company
successfully demonstrated the ‘Kinetoscope,’ which
enabled one person at a time to view moving pictures.
Later in 1896, Edison showed his improved ‘Vitascope’
projector, the first commercial projector introduced in
the USA.
• Radio: Radio was invented in the 1920s. Radio stations
started broadcasting at the beginning of the 20th
century. Radio brought the new concept of listening to
radio programming. In return, radio audiences overgrew
and significantly impacted people’s lives.
• Television: The television was invented in the 1930s,
but it did not become a success until about two decades
later. Although experimentation with television
broadcasting began in the late 1920s, technical
difficulties, corporate competition, and World War II
postponed its introduction until 1946. During the 1950s,
broadcast television emerged as the nexus of the mass
media.
• Internet: The development of the Internet can be traced
back to 1958 with Russia's launch of the Sputnik
satellite. During the 1960s, computers became
increasingly standard and smaller. The first commercial
email service ‘Comet’ was established in 1976.
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• Social Media: Social media appears in many forms,

including blogs and micro-blogs, forums and message
boards, social networks, wikis, virtual worlds, social
bookmarking, tagging and news, writing communities,
digital storytelling and scrapbooking, and data, content,
image and video sharing, podcast portals, and collective
intelligence. The most common sites are Facebook,
LinkedIn, MySpace, Twitter, YouTube, Flickr, WordPress,
Blogger, Wikipedia, and many others.

1.5 Understanding Mass Media:

The mass media profoundly shape everyday reality. One

becomes aware of the world beyond the immediate
experience through media representations and virtual social
networks. Words do not simply convey information but also
structure the understanding of society, the meaning of social
categories, and the sense of self.

This course will thoroughly introduce theories of media and

society, including the media as a component within capitalist
economies, as a public sphere in democratic institutions, and
as a form of culture. One will explore how the media make
meaning and how social identities are reflected and
constructed through media products.

One will consider the role of audiences as recipients of media

messages and as active participants in the use of media in
everyday life. We will examine new information technologies,

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including blogs, forums, wikis, and websites, to investigate

whether they change the relationships between individuals
and media institutions, media professionals and the public,
experts and lay people, or governments and citizens.

1.6 Characteristics of Mass Media:

The primary characteristics of mass communication are

explained below;
• The source of mass communication message generally is
a person or group operating within an organizational
setting. Likewise, the reference is multiple entities, and
the resulting message is the work of several persons.
• Mass media messages are sophisticated and complex.
Whereas the message in interpersonal communication
may be simple words and short sentences, at the same
time, mass media messages are pretty elaborate.
• Mass media channels, also called mass vehicles, involve
one or more aspects of technology.
• Audiences generally are self-selected; people who tune
in to a particular television or read a specific magazine.
Mass audiences are also heterogeneous, meaning they
are both large and diverse.
• Feedback is minimal in mass media, and no natural give-
and-take is practically possible. Message flow typically is
one-way, from source to receiver. Traditionally, feedback
has been minimal and generally delayed.

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• Like other forms of mediated communication, noise

exists in the mass context. Noise may be semantic,
environmental, or mechanical.

1.7 Impact of Mass Media:

Mass media undoubtedly plays a significant role in shaping

modern culture. With information easily obtained by tapping
buttons, it is not surprising that today’s society has become a
melting pot of cultures. With a combination of ancient
traditions and present-day practices, culture can no longer be
defined by religion or ethnic group the way it was done in the
past. The culture practiced by people today varies from one
individual to another due to their different influences.
• Individual: Understanding mass media's impact on
individuals today, it is possible to refer to Postman’s
views on mass media and their influence on the
audience. Postman argues that mass media contribute to
the prevention of rational thinking and the devaluation
of information and important issues. Postman believes
that news media turn into amusement while failing to
stimulate a sensible and critical audience review.
Postman believes that mass media have become mere
entertainment for the audience. More importantly, he
stresses that mass media intentionally focus on
entertainment content to accelerate the degradation of
critical thinking in the audience.
• Society: Over the past 50 years, media influence has
grown exponentially with the advent of the Internet.

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First, there was the telegraph, then the radio, the

newspaper, magazines, television, and now the Internet.
Today in a society that depends on information and
communication for so many things:
o To perform daily activities like work
o Entertainment
o Health care
o Education
o Personal relationships
o Travel
o Stay informed about current events

Today people wake up and check various media, make

phone calls, eat with their family when possible, and
make decisions based on the information acquired.
• Culture: The impact of mass media in India is significant
and apparent through the rising number of
advertisements that spread to the masses of India. It
needs to examine the intangible cost involved in the
burgeoning of mass media culture. This presentation
aims to answer the questions, which is put on a change in
mass media and culture. Besides the dress, many aspects
of culture have been sacrificed in favor of western
influence.

1.8 Power of Mass Media:

The Present age is called the age of information, and mass

media are the most powerful and effective instruments for

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spreading or sharing information. With the advancement of

digital technology, mass media have become powerful, and it
is the most influential source of various news, views, ideas,
and opinions. Mass media also helps make information
available anywhere in the world.

Media do not simply provide people with information, news,

and ideas but also raise various issues on socio-Econo-
political matters. They also form consciousness and public
opinions on different problems and issues. People express
their views through the media. Media keeps us dated about
what is happening around the world. Media focus on various
social evils and political or economic crises and guide people
through them. Today the right to information is recognized as
one of the people's fundamental rights, and the media ensures
this right. Considering the far-reaching influence, concerned
authorities should use them for the more significant benefit of
humankind.

1.9 Functions of Mass Media:

There are four primary functions of mass media. They are;

• Surveillance: Surveillance refers to the news and
information role of mass media. This role can be
subdivided into warning surveillance associated with the
threats such as floods, military attacks, and depressed
economic conditions. Instrumental surveillance relates
to the media that transmit information about new
products, entertainment guides, stock market prices, etc.

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• Interpretation: Interpretation is the function of mass

media that provides a context for new information and
commentary about its significance and meaning.
Traditionally, newspapers provided such interpretation
in their editorial and commentary sections, reserving
news pages for evidently neutral information. Reporting
was said to be objective, free from comment and
interpretation. If interpretation is the function,
persuasion motivates the producers of such messages.
• Socialization: The media also have a role in
socialization, transmitting societal values, mainly
modeling proper behavior and attitudes. The concept is
that the mass media present images of community,
which viewers can learn and adopt for themselves. Mass
media helps to create a stable society with common
social values. In its simplest form, the socialization role
of the media gives people a joint discussion topic:
yesterday’s cricket match or the new popular movie.
Television and film have the possible socialization
because they seem realistic.
• Entertainment: Entertainment is a related function of
mass media, sometimes called the diversion function,
because it diverts the audience from the real world.
Entertainment has always been part of society;
increasingly, more people have more leisure time.
Through sound recordings, film, radio, and television,
entertainers have been able to attract audiences around
the globe. Painters, sculptors, and poets reach mass
audiences through books and magazines. The

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entertainment function of the media has been

subdivided into three categories, motivation, relaxation,
and release (as a means to express anger, hostility, or
fear safely).

1.10 Types of Mass Media:

Mass media are the medium of communication that can be

used to communicate and interact with many audiences. Here
are some of the different types of mass media.
• Print Media: There are many types of print media, as
follows;
o Newspaper: A newspaper is a publication that is
issued daily or weekly that includes local and
international news stories, ads, announcements,
opinions, cartoons, and sports news. It is an essential
method of letting the public know everything that
happens in their local area and worldwide. Even with
the advancements in computer technology,
newspapers are a necessary aspect of everyday life.
▪ Daily Newspaper: The newspaper published
every day in the morning except on some national
holidays is called a daily newspaper. Every day the
daily newspaper reaches the public by early
morning by 5 am and comes out with special
supplementary daily and a special additional on
Sundays. There are national and regional dailies in
the country, ‘The Hindu,’ The Times of India,’ and
‘The New Indian Express,’ etc. are examples of

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national daily newspapers, and ‘Dina Thanthi,’ and

‘Enadu’ etc. are examples of a regional
newspapers.
▪ Evening Newspaper: The newspaper published
every day except on some national holidays is
called the evening newspaper. Every day the
evening newspaper reaches the public by evening
around 4 pm. Examples of evening newspapers in
Chennai are ‘Malai Malar,’ ‘Malai Murasu,’ etc.
▪ Weekly Newspaper: the newspaper published
once a week is called a weekly newspaper. The
weekly newspapers are primarily published on
the weekends. Mostly the weekly newspapers are
considered local as they concentrate only on the
local issues in particular areas in the city or a
town. Examples of weekly newspapers in Chennai
are ‘Adyar Times,’ ‘Mylapore Times,’ etc.
o Journals: Journals are usually separated into three
major groups: Popular magazines, Trade Journals,
and Academic Journals.
▪ Popular Magazine: Popular Magazine, also called
Consumer Magazine, is a periodical that usually
contains a diverse collection of articles on current
events, general news, world affairs, personality
interviews, and general interest topics with non-
technical vocabulary meant for a broad reading
audience. The magazine appears with an eye-
catching, glitzy cover, glossy paper, attractive
color photos and graphics, and many
advertisements. Magazines are often published
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weekly, fortnightly, or monthly as a vehicle for

advertisers to promote and sell their products.
The magazines are primarily available in
supermarkets, public libraries, and newsagents.
▪ Trade Journal: The Trade Journal is a publication
that is targeted to people in a specific trade,
business, or profession, which provides a current
report on industry trends, information on new
products or companies, and practical industry
information. Experts generally write articles in
trade journals in the field or specialized
journalists with graphs, charts, tables, and
photographs relevant to the industry. For people
outside the industry, the trade journals seem too
dull and inconceivable; at the same time, for the
people in the industry, it is used to keep up with
developments in the industry, connect with
employers, and network with suppliers.
▪ Academic Journals: Academic journals contain
articles focused on a specific topic or discipline of
study. Publishers, scholars, professionals, or
organizations usually publish in academic
journals. The proposed audience comprises
specialists in professions and intellectual
occupations, teachers, researchers, and students
learning research in their respective academic
fields. Journals are often subscribed to by
individual scholars or college and University
libraries. Before publication, the articles are

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reviewed by educational experts to judge the

accuracy and validity of the content.
• Electronic Media: Electronic media is also dependable,
powerful change agents and educators around the globe.
Since they present either visuals with voices or only
expressive voices of the events that occurred anywhere
in the world, their expressions are more effective than
the written script of the print media in society. It
includes radio, television, satellite TV, cinema, etc. they
provide instantaneous communication and their impact
is more significant. Electronic media are quicker than
print media as the latter takes more time for mass
production and delivery to a widely dispersed
population.
o Radio: Since its invention, the network has greatly
expanded. One of the best advantages of radio over
other media is that it can serve and entertain an
engaged audience. However, the radio has suffered a
setback recently because of TV, which has attracted
especially the urban population. Radio is one of the
significant media of mass communication. There is
also a vast imbalance between the availability of
radio sets in rural and urban areas. Despite the
inequality, radio is the only medium considered a
mass medium in India because it is a low-cost mobile
communication.
o Television: Since its beginning, it has become a
powerful mass communication medium. It has grown
into a massive network of mass information and mass

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entertainment. The television network has also

increased tremendously, covering 80 percent of the
population. The new developments in this field have
been linking satellite via cable to the TV at home.
Again, even if audiences in small towns and villages
have access to these sophisticated media, the
messages are lost on them because they are not area
specific and lack local cultural flavor and relevance,
which is very necessary for an audience to identify
and understand.
o Cinema: Films are considered a powerful mass
medium because of their mass appeal and influence
on society. They set trends in styles and tastes;
dominate popular radio and television entertainment
programs. Films have become a powerful medium of
popular entertainment.
• Traditional Media: Traditional Folk media is a term
used to denote ‘people’s performance.’ It describes folk
dance, rural drama, and musical variety of the village
people. This term speaks of those performing arts, which
are cultural symbols of people. Traditional folk media
have been consciously persuaded to come out of their
shell to give a personal touch to the impersonal mass
media programs. Traditional folk media are unique
forms of communication of entertainment.

In India, traditional folk media have been reckoned as

successful mass motivators. They inspire the masses
during times of stress and strain. These forms of art are a

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part of the way of life of a community and provide

acceptable means of bridging development issues in the
community on its terms. Mass media have extended the
area of coverage of the folk performance. In contrast,
traditional folk media, with their aspiring color and
costume, dance, and music, have enriched the content of
the mass media channels.
• New Media: With the advent of new technologies like
the internet, we are now enjoying the benefits of high-
technology mass media, which is faster than the old mass
media and has a wide range. Mobile phones, computers,
and the Internet are often referred to as new-age media.
The Internet has opened up several new opportunities
for mass communication, including email, websites,
blogging, Internet TV, and many other mass media
booming today.
o Mobile Phones: Mobile phones have become a boon
to humankind. It has made communication possible
at any time and from anywhere. Nowadays, a smart
device like a mobile phone is used for interaction and
other technical utilities like operating pumps from
remote locations. About a decade ago, no one would
have thought of having the Internet on mobiles, but
today can stay in touch with the world via the
Internet on mobile phones.
o Computers: The impossible has become possible
with the invention of computers. One can virtually get
information about everything from pins to pianos
with the help of computers. It has added speed and

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multimedia to the news, which was available only in

print format. Computers have added a breakthrough
in the mass media by combining human intelligence
with cutting-edge technology.
o Internet: This is the virtual device of the new age
media. The discovery of the Internet can be called the
most significant invention in mass media. In earlier
days, the news only reached people with the morning
newspaper. But today, live updates get
simultaneously as the events unfold. Today one
cannot think of leading his life without it. The
following mediums are the means of the internet,
they are;
o Emails: Emails or electronic mail have drastically
reduced the time required to draft and send letters or
emails. Electronic mail has also facilitated the lesser
usage of paper.
▪ Websites: The Internet has many websites
dedicated to various people, companies, brands,
causes, activities, etc. These websites' most
significant utility is providing information, search
engines, downloads through libraries, and
interaction through social networking sites.
Because of these websites, carrying out e-
commerce transactions has also become easy.
▪ Podcasts: Podcasts are mediums of mass
communication that include short video or audio
files. They can be seen and heard on mobiles,
computers, and portable media instruments.

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▪ eForums: eForums are bulletin boards on

websites where people start threads on topics.
These are usually hosted on a website. These
forums are open platforms to discuss a range of
issues, right from which wall color is appropriate
for a baby girl’s room to the research on the God
particle. People give their opinions and share their
experiences on various topics.
▪ eBooks: Several websites have hosted eBooks and
online libraries. The main benefit of having
eBooks is that they do not have to carry bulky
books. One can read them on eBook readers,
mobiles, computer screens, or other devices and
adjust the font size to suit the requirements.
▪ Blogging: A blog is a space on the Internet where
a single person or a group of people record their
information, opinions, photos, videos, etc. It is an
exciting and accessible platform to talk about any
topic. Interaction happens in the form of
comments or feedback.
▪ Internet TV: It is also known as online TV, which
usually has an archive of programs. One has to
choose the program that one wishes to view from
the list. One can view the programs directly from
the host server or download the content on the
computer.
▪ Facebook: Facebook is the most popular social
networking website and has several applications
which people utilize. It is the best platform to
meet old friends or make new ones. Advertisers
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also like this forum for communicating about their

products.
▪ Twitter: One of the famous social networking
websites is a micro-blogging site that allows
interaction and feedback from different people.
Today, the governments of various nations have
understood the importance of ‘tweeting’
information to the public and regularly share
information through Twitter.
▪ YouTube: Youtube is a website that uploads the
content in a video format. It houses a range of
exciting videos that appeal to people of all
generations. From films to educational videos will
be found on YouTube.

1.11 Media and Social Institutions:

Mass media have emerged as a social institution, assuming

many functions formerly served by traditional social
institutions such as the church, school, government, and
family. However, in Western countries operating on the
private-ownership model (most notably the United States),
media systems were never intended to serve as a social
institution. Instead, the primary objective of a privately
owned media organization is to make a profit for the
company.

Thus, many films, television programs, and Web sites contain

sexual and violent content designed to attract the largest
possible audience. The messages in these programs can be
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confusing or disruptive to a public looking to the media for

direction, purpose, and meaning. The public's reliance on the
Western media for guidance and support can be dangerous.
Within this context, media literacy provides strategies that
enable people to critically examine media messages and put
media programming into meaningful perspective.

A social institution is an organization critical to socialization;

it provides a support system for individuals as they struggle
to become members of a more extensive social network. To
illustrate, daycare and kindergarten teachers focus most of
their attention on ‘classroom management’ skills, instructing
students to stand in line and raise their hands when they
want to talk in class. Institutions contribute to the stability of
society by maintaining an ongoing presence. In that sense,
institutions are often tied to tradition. Social institutions such
as the church maintain formalized practices and procedures.
These rules apply to the institution's governance, including
leadership, membership, and dismissal from the institution.

1.12 Sociology of Mass Media:

A medium is a means of communication, such as print, radio,

or television. The mass media are defined as large-scale
organizations which use one or more of these technologies to
communicate with large numbers of people (‘mass
communications’). Dependent upon innovations in the
electronics and chemicals industries, the period between
1860 and 1930 was a formative moment for the mass media.
These years saw the development and introduction of still
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photography, cinema, telegraphy, phonograph, telephone,

radio, and television.

The mass media have two critical sociological characteristics:

very few people can communicate to a significant number,
and second, the audience needs a practical way of answering
back. Mass communication is, by definition, a one-way
process. Media organizations are bureaucratic and (except in
societies where all media are state-controlled) corporate.
Media output is regulated by governments everywhere, but
the restrictions vary from very light advisory regulation (for
example, no cigarette advertising or nudity on TV) to the
complete forms of censorship in totalitarian societies.

Mass media dominate the mental life of modern societies and

therefore are of intense interest to sociologists. From the
earliest studies in the 1930s, the main concern was the power
implicit in new media technologies, especially radio and
television. Adolf Hitler's successful use of radio for
propaganda was an object lesson in the possible dangers. The
concept of mass society added force to the idea that the
electronic media might create an Orwellian situation of mind
control, with passive masses dominated by a tiny elite of
communicators.

1.12.1 Cultural Studies:

Cultural studies are considered an interdisciplinary field due

to their blend of various academic fields. The field draws from
sociology, anthropology, politics, history, economics,
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philosophy, literature, communications, and more. Cultural

studies definition can be summarized as a field of academia
that examines how meaning is created in social structures
with adherence to class, ethnicity, gender, race, ideology,
nationality, etc.

Rather than studying one particular culture, academics

attempt to explain and identify elements of culture in general.
In other words, cultural studies seek to understand how and
why culture is organized and created and how those elements
change over time. The field is essential because it helps shed
insight into societal social structures, behaviors, and attitudes
and encourages critical thinking.

1.12.2 Multiculturalism:

Multiculturalism refers to the cultures, races, and ethnicities,

particularly those of minority groups, that deserve special
acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant
culture. Multiculturalism is a response to cultural pluralism in
modern democracies and compensating cultural groups for
past exclusion, discrimination, and oppression.

In sociology, multiculturalism describes how a given society

deals with cultural diversity. Based on the assumption that
members of often very different cultures can coexist
peacefully, multiculturalism expresses the view that
community is enriched by preserving, respecting, and
encouraging cultural diversity.

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Multiculturalism can take place on a nationwide scale or

within a nation’s communities. It may occur naturally through
immigration or artificially when jurisdictions of different
cultures are combined through legislative decree.

1.11.3 Media Culture:

Media Cultures is a research cluster that explores the complex

and shifting relationships between social injustice and
contemporary media culture. We draw on approaches from
cultural studies, film and television studies, celebrity studies,
feminist theory, critical race theory, and more. Media impact
on culture is not overestimated; it significantly influenced the
cultural changes in society so that the mass media have
defined the role of men and women.

In the process, it affected both intercultural and international

communication. Many people globally have been trying to
understand the meaning of culture and its influence on how
human beings behave. The media has been instrumental in
explaining to the public its meaning and enabling everyone to
have a cultural identity. The well-being of people can only be
guaranteed if they have a strong and definite identity that
influences their sense of self and their relationship with other
people who have a different cultural identity.

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Unit II

Media Audiences- Interpretation & Resistance; Media Audiences

Analysis- Mass, Segmentation, Product & Social Uses; Public & Public
Opinion; Mass Media & Public Opinion; Media in Society; Effects of Mass
Media; Mass Media & Indian Family; Media World Vs. Native Culture;
Mass Media & Women; Violence in Media; Audience Making- Active Vs.
Passive audience; Theories of audience-Uses and Gratification Theory-
Uses & Effects Theory.

2.1 Media Audiences:

A target audience is the person or group of people a piece of

writing is intended to reach. In other words, a writer needs to
know who will read his report. This audience is the person or
group the writer is aiming for or trying to reach. When a
writer knows the target audience, he will shape both the
purpose and tone of the writing to match the audience’s needs
and sometimes expectations.

An audience is one or more people who come together to

listen to the speaker. The audience may be face-to-face with
the speaker, or they may be connected by communication
technology such as computers or other media. The audience
may be small, or it may be a large public audience.

2.1.1 Interpretation:

Interpretations refer to the meanings that audiences

construct from media content (for example, perceptions and
evaluations of characters and behaviors). In other words,
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interpretations make up the ‘effective stimulus within the

viewer's mind. The interpretation variables are conceptually
distinct from message features (inherent elements within a
media message), audience attributes (demographics and
stable traits), and audience states (temporary conditions
experienced during media exposure).

2.1.2 Resistance:

Sigmund Freud originally described psychological resistance

as a phenomenon wherein patients unconsciously ‘cling to
their disease’ through ‘tenacious’ and ‘critical objections’ to
repress distressing thoughts, emotions and experiences as the
therapist raises them.

2.2 Media Audience Analysis:

An audience analysis is a process used to identify and

understand the priority and influencing audiences for a
strategy. The essential and controlling audience are those
whose behavior must change to improve the situation. A
complete audience analysis looks at the following;
• Socio-demographic characteristics such as sex, age,
language, and religion.
• Geographic characteristics like where the audience lives
and how that might impact behavior.
• Psychographic characteristics such as needs, hopes,
concerns, and aspirations.

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• Audience thoughts, beliefs, knowledge, and current

actions related to the social issue.
• Barriers and facilitators that prevent or encourage
audience members to adopt the desired behavior change.
• Gender and how it impacts audience members’ behavior
and ability to change.
• Effective communication channels for reaching the
audience.

Audience analysis helps determine the media type and how to

conduct the campaign. The audience must be broken down
into demographics such as age, race, sex, etc., and
psychographics such as what they need, what they like, how
they live, etc. There are three types of audience analysis:
• Demographic analysis: Demographic data include
gender, age range, marital status, race and ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status.
• Psychographic analysis: Demographic information is
pretty straightforward to check, but psychographic
information is not that easy to understand. A
psychographic analysis looks at values, beliefs, opinions,
and attitudes.
• Situational analysis: In the realm of more traditional
forms of speech, situational aspects of an audience
include the audience’s size, attitude toward the speaker,
prior knowledge of the topic, and occasion.

2.3 Public and Public Opinion:

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Public opinion is primarily a political opinion that concerns

people's collective life. Public opinion connotes the following
things:
• The public is not opinionless. It has an opinion.
• Public opinion matters in democracy and other forms of
governance. One can ignore it at the cost of rebellion and
resistance.
• Public opinion increasingly becomes a source of
validation of rule.

In simple words, public opinion is neither the opinion of all

nor it is the majority opinion. It is an opinion that is generally
held by all, and its purpose is to highlight the welfare of all. It
is a consensus opinion that enjoys the support of a large
majority of people. The minorities do not even oppose it as it
reflects a concern for the welfare of all.

The following features always characterize public opinion:

• General Agreement: It is an opinion behind which there
is a general agreement or a consensus.
• Rational/Logical: Public opinion is reasonable. It is
logical. Its validity can be demonstrated by logic or
reason.
• General Welfare: Public opinion is always governed by
the promotion of general public welfare.
• Related to all aspects of life: Public opinion can
concern any and every matter- Political, Social,
Economic, or Cultural.

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• Upholds Morality: Public opinion always upholds the

moral values of society. It is never against morality.
• Not an Imposed Opinion: Public opinion is not an
imposed opinion. It is a generally held consensus opinion
and is the result of growth.
• Neither Destructive nor Negative: Public opinion is
never destructive and damaging. It is positive in content
because it always represents public welfare.
• Based on the Right to Freedom of Speech and
Expression: The right to freedom of speech and
expression is essential to birth public opinion.
• Basis of Democracy: Public opinion plays a
deterministic role in a democracy. All policies of a
democratic government rest upon public opinion. The
government can remain in power and work successfully
only when it is backed by public opinion.
• Real Sanction behind Laws of the State: Public opinion
is the real sanction behind all laws and policies of a
democratic state. Supremacy of public opinion reflects
the sovereignty of the people, which is the very basis of
democracy.

2.4 Mass Media and Public Opinion:

Public opinion is citizens’ views on politics and government

actions. Media can have an essential effect on public opinion
in several ways.
• Agenda Setting: The formation of public opinion starts
with agenda setting by major media outlets worldwide.
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This agenda-setting dictates what is newsworthy and

how and when it will be reported. The media agenda is
set by a variety of different environmental and news
work factors that determines which stories will be
newsworthy.
• Framing: Framing is another critical component in
forming public opinion. Framing is when a story or piece
of news is portrayed in a particular way and is meant to
sway the consumer’s attitude one way or the other. Most
political issues are heavily framed to persuade voters
to vote for a particular candidate.
• Social Interest: Social interest is another critical
component of forming public opinion. Social interest is
the idea that people generally form their opinions based
on what they believe is popular. Based on media agenda
setting and framing, a particular view is often repeated
throughout various news mediums and social networking
sites until it creates a false vision where the perceived
truth is very far from the fact.

Public relations and the political media can influence public

opinion. Additionally, mass media utilizes various advertising
techniques to get their message out and change people's
minds. Since the 1950s, television has been the primary
medium for molding public opinion, though the internet is
becoming increasingly important in this area.

2.5 Media and Native Culture:

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Media can help create awareness among people faster than

anything else. Mass media can have a significant impact on
people’s lifestyles and culture. For example, girls living in a
conservative country or growing up in a traditional culture
can be prompted and motivated to wear short dresses by
watching TV shows or following another country’s culture.
They might consider that wearing short dresses can become
extraordinary, just like the TV personalities they admire.

While the above point stresses the negative impact of TV, it

also has made some positive impacts on society. Television
can create social awareness about many social and economic
issues like AIDS, Child Abuse, Female Foeticide, etc. Television
channels organize TV shows like ‘Satyamev Jayate,’ which
focuses on making people aware of the harsh realities of life.
It mainly discusses and provides possible solutions relating to
the various social issues in India. It aims to empower citizens
with information. Hence, many NGOs create social causes in
this show and hold campaigns, demonstrations, and protests
to demand justice. Indian drama and theatre were a
significant part of ‘Indian culture,’ and some of the oldest
plays originated in India. These have since been replaced by
cinema and the TV serial market.

2.6 Mass Media and Women:

Though women have significantly improved every aspect of

life, the long list of human treatment seems never-ending. The
pattern of value in any society is reflected in the contents of
mass communications. The way subjects dealing with women
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are treated excellent, the society's prevailing attitude towards

women.

In this regard, the ongoing communication revolution has

opened up new possibilities for accelerating women's
development. But if it remains unguided and uncontrolled,
this revolution will decelerate the process and adversely
affect women's lives. Hence it is worthwhile to understand
how women are reflected in the country's print and electronic
media and its influence on viewers’ perception of women's
empowerment in society.

In modern society, everyday people are bombarded with

graphic advertisements, slogans, and images that underlie a
major issue; objectification and exploitation of women in
mass media. A recent study found that consumers view, on
average, 247 advertisements each day. Although it benefits
the company’s revenue, adverse side effects are attached to
this crucial marketing element.

People begin to subconsciously believe in what they see and

try to apply it to their reality. Moreover, women have
negatively changed their lives according to the psychological
influences from mass media about what makes for a beautiful
woman.

Gender roles are shaped mainly by mass media influences,

including television, advertisements, music, promotions,
commercials, billboards, the Internet, cosmetics, and social
media. Nowadays, the media controls societal norms and
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influences opinions and perspectives through psychology.

Specifically, the female viewers are subconsciously changing.
Countless women alter their body image and mindset to
reflect the women they view in these everyday
advertisements.

2.7 Mass Media and Violence:

With the advent of mass media, including television and, more

recently, video and computer games, children and teenagers
are exposed to increasingly higher doses of aggressive images.
In many countries, there is an average of five to ten aggressive
acts per hour of television. Violence among youth is also on
the rise, making it reasonable to compare the two, even
though we believe that the primary causes for aggressive
behavior in children are to be found in their family
environment and the social and economic conditions in which
they are raised.

Media plays a significant role in developing cultural

orientations, world views, and beliefs. Most studies show that
the relation between media violence and ‘real’ violence is
interactive: media can contribute to an aggressive culture;
bold people use the media to confirm further their beliefs and
attitudes, which, in turn, are reinforced through media
content.

Depending on a child’s existing experiences, values, and

cultural environment, media content offers an orientation, a
frame of reference that determines the direction of one’s
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behavior. Viewers do not necessarily adapt what they have

observed, but they measure their behavior in the distance to
the perceived media models. For instance, if cruelty is
‘common,’ ‘just’ kicking the other seems to be innocent by
comparison if the cultural environment has not established an
alternative frame of reference.

2.8 Audience Making:

The media audience can be categorized as an active or passive

audience.
• Active Audience: Active audience argues
that media audiences do not just receive information
passively but are actively involved in making sense of the
message within their personal and social contexts. Family
background, beliefs, values, culture, interests, education,
and experiences may influence the decoding of a media
message.
• Passive Audience: A passive audience is an audience that
will initially pay attention to a message only because it is
entertaining and offers a diversion. This type of audience
is made aware of something through a brief encounter,
such as a billboard, poster, flyer, etc. Messages targeted
towards a passive audience need to be creative and
stylish: something that will capture one’s attention. Most
PR campaigns are designed to reach a passive audience.

2.9 Audience Theory:

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2.9.1 Uses and Gratification:

Most of the media theories explain the effects media has on

people. The theory describes how people use media for their
needs and gratification. This theory states what people do
with media rather than what media does to people. Also, this
theory contradicts the magic bullet theory, which displays the
audience is passive.

According to the uses and gratification theory, it is the people

who make use of the media for their specific needs. This
theory can be said to have a user or audience-centered
approach. There are several needs
and gratification for people; they
are categorized into five
categories.
• Cognitive needs: People use
media to acquire knowledge,
information, etc., Among the
audience, some have
intellectual needs to acquire knowledge; this is not
common to all; each person has a different requirement
for, for example, quiz programs on TV to gain
understanding and information while watching the news
to satisfy the need.
• Affective needs: People use media like television to
satisfy their emotional needs. The best example is people
watching serials, and if there is any vibrant or sad scene
means, people used to cry.

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• Personal Integrative needs: People use media to ensure

their status, gain credibility and stabilize. So people watch
TV and assure themselves that they have a societal
position. For example, people improve their quality by
watching media advertisements like jewelry Ads or car
Ads and buying products. Hence, people change their
lifestyles, and the media helps them to do so.
• Social Integrative needs include socializing with family,
friends, and social relations. Social interaction nowadays,
people do not seem to have social gatherings on the
weekend; instead, they do such social interaction using
media like the social networking sites like space,
Facebook, Whatsapp, etc., to satisfy their needs.
• Tension-free needs: People sometimes use the media as
a means of escapism and to relieve tension. For example,
people tend to relax by watching TV, listening to the
radio, and satisfying their entertainment needs by
relaxing from all the pressure.

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Unit III

Media & Popular Culture- Commodities, Culture, and Sub-Culture;

Popular texts: Popular Discrimination; Politics & Popular Culture;
Popular Culture Vs. People's Culture; Acquisition & transformation of
popular culture; Celebrity Culture- Film Industry; Personality & Brand
Management; Hero-worship & etc.; Film, Television & Visual Culture;
Advertising & Commercial Culture; Literacy & Media Literacy;
Importance of Media Literacy; Youth, Television & Socialization.

3.1 Culture:

The term ‘culture’ refers to the complex collection of

knowledge, folklore, language, rules, rituals, habits, lifestyles,
attitudes, beliefs, and customs that link and give a common
identity to a particular group of people at a specific point in
time.
• Ethnic Culture: The term ‘Ethnic culture’ refers to the
characteristics of a people, sharing a common and
distinctive racial, national, religious, linguistic, or cultural
heritage (For example, the Toda peoples are known as the
son of the land in Nilgiris; live in a specific territory,
speak their language and have a social organization
distinct from other groups living in that region).
• Social Culture: All social units develop a culture; even in
two-person relationships, a culture is created, for
example in friendship and romantic relationships, the
partners build their language patterns, rituals, habits, and
customs that give the relationship a unique character,
which differentiates it in various ways from other
relationships.
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• Group Culture: When a group traditionally meets,

whether the meetings begin on time, what topics are
discussed, how decisions are made, and how the group
socializes are the elements that define and differentiate
group culture. A group that shares a geographic region, a
sense of identity, and a culture is called a society.

3.2 Types of Culture:

Culture can be divided into three different types; they are;

• High Culture: High Culture is linked with the elite;
upper-class societies are families and individuals
with recognized status. It is often associated with the
arts such as opera, ballet, and classical music, sports
such as polo and race, and leisure hobbies such as
hunting and shooting. High culture is associated with
the small elite in society not allowing entry to
‘outsiders’ by maintaining its elite and exclusive
position.
• Sub-Culture: Subculture is a culture enjoyed by a
small group within society. In this sense, it is a
minority part of the majority culture. They have
distinct norms and values, which make them sub-
section of society.
• Popular Culture: Popular Culture suggests
borrowing the idea from high culture and
popularizing them by making them available to the
masses. Therefore, it is portrayed as a product of the
media-dominated world; it is a positive force because

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it brings people of different backgrounds together in

a common culture.
• Global Culture: Globalization is how events in one
part of the world influence what happens elsewhere.
They have become interconnected; socially,
politically, and economically. Global culture is a
crucial feature of globalization; it emerged due to
migration patterns, trends in international travel, and
the spread of the media, exposing people to the same
images of the same dominant world.

3.3 Media and Popular Culture:

Cultural texts are those objects, actions, and behaviors that

reveal cultural meanings. A photo is an image and a cultural
text, a picture with cultural information beyond just the
concept itself. Food and clothing also suggest cultural
knowledge, and it doesn’t stop there. The whole place and
space, the people and interaction, the rituals and rules, and
the various forms they manifest are ‘readable’ texts suitable
for observation and analysis.

The difference between a relevant and irrelevant cultural text

is the meaning transferred to that text by the people who
create or use the text. Before determining whether a cultural
text has particular relevance, one needs to know and
understand how to identify and analyze a cultural text.

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Identification of a cultural text is relatively easy. For example,

when looking around the classroom or a place and briefly
cataloging the people or the things, the objects like tables,
chairs or desks, lighting, blackboard, and the student’s actions
are cultural texts. In other words, the space and objects within
‘readable’ are cultural texts.

An essential consideration in any discussion of media and

culture is the concept of popular culture. The culture is
expressed and shared values, attitudes, beliefs, and practices
of a social group, organization, or institution.

Popular culture is the media, products, and attitudes

considered part of a given culture's mainstream and ordinary
people's everyday lives. It is often distinct from more formal
conceptions of culture that consider moral, social, and
religious beliefs and values of culture. It is also different from
what some consider elite or high culture.

3.4 Popular Discrimination:

There are differences in wealth, power, and status

everywhere in society. Some groups have higher quality and
more extraordinary privileges than others. This inequality in
the system is what is called social stratification. In this
unequal social system, unfair treatment is often directed
against specific individuals or social groups, referred to
as discrimination.

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Discrimination can be based on various characteristics like

age, gender, weight, ethnicity, religion, or even politics. For
example, prejudice and discrimination based on race are
called racism. Often, gender prejudice or discrimination is
referred to as sexism. Discrimination is often the outcome
of bias, a pre-formed negative judgment or attitude. Bias leads
people to view specific individuals or groups as inferior.

Widespread discrimination is different from critical or

aesthetic discrimination. Popular discrimination stresses
functionality over quality, whereas popular culture exists on
the boundary of everyday life, capitalism, or even
imperialism. It is relevant if a text can be appropriated for
simple social situations. The reader constructs the relevance
and may internally produce meaning beyond the economic
intention of the text or should even co-construct a sense in a
social context.

Popular culture contains the kinds of artistic truths that

intellectual art does, but it is decoded through the societal
needs and experiences of the reader or viewer. The vast
majority of popular entertainment does not succeed and fails
to find an audience.

3.5 Politics and Popular Culture:

Politicians need to care about popular culture because it is

one of the common bonds that tie increasingly segmented
people together whether they live in an urban or rural
environment. Politicians are aware of popular culture, and a
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politician who can skillfully navigate the use of pop culture

references and appearances in pop culture venues can
increase his appeal to the Indian public.

For example, Narendra Modi, the Indian Prime Minister, has

been quite skillful in using pop culture in three different
ways. First, Modi is confident in the language of pop culture
and makes easy references to his Social Media. Secondly, Modi
makes appearances in the media, reaching out to targeted
voters and avoiding annoying questions. Finally, Modi uses
leading celebrities to campaign for him and to raise money.

3.6 Popular Culture Vs. People's Culture:

People’s or mass culture and popular culture are often used

interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous.
Their meanings lie at the intersection of cultural production
and consumption in today’s society. This concept of Culture
being manufactured rose after World War II, which saw a
boom in the scope of mass media, rapid mechanization of
industries, and technological advancements.

In general terms, the difference between mass and popular

culture lies in the fact that Mass culture is preoccupied with
production while pop culture deals with consumption. This
feature allows Pop culture to mold itself according to
feedback, allowing consumer markets to customize their
desires.

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Popular culture comprises an entirety of attitudes, ideas,

perceptions, and perspectives brought into existence by an
informal consensus. More specifically, it refers to music,
visual and performing arts, literature, festivals, poetry, and
artistic and designer creations promoted through mass media
efforts.

Mass culture is, then, a culture that is mass-produced,

distributed, and marketed. According to the majority opinion,
popular culture emerges from mass culture. Music produced
on an industrial scale and made available through many apps
and sites such as Apple Music, Spotify, and sound cloud are
indicative of the mass culture. Still, the specific artists and
songs that rise to the top indicate popular culture.

3.7 Acquisition and Transformation of Popular Culture:

The individual is in the center of a complex system of

interaction with their immediate surroundings: the culture in
which they live. The infant is born into a set of relationships in
its early years, consisting of family members. Through them, it
experiences the culture of the family, the cultural attitudes,
behaviors, norms, and values that dominate the early infant's
education process. In turn, these values represent the cultures
of the parents and their parents in modification and
adaptation to the current situation. This notion is essential for
the emergence of similar cultural attitudes in cases of
diaspora identities.

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With an increase in age, individuals increase their

relationships outside the family, including the school, the
University or workplace, and the peer-group. The individual
also enters the wider influence area of the media and, slowly,
the scope of political and social influence and learns from
those experiences. The two areas of power can be relative and
distinct: the family and the immediate social surroundings
and, equally, the social-economical-political surrounding.

The acquisition of culture can identify two main areas: the

family and immediate social surroundings and the social
reality. Changes in these surroundings will be reflected in the
cultural attributes of the individuals involved; depending on
the number of individuals applied, the changes can mean a
change in entire groups: changes in the political system, for
example, represent such a fundamental change.

The world is in continuous change; with the advancement of

technology and changes in the political and economic
structure, the changes have become a continuum with great
speed. For many, cultural adaptation has become part of
everyday life.

3.8 Celebrity Culture:

Celebrity culture refers to the culture of popularizing certain

people who have specific attributes that society deems
exceptional. Celebrity culture is a symbiotic business
relationship from which performers obtain wealth, honors,
and social power to sell audiences a sense of intimacy.
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A few hundred years ago, there would only be a handful of

people that the general public would recognize. Jesus,
Cleopatra, Hercules, Alexander the Great, and Captain Cook
would have been the rare few glorified for their virtues,
talents, or royal lineage. The modern celebrity culture was
created in the 1920s when socialites, athletes, singers, and
movie stars began to dominate our cultural landscape.

As they are constantly in the media, they have become role

models for adolescents and teenagers. Interest in celebrities
makes for a multibillion-dollar business in celeb sites. This
has raised many controversial issues and caused significant
debates concerning the influence of these famed people.

3.8.1 Celebrity Culture- Film Industry:

The Indian movie industry is based in two major cities,

Mumbai and Chennai, popularly known as ‘Bollywood’ and
‘Kollywood,’ and has influenced daily life and culture in India
for decades. Movies are the mainstay of entertainment and
almost a religion in the nation.

Indian cinema has long used a profound influence on popular

Indian fashion. Any outfit adorned by an actor or actress in a
hit movie immediately becomes a prime trend for tailors to
reproduce. The ready-made industry manufactures these
clothes bulk, and the designs are named after the character or
movie.

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Indian film musicals are full of song and dance, and Indian
film dancing is viral among girls in India who are keen to
learn this art more than any classical dance. In India, movie
actors have loving fans that form clubs in their honor, imitate
their looks and style, and are not shy to loosen their purses to
buy products their favorite star endorses.

3.8.2 Celebrity Culture- Personality:

Entertainment and sports celebrities influence business and

culture in many ways, and a celebrity’s image no doubt helps
to enhance the commercial value of commodities with which
they are associated. However, commercial exploitation of the
image without the subject’s permission can misappropriate a
celebrity’s personality and commercially valuable reputation.

The concept of publicity rights is based on the idea that every

individual should control the commercialization of their
personality. It is generally accepted that celebrities invest
much hard work in acquiring their status and are entitled to
harvest the rewards. On the other hand, a free press must be
able to publish pictures of and information about celebrities.

3.8.3 Celebrity Culture- Brand Management:

Celebrity endorsement is a big market in India and continues

to grow bigger. However, not all celebrity endorsements have
succeeded despite the prevalent use of celebrities for
endorsement. Endorsement by celebrities is not a new
phenomenon; today, celebrity endorsement has become one
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of the most popular forms of advertising, including in the non-

profit sector.

The current popularity of celebrity endorsements can be

attributed to the numerous benefits companies have seen
from this form of advertisement. In today’s media-cluttered
environment, where it is challenging to grab consumers’
attention, marketing managers are looking for celebrities to
gather attention and mileage, giving companies a better
chance of communicating their message to consumers.

The use of celebrities in an advertisement is a global

phenomenon; its high incidence in India can have
explanations emanating from the power distance dimension
of culture. A culture of high-power distance signifies
inequality in society. The existence of class and caste
manifests the inequity in this dimension. Often this larger-
than-life status leads celebrities to hold command over not
only their area of expertise but a range of other areas. As a
result, the celebrity is seen as an expert in many places, but
one can associate these celebrities with multiple domains.

3.8.4 Celebrity Culture- Hero worship:

India has the habit of idolizing people. Hero worship comes

from ancient times when made ordinary people into ‘devas’ or
gods, be it, Rama or Krishna. Since childhood, Indians were
taught about Rama, Krishna, Gandhiji, and Nehru, and then we
saw Sachin, Salman khan, etc., and now have Modi. The

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festivals, the actions, and the habits are all woven around a
set of heroes.

Children are compared with heroes like ‘you look like

Shahrukh,’ ‘you catch the bat like Sachin,’ etc. Even the
children are asked to define their future in terms of heroes.
Indians have a habit of living through stories, be it the two
great epics or the latest movies. Thus, Indians are indirectly
socialized to worship the heroes. Though this habit is found in
all societies to some degree, the Indians try to overdo it.

For the often uneducated and isolated masses, anyone who

brings them joy and a sense of wonder is revered as a god,
such as Sachin Tendulkar, Rajnikanth, and even Narendra
Modi. The problem with hero worship is that it usually
translates to having blind faith in a person and treating them
as superior beings. This attitude is regressive, as it
discriminates between people and renders the majority less
critical and hopeless.

3.9 Visual Culture:

While visual culture has undoubtedly been around as long as

civilization, the phrase visual culture used to denote a specific
component of culture in general, a set of visual practices, or
an academic discipline is relatively recent. The recent
provenance of the visual culture is essential because it
indexes a historical shift in the importance of vision.

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Visual imagery has also altered our reality and social

understanding. We use visual culture's technological
components to determine how to advance our society. In
today’s society, technology has many aspects, such as
communication, production, and marketing. Undoubtedly,
technology has helped and made our lives much easier by
enhancing our everyday tasks and visual capability.

3.9.1 Film and Visual Culture:

We can see that the invention of photography as the first

wave of visual culture is also the basis and direct cause of film
production. The film uses clothing props, lighting, color
combinations, and other elements to constitute a standard
visual image. These visual images are becoming more and
more realistic in the external form, but in essence, they are far
from reality. Through high-tech digital technology, the film
creates real life that does not exist in the realistic scene,
completely digests the film's innate ‘record’ nature, brings
endless visual wonders simultaneously, and fundamentally
changes the traditional. The birth and development of film
have brought new vitality to the cinema.

3.9.2 Television and Visual Culture:

Visual culture has shifted our traditional rituals and ceremony

with television. In this generation, we are heading towards a
more visual culture. Technology such as television has held to
countless antisocial behavior in young developing minds
leading to a lot of apathy in our traditional culture. With an
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increasing demand for technology, television viewing habits

are starting to materialize as a societal problem.

3.10 Advertising and Commercial Culture:

A commercial culture is one where commercialism or sales

opportunities are switched on (activated) in the organization.
Minds are tuned into the realities of driving new business
growth, not because ‘we have to’ but because we want to. It is
not about being salespeople; everyone, including non-sales
staff, plays their part. Think of it like this: you can play tennis
without trying to be Rafael Nadal, but you can still be
switched onto the game, know the rules and how you can
support and cheer on a win.

The economic pressures, increased competition, and global

uncertainties that have conspired to create a challenging
business environment have also stimulated growth. Visionary
leaders are capitalizing on opportunities by getting closer to
the customer. It is a winning business strategy, although 37%
of the business professionals surveyed described their
companies as having a poor sales culture.

All commercials are advertisements, but not all promotions

are commercials. This is because, like so many other words,
commonly used to mean the same thing. Advertising refers to
‘to inform’ or ‘to warn.’ Similarly, the word commercial refers
to ‘buying and selling goods.’ So commercial is a type of
advertisement used explicitly for ‘selling.’ At the same time,
advertising does not have to be for selling. It can simply be to
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inform or for the sake of trying to interest in something that

does not involve selling goods or services.

3.11 Literacy and Media Literacy:

The word ‘literacy’ usually describes the ability to read and

write. Media literacy is the ability to identify different media
types and understand their messages, like text messages,
memes, viral videos, social media, video games, advertising,
and more. The digital age has made it easy for anyone to
create media. Media literacy is the ability to:
• Decode media messages (including the systems in which
they exist);
• Assess the influence of those messages on thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors; and
• Create media thoughtfully and conscientiously.

Nonetheless, media literacy is an essential skill in the digital

age and is very important.
• Learn to think critically: As kids evaluate media, they
decide whether the messages make sense, why certain
information was included, what wasn't included, and
what the key ideas are. They learn to use examples to
support their opinions.
• Become an intelligent consumer of products and
information: Media literacy helps kids determine
whether something is credible.

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• Recognize the point of view: Every creator has a

perspective. Identifying an author's point of view helps
kids appreciate different perspectives.
• Create media responsibly: Recognizing our point of
view, saying what we want to say how we want to say it,
and understanding that the messages have an impact are
essential to effective communication.
• Identify the role of media in our culture: From
celebrity gossip to magazine covers to memes, media is
saying something, shaping our understanding of the
world, and even compelling us to act or think in specific
ways.
• Understand the author's goal: What does the author
want us to take away from a media piece? Is it purely
informative, trying to change the mind, or introducing us
to new ideas we've never heard of?
• When teaching kids media literacy, it's not so important
for parents to tell kids whether something is ‘right.’ The
process is more of an exchange of ideas.

3.12 Youth, Television and Socialization:

Television may be defined as instructional media, an audio-

visual material that simultaneously produces motion pictures
with sound. Technologically, television represents a piece of
electrical equipment with a screen on which we can watch
programs with moving images and sounds.

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Children’s socialization process begins shortly after birth.

When a new baby is born, it experiences a diametric change
from the prenatal world into the external world; the infant
experiences changes in sensations, movements, voices,
touches, and faces. This early childhood experience is the
period of the most intense and crucial socialization patterns.
• Television has represented one of the most potent forms
of mass communication, and it has increasingly exerted
an impact on children's personal and social development
from early infancy across childhood to adolescence and
adulthood.
• Children’s Television watching patterns are affected not
only by the program content but by the ‘formal features’
of the television, such as animation, high actions, and
loud musical, visual and auditory portrayals.
• The amount of violence and aggression viewed on
television is significantly predictive of youth violence
and the formation of aggressive behavior.
• Frequent talk about sex on television and exposure to
sexually explicit materials influence youth’s socialization
process.
• Watching television produces emotional reactions as
defined by the viewers, subsequently leading to changes
in youth’s attitudes toward other people.
• Besides the negative aspects, Television programs enrich
students’ background knowledge and contribute to pre-
academic skills, talents, and proficiency.
• Television stimulates the academic performance of the
youth in higher studies by advancing their cognitive level
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through deductive thinking, problem-solving, and

abstraction.

******

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Unit IV

Psychoanalysis- definition & concept; psychoanalytic techniques;

Psychoanalytic process; Feminism- definition & concept; historical &
Characteristics of Feminism; Modernism- definition & concept; Modern
& Modernity; Historical & Characteristics of Modernism; Modernism Vs
Postmodernism; Marxism- definition & concept; history of Marx’s
theory; Criticisms of Marx’s Theory; Marx’s Understanding of
Globalization.

4.1 Psychoanalysis:

Psychoanalysis studies mental analysis, which deals with a

particular device. That is the study of normal and abnormal
activities through specific methods like dreams,
psychopathological actions, illusion, imagination, and
supernatural attacks in the abnormal area.

It was initially developed by Sigmund Freud, who studied the

average cases of mental diseases. To understand how the
subject of psychoanalysis evolved, it is necessary to know
about the early history of mental illnesses.

Psychoanalysis assigns three basic concepts.

• Unconscious: The central concept is that of
the unconscious (unaware), storage within one’s mental
state which contains elements and experiences of
unawareness, which may be brought into preconscious
and conscious awareness of behavior.
• Resistance: The second basic concept is resistance
(conflict), a process by which unconscious elements are
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effectively kept out of conscious awareness by an active

controlling force.
• Transference: Third basic concept is known as
transference (transmission), which Freud worked on.
Freud transferred his patient’s past relationships with
others so that his relationship with Freud was shaded with
previous feelings.

4.1.1 Psychoanalytic Techniques:

Psychoanalysis is involved in the discovery of the unconscious

mind to cure. In this respect, it applies specific techniques or
methods developed by Sigmund Freud, also called ‘the father
of psychoanalysis.’
• Anamnesis: Anamnesis (medical history) is similar to
general medical practice. Interpreting the biographic
events during the process may settle the neurotic frame of
the individual's psychopathology.
• Free Associations Method: Free association is a
technique used in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy,
which Sigmund Freud devised as an alternative
to hypnosis. This method is believed to help face the
stored thoughts and feelings so that the patient can
combine and work through them in their daily lives.
• Freudian Slips and Mistakes: This is a remarkable
contribution of Freud to discovering the unconscious. A
Freudian slip is a verbal or memory mistake believed to be
linked to the unconscious mind. Common examples
include someone saying the wrong word or

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misinterpreting a written or spoken word. Freud is the

first scientist to identify the importance of faulty acts (out-
of-order acts), starting from the basis of all our psychic
processes.
• Analysis/Interpretation of Dreams: By Freud's most
crucial psychoanalytic technique, dream understanding is
considered a unique way to access the unconscious.
• Analysis/Interpretation of Symbols: Symbols that occur
in dreams, fantasies, fairy tales, and other products may be
understood in the same way as dreams. Freud claims that
most of such symbols are sexual.

4.1.2 Psychoanalytic Process:

Psychoanalysis is a unique and severe form of mind treatment

that supports personal development and helps in relieving the
painful state of living.

In achieving this, the individual under study (treatment) and

the psychiatrist must work together in close collaboration and
carefully consider the unity between the personal and
interpersonal experience of past and present body and mind,
which use to study the in-depth action of personal
transformation.
• The process of psychoanalysis depends on establishing a
safe, confidential relationship with the psychiatrist. The
patient and psychiatrist work together to grab the
meaning of the patient’s experience through emotional

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reactions, thoughts, memories, fantasies, dreams, images,

and feelings.
• Psychoanalysts are generally certified mental health
professionals such as psychologists, social workers, or
psychiatrists. These professionals have training and
experience as therapists before beginning their
psychoanalytic training.
• Psychoanalysis is not only a form of individual therapy
(treatment); it is a system of theories and methods for
learning about the human mind, for example, child
development like child abuse, violence, drug abuse, and
social separation.

4.2 Feminism:

Feminism is a French term féministe, used to support equal

rights for women based on equality among the sexes.
Gender is a socially constructed definition of women and men.
It is not the same as sex (biological characteristics of women
and men), and it is not the same as women. Gender is
determined by the conception of tasks, functions, and roles
recognized by women and men in society and public and
private life. Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at
defining, establishing, and defending equal political,
economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for
women.

In other words, it is about respecting various women’s

experiences, identities, knowledge, and strengths and striving

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to empower all women to realize their full rights. It’s about

leveling the playing field between genders and ensuring that
diverse women and girls have the same opportunities in life
available to boys and men. Feminism, at its core, is about the
equality of men and women, not ‘sameness.’

So many people argue that women are not the ‘same’ as men,
so there can’t be equality. That is because their bodies are
different and because men and women have other physical
capabilities, these biological differences mean equality is not
possible.

The term ‘feminism’ has many different uses, and its

meanings are repeatedly challenged. For example, few writers
use the term ‘feminism’ as a political movement in the US and
Europe; others refer to injustices against women where there
is no detailed record.

4.2.1 Historical Development of Feminism:

In the ancient world, there was limited evidence of early

organized protest against restricted status.

3.2.1 Ancient World:

In the 3rd century BC, Roman women filled Capitoline Hill.

They blocked every entrance to the Forum when Consul
Marcus Porcius Cato attempted to implement laws limiting
women’s use of expensive goods. “If they are victorious now,
what will they not attempt?” Cato cried. “As soon as they
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begin to be your equals, they will have become your

superiors.” However, this rebellion proved excellent.

For most of recorded history, only isolated voices spoke out

against the inferior status of women, presaging the arguments
to come. In the late 14th and early 15th century, France's first
feminist philosopher, Christine de Pistan, challenged general
attitudes toward women with a bold call for female education.
The defense of women had become a literary subgenre by the
end of the 16th century.

Later in 1488, Pistan’s effort was taken up by the Venetian

woman Laura Cereta, who published ‘Epistolae familiarise’
(Collected Letters of a Renaissance Feminist), a volume of
letters dealing with a display of women’s complaints. The
feminist voices of the Renaissance never combined into
a reasoned philosophy or movement.

In the 1800s, the term ‘feminism’ was used to refer to ‘the

qualities of females’ until the ‘First International Women’s
Conference’ held in Paris in 1892. According to Maggie Humm
and Rebecca Walker, feminism can be divided into four
waves.

3.2.2 First Wave of Feminism:

The first wave of feminism occurred in the western world in

the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The feminist
movement mainly revolved around gaining fundamental legal
rights for women. Politics, business, economy, and every
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other aspect of social life were dominated and regulated by

men, and women were mainly confined to household chores.
Unmarried women were seen as the property of their fathers,
and married women were seen as the property of their
husbands.

Women lacked fundamental rights such as the right to vote,

and even the concept of marital rape was unheard of. The
feminist movement officially began with the signing of the
‘Declaration of Sentiments’ at the Seneca Falls conference, the
first-ever women’s rights conference. However, the first wave
detained the black women who faced oppression due to their
gender and color. White women were afraid to grant black
women power due to widespread racism, which might
obstruct their cause. Feminism led the ‘National Association
of Coloured Women’ (NACW) to protect the rights of women
of color.

3.2.3 Second Wave of Feminism:

The second wave of feminism started in the 1960s and

continued until the 1980s. The second wave focused on
women trying to secure better jobs mainly reserved for men.
Women brought forward the issues of rape, reproductive
rights, domestic violence, and workplace safety. Women
developed their own popular culture, which spread all over
the globe through books, films, etc. Betty Friedan’s book ‘The
Feminine Mystique,’ which discussed the general
unhappiness of American women in that period, triggered the
movement.
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Overall, the second wave can be characterized as the

movement that invoked a feeling of unity among women
fighting for equality. Radical feminism was familiar, and it
complicated the complete elimination of male supremacy and
challenged gender roles that were predominant during that
period. Socialist feminism was also a form of feminism
created to post the Second World War. Like Marxism, Socialist
feminism acknowledged the oppressive nature of the
capitalist society and saw a connection between gender and
racial discrimination.

3.2.4 Third Wave of Feminism:

The third wave mainly dealt with the reproductive rights of

women. Feminists spoke about women’s right to birth control
as it was a fundamental right of women to make decisions
about their bodies. When the American Supreme Court
upheld the ’Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act’ and ‘restrictions
on abortion,’ there was a massive protest march called the
‘March for Women’s Lives’ in Washington DC in 2004. The
second-wave activists and celebrities attended the third-wave
rally, showing how important the issue of reproductive rights
was to the Third Wave.

Apart from this, the first female Attorney General and first
female Secretary of State took office in the USA during the
third feminist movement. Hilary Clinton gave her famous
‘Women’s Rights are Human Rights’ speech at the UN in
1995, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg became the second woman on
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the Supreme Court in 1993. The third wave spread actively

through pop culture and media; it also emphasized the voices
of young girls. Strong women characters in movies and
television shows became prevalent during the third wave.
Trans-feminism was also brought into the mainstream.

The rights of trans people were recognized, and the

discussions of gender, body image, and sexuality that defined
the third wave of feminism made it more inclusive to trans
feminists. In India, the 1980s and 90s were characterized by
national protests against rapes. The cases of Hetal Parekh,
Bhanwari Devi, and Pratibha Murthy triggered activists all
over the country, leading to legal victories of the Indian
women groups.

In India, the representation of women can be traced in

various fields; in 1966, Indira Gandhi became the first women
Prime Minister of India. In 1969, Devika Rani was the first
actress to win the Dadasaheb Phalke award. In 1972, Indira
Gandhi was the first woman to be conferred with Bharat
Ratna, and Kiran Bedi became the first woman IPS officer. In
1989, Justice M. Fathima Beevi became the first woman judge
of the Supreme Court of India.

3.2.5 Fourth Wave of Feminism:

Although debated by some, many claims that the fourth wave

of feminism began in about 2012, focusing on sexual
harassment, body shaming, and rape culture, among other
issues. A key component was using social media to highlight
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and address these concerns. The new wave arose within

several high-profile incidents. In December 2012, a young
woman was brutally gang-raped in India and subsequently
died, sparking local protests and international outrage
(Nirbhaya case).

After defeating Hillary Clinton in the US Presidential election

in 2016, Donald Trump made several seditious remarks about
women. On the day after the election, a grandmother went on
Facebook to propose a march on Washington DC, which grew
to include demonstrations across the United States and
worldwide. Known as the Women’s March, on 21st January
2017, as many as 4.6 million people attended various events
in the United States, making the Women’s March the largest
single-day demonstration in America’s history.

Arguably even more significant was the ‘Me Too Movement,’

launched in 2006 in the United States. ‘Me Too’ campaign
gained widespread attention after it was exposed that
sexually harassed and assaulted women in the film industry
using the hashtag #MeToo. The movement grew to bring
condemnation to dozens of powerful men in politics,
entertainment, business, and the news media in India and
around the world.

4.2.2 Characteristics of Feminism:

In an attempt to suggest an explanation for feminism, the

characteristics are as follows:

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• Feminism is fixed on the belief that women are exploited

by comparison with men and that their domination is
illegal or unjustified.
• Feminists believe that women are entitled to equal rights
or respect, and one is not required to think that women
are currently being treated partially.
• The term ‘feminism’ would lose connection when the
commitments extend beyond their moral beliefs to their
social understanding and political relation.
• Feminists are not simply those who are committed in
principle to justice for women; feminists take themselves
to have reasons to bring about social change on women’s
behalf.
• In everyday conversation, it is not uncommon to find both
men and women prefixing a comment they might make
about women with the qualification.
• Women as a group experience many different forms of
injustice, and the sexism they encounter interacts in
complex ways with other systems of oppression.

4.3 Modernism:

Modernism is an aesthetic movement that is associated with

Western ideas about art. The thought, behavior, or values that
reflect current times describe the art and literature
movement of the 19th and 20th centuries that purposely split
from earlier conservative traditions. ‘modernism’ has been
characterized by an intentional and fundamental transfer

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from practice by the use of new and innovative forms of

expression.

Modernism covers the creative output of artists and thinkers

who saw ‘traditional’ approaches to the arts, architecture,
literature, and drama, which rejected the outdated Victorian
standard with replacement of the new economic, social and
political status of industrialized society. With rapid social
change and significant scientific developments during the
industrial era, the modernists alienated themselves from
Victorian values and principles.

New ideas in psychology, philosophy, and political theory

kindled a search for new modes of expression. Modernism
tends to question and attempt alternatives to the beliefs of the
past age. Past are seen and treated as different from the
modern era and accept the system for revision and inquiry.

4.3.1 Modern:

The word ‘modern’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Modo,’

which means ‘today’ or ‘current,’ in opposition to tradition.
Modernism has always been used to differentiate the
contemporary from the past. Modern persons do not live by
the culture's rules; they understand and know the culture but
do not fully identify with it. Modern societies frequently
establish a dual opposition between ‘order’ and ‘disorder’ to
claim the superiority of ‘order.’ In western culture, this
disorder becomes ‘the order,’ defined as anything non-white,

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non-male, non-heterosexual, non-hygienic, and non-rational,

and becomes part of the ‘disorder.’

4.3.2 Modernity:

Modernity refers to the new civilization developed in Europe

and North America several centuries before but fully noticed
during the 20th century. Modernity is fundamentally ordered
by wisdom or rationalization created out of confusion.
Modernity was associated with a decline in emphasis on
religious views, the emergence of bureaucracy,
rapid urbanization, the rise of nation-states, accelerated
financial exchange, and communication. Modernity was also
characterized by a shift in governance, in which foreign
colonizing powers yielded to the government by local
authorities.

4.3.3 Historical Development of Modernism:

Modernism is a forward-looking worldview that emphasizes

reason, scientific rationality, creativity, novelty, and progress.
That is, scientists should withhold the truth and must try hard
to discover new things. According to the French philosopher
Lyotard, modernism is based on three sides or components,
they are;
• First Component: First comes from the aesthetic
movement, roughly associated with 20th-century Western
ideas about art, music, literature, and drama which
rejected the old Victorian standards.

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• Second Component: The second comes from history and

sociology than from literature or art. This approach
defines the entire social formation/ set of social attitudes.
• Third Component: The third comes from scholars
debating when the ‘modern’ period began and how to
distinguish between ‘what is modern’ and ‘what is not
modern.’

4.3.4 Characteristics of Modernism:

From a literary perspective, the main characteristics of

modernism include the following:
1. Emphasis on ‘how’ seeing or reading takes place rather
than on ‘what’ is perceived.
2. Apparent objectivity is provided by well-knowledge third-
person narrators, fixed narrative points of view, and clear-
cut moral positions.
3. Marking the difference between genres so that poetry
seems more documentaries and prose seems more poetic.
4. Emphasis on irregular forms, discontinuous narratives,
and random-seeming collages of different materials.
5. The distinction between ‘high’ and ‘low’ or popular culture
in displaying, distributing, and consuming art is rejected.

4.3.5 Modernism Vs Postmodernism:

There are many differences between the modernism and

postmodernism ways of thinking. They are;

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• Period: Modernism flourished between the 1860s and

1945, when World War II ended. Postmodernism began
after modernism. That is, constructed as begun after 1968,
to be precise.
• Thinking: The thinking was backed by logic during the
period of modernism. The thought of the postmodernism
period is generally considered irrational and unscientific
in its approach.
• The originality of work: Modernism paid much attention
to the original position. When saying original work, this
came from all fields, such as painting, sculpture,
architecture, and poetry. Postmodernism did not give
much attention to actual work. They considered such work
as work that gained popularity due to propagation.
• Art: During modernism, artists created their works
following traditional art methods. During postmodernism,
artists did not follow the conventional methods of making
art. They instead used media to increase the speed of the
creation of their works.

4.4 Marxism:

Marxism is a body of doctrine developed by Karl Marx and

offers two sets of ideas;
• Marxism speaks the theory of society, which explains ‘how
society works’ and ‘what is going on in the world.’
• Marxism speaks about political goals and action via
revolution and establishing a communist society (against
capitalism).
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Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated

by Karl Marx, which focuses on the struggle between
capitalists and the working class. Marxism has been
understood and practiced by various socialist movements,
particularly before 1914. There is Soviet Marxism as worked
out by Vladimir Ilich Lenin and modified by Joseph Stalin.

Marxism-Leninism became the doctrine of the communist

parties’ set up after the Russian Revolution (1917). Marxism
was interpreted by the anti-Stalinist Leon Trotsky and his
followers. In the mid-19th century, Marxism helped to
consolidate, motivate and radicalize elements of the labor and
socialist movement in Western Europe.

4.4.1 History of Marx’s Theory:

In any historical era, like a feudal system, the inbuilt

challenges or class conflicts come to a head in some
revolution. They are resolved when a new social order
stabilizes. History is, therefore, a function of material or
economic conditions. The relation between the types of
productive technology in use and the social relations or
organization and control of those forms of production has
determined the nature of primitive, enslaved persons, feudal
and capitalist society, and what has moved; the community
from one to the other. Marx thought his theory of history was
a significant achievement and one of the two insights which
established Marxism as a science. Marxism is a social and

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political theory, including ‘Marxian Economics’ and ‘Marxist

Class Conflict Theory.’

4.4.2 Criticisms of Marx’s Theory:

Marx’s theory on capitalist development has been accepted as

a Gospel of truth by his followers. It has been harshly
criticized on various grounds; they are;
• Marx has minimized the importance of other non-
economic factors, such as ethical, ideological, religious,
cultural, and political, that greatly influence history.
• Marx has created an abstract and unreal world which has
made it difficult and uncomfortable to understand the
proper working of capitalism.
• Marxian line of thinking has been remarkably behind
capitalist development, and all the communist states are
even now so poor.
• Marx’s argument on technology. Marx’s is an exaggerated
view of the long-run effect of technological progress,
which may create more employment opportunities.
• Marx’s opinion on development is wrong because when
development proceeds, the output of the asset ratio falls,
and profits also increase.
• The introduction of social security measures, antitrust
laws, and mixed economies has given a lie to the Marxian
expectation that capitalism will be damaged on its own.
• Marx failed to realize that with economic development, the
share of wages in combined income need not fall, nor did
the demand for consumer goods.
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4.4.3 Marx’s Understanding of Globalization:

Globalization is commonly used to describe the spread and

connection of production, communication, and technologies
worldwide. Globalization is also referred to as the efforts of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and
others to create a global free market for goods and services.
Globalization involves the diffusion of ideas, practices, and
technologies.

Globalization is more than internationalization and

universalization, not just modernization or westernization.
People don’t understand Marx’s intense investigation of
globalization. Most people are vaguely aware of Marx’s
prediction that capitalism would undoubtedly be replaced by
communism.

People often needed to understand why Marx believed so.

Marx’s primary understanding of globalization is;
• The expansion of capitalism or globalization transforms
human society from a collection of separate states to a
world capitalist society.
• Around 1970, capitalists experienced great difficulty
finding profitable investment outlets, which increased the
massive push for globalization for free marketing.
• Big corporations and banks have much more freedom to
go where they wish and trade, invest, and develop as they
want to.

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• Globalization also involves privatization; governments

transfer public enterprises to corporations.
• People in Third World have been further poorer because
global corporations can come in and take over the markets
and resources preserved for locals.
• Workers, unions, and the Left are fragile and oversized
numbers of people are being wholly expelled and
discarded.

******

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Unit V

Audience Analysis- Ratings in Advertising, Ratings in Programming &

Rating Services; Audience Rating- Rating Points- GRPs & TRPs; Reach Vs.
GRP; Types of Audience Rating- Average Audience Rating, Total
Audience Rating & Cumulative Audience Rating; CPM and CPP; Ratings
Data Collection Methods; Audience & Marketing Trends; Selling Space &
Time.

5.1 Audience Analysis:

Understanding one’s audience is one of the essential elements

of effective communication. Audience analysis can help to
gain valuable insight about the readers, which can help to
choose and develop a relevant, meaningful topic. It can also
help to create a writing plan that is adapted effectively to the
reading audience, with appropriate tone, style, language, and
content.

An audience analysis is a process used to identify and

understand the priority and influencing audiences for
strategy. An audience analysis informs the design of materials,
messages, media selection, and strategy activities. It
establishes a clear, detailed, and realistic picture of the
audience. As a result, announcements and actions are more
likely to vibrate with the audience and lead to the desired
behavior change. A complete audience analysis looks at the
following:
• Socio-demographic characteristics like sex, age, language,
and religion.

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• Geographic characteristics like where the audience lives

and how that might impact behavior.
• Psychographic characteristics like needs, hopes, concerns,
and aspirations.
• Audience thoughts, beliefs, knowledge, and current
actions related to the health or social issue.
• Barriers and facilitators that prevent or encourage
audience members to adopt the desired behavior change.
• Gender and how it impacts audience members’ behavior
and ability to change.
• Effective communication channels for reaching the
audience.

5.1.1 Ratings in Advertising:

Target rating points quantify the exposure level of advertising

messages delivered to a specific target audience in terms of
reach and frequency. TRPs are calculated by multiplying the
cumulative reach of the advertising, typically over one week,
by the frequency of exposure to the advertising. Initially used
in broadcast advertising, TRPs are often used to measure
advertising impact in online and offline media.

Today’s consumers are watching more TV than ever, which

makes understanding what and how they’re watching an
essential part of any marketing campaign. With expansive and
representative television panels, Nielsen tracks viewing
behavior to the second, revealing detailed programming and
commercial engagement. Because viewers now have multiple
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screens to choose from various countries across TVs, PCs, and

mobile phones to help clients create precise cross-platform
plans.

5.1.2 Ratings in Programming:

Television rating may refer to an audience measurement

technique. Television rating is an effort to determine the
audience size and composition of television programming. A
rating indicates the positiveness of a review of a television
program or episode.

TV programs' ratings are a percentage of the potential

audience who choose a particular media vehicle over another.
In broadcast media, it is the number of households with their
radio or TV sets tuned to a specific station, channel, or
program for a specified length of time divided by the total
number of families with radio or TV.

5.1.3 Rating Services:

Companies publish ratings for securities such as preferred

stock and debt issues. These rankings are arrived at by
looking at various balance sheet data. Some rating services
are very influential, and an upgrade or downgrade can affect
their borrowing costs significantly.

Rating services develop their criteria for rating

companies. Factors considered include company earnings,
capital adequacy, operating leverage, liquidity, investment
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performance, reinsurance programs, management ability,

integrity, and experience. A high financial rating is not the
same as a high consumer satisfaction rating.

5.2 Audience Rating:

Audience rating measures the proportion of the total available

audience tuned into a television channel, radio station, or
program at a particular time; more generally, the audience
rating is an assessment of audience size or share.

5.2.1 Rating Points:

The rating point is one of the most critical metrics for all
media planners and buyers working in media agencies. Many
media and content deals across various global markets are
planned on targets based on the rating point.

Each rating point is equal to

1% and can be defined as a
percentage of people or
households tuned into a TV
program or any other
medium compared to the
population universe or
household universe.

To illustrate this further, imagine a hypothetical situation of a

country with a population of 1,000 people and with only one
TV channel at its disposal. If 200 people out of the 1,000-
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population universe of the country are watching the TV

channel at 8 pm, the rating points will be 20%. A 20% rating
point interests one advertiser, and he decides to advertise his
brand on that TV channel. He wants his media agency to buy
advertising space and place his ad spot four times between 8
pm to 9 pm. Assuming that all 200 people watch TV for
precisely one hour straight, we can come up with the
following media plan:

Ad Spot Time Rating Points

1 8:00 pm 20%
2 8:15 pm 20%
3 8:30 pm 20%
4 8:45 pm 20%

The total rating points come out to be 80%, referred to as the

GRPs or the gross rating points. The gross rating points are a
cumulative measure of the impressions an advertising
campaign generates.

5.2.1.1 RAM:

The RAM rating service, Radio Audience Measurement,

originated with McCoy’s interest in research for radio
programming purposes, especially record selection and
rotation. The RAM techniques consisted of several major
essential elements;

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1. A one-day personal pocket-size diary with instructions on

the front, qualitative questions on the back, and double-
spread rules with spaces for all radio listening;
2. 50 weeks of data were collected daily, thus permitting
weekly and monthly, as well as 13 weeks of data
composited to cover the last three months; and
3. Returned diaries were entered on the computer
immediately.
In most markets, they still provide survey participants with
diaries where they expect people to make notes about what
station they listen to and for how long. The diary method has
always been suspected.

5.2.1.2 GRP:

Very simply, it’s a math equation used by media planners and

buyers to determine how many people within an intended
audience might have seen the ads or TV program. One type of
rating point system is the GRP or Gross Rating Points, which
tells the number of households the message can reach as a
percentage of the total population of television viewers.
Essentially, GRP is a cumulative measure of the impressions
the campaign is earning. Expressed as a percentage, the GRP
calculation looks something like this:

Audience Reached x Frequency of Advertisement = Gross

Rating Points.

For instance, they wanted the ad to be seen by women

between 18 and 49 and knew that 40 percent of TV viewers in
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that demographic watched the ‘Big Boss’ prime-time program

every Saturday night. Since an agency advertising a new
product decided to run three commercials between 9 and 10
p.m. The GRP would then be 120: 40 percent of the target
audience reached, multiplied by the number of times the ad
aired, multiplied by 100. This is just one specific example:
GRPs can be calculated for total reach and exposure by
different demographics, times of day, and media markets,
among other criteria.

For example, a campaign delivers an average frequency of 5

impressions to 10,00,000 lakhs (18 to 34-year-olds) out of an
average population of 7,00,00,000 crores.
GRP = (1,000,000 / 70,000,000) x 5
GRP = 1.43% x 5
GRP = 7.15

5.2.1.3 TRP:

TRP, or Television Rating Point, is a tool to judge which

programs are viewed the most. This gives an index of the
people's choice and the popularity of a particular channel. For
calculation purposes, a device is attached to the TV set in a
few thousand viewers’ houses for judging purposes. These
numbers are treated as a sample from TV owners in different
geographical and demographic sectors. The device is called a
People’s Meter. It records the time and program viewers
watch on a particular day. Then, the average is taken for 30
days, giving the viewership status for a specific channel.

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In India, INTAM (Indian Television Audience Measurement) is

the electronic rating agency that does this work. INTAM uses
two methodologies for calculating TRP.
• The first is frequency monitoring, in which ‘people
meters’ are installed in sample homes, and these
electronic gadgets continuously record data about the
channel watched by the family members. It reads the
frequencies of media, which are later decoded into the
name of the channels, and the agency prepares national
data based on its sample homes readings.
• The second technique is more reliable and relatively new
to India. In the picture-matching approach, the people
meter continuously records a small portion of the picture
being watched on that particular television set. Along
with this, the agency also records the entire channel’s
data in a small picture portion. Data collected from the
sample homes is later matched with the central data bank
to interpret the channel name, which produces a national
rating.

5.3 Types of Audience Rating:

The various types of audience ratings are;

5.3.1 Average Audience Rating:

Average audience rating, or AAR, is one of several ratings

used by media research companies. It reflects the average size
of the audience on a minute-by-minute basis (average size at

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minute 1, minute 2, minute 3, and so on) throughout the

length of a program. An average audience rating is precious to
the advertiser because it tells the accurate audience size for a
commercial. The Average Audience rating plays a vital role in
negotiations between the media buyer and the networks. It is
also the number used to compute a program’s audience share
or the cost of reaching 1000 homes with a specific advertising
message.

5.3.2 Total Audience Rating:

Total audience measurement is a methodology developed to

measure content and advertising using comparable metrics
across different devices and platforms. By accurately
measuring both content, such as TV programs, and the on-
target rate of digital advertising, total audience measurement
offers a comprehensive and precise evaluation of viewership.

5.3.3 Cumulative Audience Rating:

Cumulative audience rating is one of several ratings used by

media research companies to measure television audiences.
The cumulative audience rating is based on the cumulative
audience compared to the average or total audience and
reflects the unduplicated audience size in 15-minute
segments over four weeks. For example: If a program has an
average cumulative audience rating of 7 for its first quarter
hour over four weeks, it means that 7% of the total potential
audience tuned in to that program at least once during that
quarter-hour in the four weeks.
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5.4 Cost Per Thousand (CPM):

Cost per thousand (CPM), or technically ‘Cost Per Millie,’ is a

marketing term or model that refers to advertising bought
based on impression. CPM is a ratio based on how much it
costs to reach a thousand people. A metric is used to quantify
an advertisement's display on a web page. Impressions are
used in banner advertising, which often pays on a per-
impression basis.

Frequently, these are measured by Cost Per Mille (CPM),

where mille refers to 1,000 impressions; the ‘M’ in CPM
represents the Roman numeral for 1,000. For example, a
banner ad might have a CPM (cost per thousand) of Rs.5,
meaning that the website owner receives Rs.5 every time an
ad on his website is displayed 1,000 times.

For example, in web ads, CPM is the most common method for
pricing web ads. Advertisers frequently measure the success
of a CPM campaign by its click-through rate (CTR), the ratio of
the number of times the ad is clicked compared to the total
number of ad impressions. For example, an advertisement
that receives two clicks for every 100 images has a CTR of 2%.
An advertisement's success cannot be measured by CTR alone
because an ad viewed but not clicked may still have an impact.

CPM represents one of several methods used to price website

ads. Other pricing models include ‘Cost Per Click’
(CPC), where the advertiser pays each time a website visitor
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clicks on the ads. The ‘Cost Per Acquisition’ (CPA), where the
advertiser only pays each time a website visitor makes a
purchase that can be directly traced to having clicked on that
ad.

The CPM model refers to advertising bought based on

impression. CPM is in contrast to the various types of pay-for-
performance advertising, whereby payment is only triggered
by a mutually agreed upon activity, click-through,
registration, sale, and so on. The total price paid in a CPM deal
is calculated by multiplying the CPM rate by the number of
CPM units. For example, ten lakh impressions at Rs.10 CPM
equals an Rs.10,000 total price.
10,00,000 / 1,000 impressions = 1,000 units
1,000 units X Rs.10 CPM = Rs.10,000 total price

The amount paid per impression is calculated by dividing the

CPM by 1,000. For example, Rs.10 CPM equals Rs.01 per
impression. Rs.10 CPM / 1000 impressions = Rs.0.01 per
impression

5.5 Cost Per Point (CPP):

The cost of reaching 1% of the targeted audience in print

advertisements or any other media vehicle is called cost per
rating point (CPP). In other words, it refers to the cost of
buying one percent of the target population. CPP is also
referred to as cost per gross rating point.

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Let’s take a video ad campaign with the following parameters:

1 million (10 lakhs) ad impressions or views, a frequency cap
of 3 per week, and a CPM of Rs.15. This comes to a media
spend of Rs.15,000. These few details are not enough for
anyone to determine a CPP. We will need geographic and
demographic data to determine any CPP.

A few things are considered to identify the Cost per Rating

Point with this. That is, you have to look at the essential
internal perimeters. CPP refers to the media placement and
how well it did by being placed in a specific media outlet.
• How many people are using the media outlet?
• How many of these people are men?
• How many are women?
• Which target demographics are being reached the most
for an ad campaign and audience?

We also have to look at all the numbers and how much of the
demographic reach was possible.

The primary purpose of this rating is to determine if the

numbers are telling a company the truth. The company
spends more than its needs to reach the target audience.

Cost-Per-Thousand (CPM) and Cost-Per-Point (CPP) are two

methods of evaluating media efficiency. CPM is a ratio based
on how much it costs to reach a thousand people. CPP is a
ratio based on how much it costs to buy one rating point or
one percent of the population in an area being evaluated.

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Cost-per-thousand is calculated by using the following

formula:
Cost of advertising schedule purchased CPM =
Gross Impressions 1,000

Cost-per-point is calculated by using the following formula:

Cost of advertising schedule purchased

CPP =
Gross Rating Points (GRPs or ‘grips’)

5.6 Ratings Data Collection Methods:

Data collection is the methodological process of gathering

information about a specific subject. It’s crucial to ensure the
data is complete during the collection phase and that it’s
collected legally and ethically. If not, the analysis won’t be
accurate and could have far-reaching consequences. The data
collection methods used in rating analytics are;
• Surveys are physical or digital questionnaires that
gather qualitative and quantitative data from subjects.
• Transactional Tracking: Each time the customers make
a purchase, tracking that data can allow them to make
decisions about targeted marketing efforts and
understand the customer base better.
• Interviews and Focus Groups: Interviews and focus
groups involve talking to subjects face-to-face about a

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specific topic or issue. Discussions tend to be one-on-

one, and focus groups typically consist of several people.
• Observation: Observing people interacting with the
website or product can be helpful for data collection
because of the condor it offers. If the user experience is
confusing or complicated, we can witness it in real time.
• Online Tracking: We can implement pixels and cookies
to gather behavioral data. These tools track users’ online
behavior across websites and provide insight into what
content they’re interested in and typically engage with.
• Forms: Online forms are beneficial for gathering
qualitative data about users, specifically demographic
data or contact information. They’re relatively
inexpensive and straightforward to set up, and we can
use them to gate content or registrations, such as
webinars and email newsletters.
• Social Media Monitoring: Monitoring the company’s
channels for follower engagement is an accessible way to
track data about the audience’s interests and
motivations.

5.7 Audience and Marketing Trends:

Marketing is a constantly changing field, and being aware of

the most recent trends will help the team succeed in building
brand awareness and reaching the target audience. While it’s
not always easy to keep up, staying on top of emerging
marketing trends is critical to stand out from the crowd and
boost the return on investment (ROI). While new

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technological advances are exciting, core content should still

be engaging, relevant, credible, interactive, and authentic. The
latest marketing trends include the following points, they are;
• Personalization: In today’s scenario, people see
advertisements throughout the day, whether it’s due to
ad blockers or people just tuning out content, you need
personalized marketing to rise above the noise.
• Social media: Social media isn’t a new marketing trend,
but there have been significant changes to the platforms
themselves and how users behave.
• Influencer marketing: Influencer relationships are
among the top marketing trends. Not only are
influencers here to stay, but they should be part of every
company’s marketing strategy.
• New video trends: Video is an increasingly important
space in marketing. People want to see more video
content from the brands they love, and marketers are
happy with the ROI they get from such content.
• Social responsibility: It isn’t enough for the brand to sit
on the sidelines. Younger generations are more socially
conscious, and this affects their buying decisions.
• AI and machine learning: Instead of targeting just one
lead, artificial intelligence (AI) allows marketers to
schedule marketing campaigns across platforms at every
customer journey stage. With the right customer data
platform, brands can gather vast amounts of data,
analyze it, and turn actionable insights into significant
marketing gains.

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• The metaverse: The metaverse is a digital version of

reality. It’s considered the next frontier of the internet,
allowing users to work, play, and live in an integrated
digital world. The pandemic and developments in VR
technology created a boom in metaverse development.
• Search engine optimization: Search engine
optimization (SEO) has been a marketing trend since the
early days of Google. Blogging, content, and keywords
will still have a place in SEO, but a few things are
changing.
• Voice search: As the Internet of Things (IoT) grows,
voice search will become even more critical.
• Privacy is changing: Consumers care about who has
access to their personal information, and that desire for
data privacy is shaking up the future of marketing.

5.8 Selling Space and Time:

Media buying is a process used in paid marketing efforts. The

goal is to identify and purchase ad space on channels relevant
to the target audience at the optimal time for the least amount
of money. Media buying is a process appropriate for
traditional marketing channels (television, radio, print)
and digital channels (websites, social media, streaming).
When done effectively, media buyers achieve maximum
exposure among their target market for the least amount of
spend.

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Media buyers oversee the buying process, with input from

the media planning team. With an understanding of
marketing goals and target audience preferences given by the
media planning team, media buyers execute the actual
purchase of the advertisement space. Most of the media
buyer’s position is negotiating with the sites, networks, and
other channels they want ads to appear on. They must ensure
they purchase the correct placements at the right times and
for the correct duration, all within strict budgets.

Selling space for advertisement in print media is leviable to

GST @ 5%. Suppose the advertisement agency works on a
principal-to-principal basis. In that case, the buying space
from the newspaper and selling such space for an
advertisement to clients on its account, that is, as a principal,
it would be liable to pay GST @5% on the total amount
charged by the advertisement agency from the client.

5.8.1 Media Planning:

The media planning process focuses on establishing an

audience, conducting market research, establishing a budget,
and building goals. Media planners work with their clients to
understand the target audience for their offering, which
channels that audience uses and at what times, and what type
of messaging that audience is most likely to engage with. With
this information, the planning team will select which channel
they want to purchase ad space on and for what price.

5.8.2 Media Buying:

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With the media plan established, media buyers connect with

their counterparts across the agreed-upon media sites. These
are often sales or account executives responsible for finding
relevant advertisers. These two parties negotiate placement,
time, and cost. Media buyers often use the following tactics to
execute media plans:
• Programmatic Buys: AI and algorithm-enabled real-
time bidding on ad space that matches consumer profiles
(e.g., fashion designers leveraging a platform that will
automatically bid on and place ads on fashion-oriented
channels).
• Direct Buys: When a media buyer negotiates ad rates
and run times with a specific advertiser (e.g., fashion
designers working directly with the Vogue team to place
ads on their site or magazine).
• Manual Buys: Bidding on ads space and managing bids
directly through an ad’s platform, such as AdWords.

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