Animal Tissues
Definition of Tissue
A tissue is a group of similar cells and their extracellular matrix organized to perform one or
more specific functions. In multicellular animals, tissues serve as the building blocks of organs
and organ systems, coordinating to maintain homeostasis and support life processes.
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Classification of Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are traditionally divided into four primary types:
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscle Tissue
4. Nerve (Neural) Tissue
Each type has distinct cellular arrangements, extracellular components, and functions.
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1. Epithelial Tissue
General Characteristics
Cellularity: Densely packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix
Polarity: Distinct apical (free) surface and basal (attached) surface
Attachment: Rests on a basement membrane composed of basal lamina and reticular lamina
Avascularity: Lacks blood vessels; receives nutrients by diffusion from underlying connective
tissue
Regeneration: High mitotic rate to replace damaged cells
Functions
Protection: Barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, fluid loss
Absorption: Uptake of ions and organic molecules (e.g., in intestine)
Secretion: Production of mucus, hormones, enzymes (e.g., glands)
Excretion: Removal of waste (e.g., sweat glands)
Sensory Reception: Contains nerve endings (e.g., taste buds, olfactory epithelium)
Classification by Cell Layers and Shape
Number of Layers Shape of Cells Locations & Comments
Simple Single cell layer—ideal for diffusion, absorption, secretion
• Simple squamous Flat, scale-like Alveoli of lungs; lining of blood vessels (endothelium)
• Simple cuboidal Cube-shaped Kidney tubules; glands and their ducts
• Simple columnar Taller than wide Lining of stomach, intestine; often with microvilli or
goblet cells
• Pseudostratified columnar Appears stratified but all cells touch basement membrane
Trachea lining; often ciliated with goblet cells
Stratified Multiple layers—provides protection
• Stratified squamous (keratinized) Flat; surface cells dead and filled with keratin Epidermis
of skin
• Stratified squamous (non-keratinized) Flat; surface cells alive Oral cavity, esophagus,
vagina
• Stratified cuboidal Typically two layers Sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles
• Stratified columnar Rare; two layers Pharynx; male urethra
• Transitional Variable shape; surface cells dome-shaped Urinary bladder lining—allows
stretching
Specializations
Microvilli: Increase surface area (e.g., intestinal absorptive cells)
Cilia: Motile projections to move fluid or particles (e.g., respiratory tract)
Keratinization: Accumulation of keratin for waterproofing and protection (skin)
Intercellular Junctions: Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions for adhesion and
communication
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2. Connective Tissue
General Characteristics
Cells: Widely dispersed within extracellular matrix
Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Abundant; composed of fibers and ground substance
Vascularity: Variable (high in adipose and bone; low in cartilage)
Functions: Support, protection, binding of organs, storage, transport
Major Components
1. Cells
Fixed Cells: Fibroblasts (produce fibers and ground substance), adipocytes (lipid storage),
reticular cells
Wandering Cells: Macrophages (phagocytosis), mast cells (histamine release), plasma cells
(antibody production), leukocytes
2. Fibers
Collagen Fibers: Strong, flexible; most abundant (e.g., tendons)
Elastic Fibers: Stretch and recoil (e.g., skin, lungs, blood vessels)
Reticular Fibers: Thin collagen network supporting soft organs (e.g., spleen)
3. Ground Substance
Amorphous gel of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, and glycoproteins; medium for
diffusion and cell migration
Types of Connective Tissue
A. Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar: Surrounds nerves and vessels; binds epithelia to deeper tissues
Adipose: Fat storage; cushioning and insulation
Reticular: Network supporting lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen)
Dense Connective Tissue
Dense Regular: Parallel collagen bundles; strong in one direction (tendons, ligaments)
Dense Irregular: Collagen fibers in multiple directions; tensile strength (dermis, joint capsules)
Elastic: Predominantly elastic fibers; stretchy (vocal cords, large arteries)
B. Specialized Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Hyaline: Glossy matrix; support with some flexibility (trachea, articular surfaces)
Fibrocartilage: Dense collagen; resists compression (intervertebral discs)
Elastic: Elastic fibers; maintains shape (ear pinna, epiglottis)
Bone (Osseous Tissue)
Compact Bone: Osteons with central canals; structural support
Spongy Bone: Trabeculae; houses bone marrow
Blood
Liquid ground substance (plasma) with formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets);
transport of gases, nutrients, wastes
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3. Muscle Tissue
General Characteristics
Specialized for contraction; generates force and movement
Cells (myocytes) contain actin and myosin filaments
Types of Muscle Tissue
Type Striations Nuclei (per cell) Control Location & Function
Skeletal Yes Multinucleated (peripheral) Voluntary Attached to bones; locomotion,
posture, heat production
Cardiac Yes Usually 1–2 per cell Involuntary Heart wall; pumps blood
Smooth No Single, central Involuntary Walls of hollow organs (GI tract, vessels, uterus);
moves contents
Key Features
Skeletal Muscle: Long cylindrical fibers, sarcomeres uppercase banding (A and I bands), no
intercalated discs
Cardiac Muscle: Branched fibers, intercalated discs with gap junctions and desmosomes for
synchronized contraction
Smooth Muscle: Spindle-shaped cells, dense bodies instead of Z-discs, slow sustained
contractions
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4. Nerve (Neural) Tissue
General Characteristics
Transmits electrical signals (nerve impulses) for communication
Composed of neurons (signal-conducting) and neuroglia (supporting cells)
Neurons
Structure:
Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus and organelles
Dendrites: Short, branched processes receiving input
Axon: Long projection conducting action potentials; may be myelinated
Functional Classification:
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Carry signals toward CNS
Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Carry signals away from CNS
Interneurons: Integrate and process information within CNS
Neuroglia (Glial Cells)
Central Nervous System (CNS):
Astrocytes: Blood–brain barrier, structural support, ion regulation
Oligodendrocytes: Myelination of CNS axons
Microglia: Phagocytic immune cells
Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles; produce cerebrospinal fluid
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
Schwann Cells: Myelinate PNS axons; aid in regeneration
Satellite Cells: Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia; nutrient support
Functional Properties of Neurons
1. Excitability: Respond to stimuli by generating electrical signals
2. Conductivity: Propagate electrical impulses along axon
3. Secretion: Release neurotransmitters at synapses to communicate with other cells
Synapse and Signal Transmission
Synapse: Junction between a neuron and its target (neuron, muscle, gland)
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., acetylcholine, glutamate) released into
synaptic cleft
Myelination: Increases conduction velocity; nodes of Ranvier enable saltatory conduction
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Integration and Clinical Relevance
Tissue Repair:
Regeneration: Replacement by the same cell type (e.g., liver epithelium)
Fibrosis: Scar formation by connective tissue (e.g., myocardial infarction)
Pathologies:
Epithelial: Carcinomas (cancers of epithelial origin)
Connective: Osteoporosis (bone density loss), arthritis (cartilage degeneration)
Muscle: Muscular dystrophies (genetic muscle degeneration)
Nerve: Multiple sclerosis (CNS demyelination), peripheral neuropathies
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Definition
1)Multicellular:Made up of more than one cell.
2)Homeostasis:The body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external
changes.
3)Organ Systems:Groups of organs that work together to perform a major function in the
body (e.g., digestive system).
4)Extracellular Matrix (ECM):A non-living network of proteins and fluids that surrounds and
supports cells in tissues.
5)Polarity (in cells):Structural difference between the top (apical) and bottom (basal) sides of a
cell.
6)Avascular:Lacking blood vessels; receives nutrients through diffusion.
7)Basement Membrane:A thin, fibrous layer that anchors epithelial tissue to connective tissue
below.
8)Apical Surface:The top surface of an epithelial cell, usually facing a lumen (internal space) or
the external environment.
9)Basal Surface:The bottom layer of epithelial tissue, connected to the basement membrane.
10)Mitotic Rate:The speed at which cells divide by mitosis.
11)Stratified:Composed of multiple layers of cells.
12)Pseudostratified:A single layer of cells that appears to be multiple layers due to varying cell
heights.
13)Keratinized:Containing keratin, a tough protein that protects and waterproofs the skin.
14)Ciliated:Having tiny hair-like structures (cilia) that help move substances over the cell
surface.
15)Microvilli:Small projections on cells that increase surface area for absorption.
16)Goblet Cells:Specialized epithelial cells that secrete mucus.
17)Intercellular Junctions:Connections between adjacent cells, including tight junctions, gap
junctions, and desmosomes.
18)Desmosomes: Junctions that hold cells tightly together, especially in tissues under stress.
19)Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs):Large sugar molecules that are part of the ground substance
in connective tissue.
20)Proteoglycans:Molecules made of proteins and GAGs that help give connective tissue its
gel-like texture.
21)Collagen Fibers:Strong, flexible protein fibers that provide structural support in connective
tissues.
22)Elastic Fibers: Fibers that allow tissues to stretch and return to their original shape.
23)Reticular Fibers:Thin fibers forming networks that support soft organs like the spleen or
liver.
24)Areolar Tissue:A type of loose connective tissue with a gel-like matrix that cushions organs.
25)Adipocytes:Fat-storing cells in adipose tissue.
26)Dense Irregular Tissue:Connective tissue with fibers in various directions; provides multi-
directional strength.
27)Osteons:Cylindrical structures in compact bone that contain blood vessels and nerves.
28)Trabeculae:Small beams or plates of bone in spongy bone tissue.
29)Formed Elements:The cellular components of blood: red cells, white cells, and platelets.
30)Contractile Proteins:Proteins (mainly actin and myosin) that allow muscle cells to contract.
31)Striations:Alternating light and dark bands in muscle tissue caused by organized
contractile proteins.
32)Multinucleated:Having more than one nucleus in a single cell (e.g., skeletal muscle cells).
33)Intercalated Discs:Specialized structures that connect cardiac muscle cells for
synchronized contraction.
34)Spindle-shaped Cells:Long and tapered cells typical of smooth muscle.
35)Excitability:The ability of a cell (especially neurons and muscles) to respond to a stimulus.
36)Conductivity:The ability to transmit electrical signals along a cell's membrane.
37)Neurotransmitters:Chemical messengers released by neurons to communicate with other
cells.
38)Myelinated:Having a fatty sheath (myelin) that insulates nerve fibers and speeds up signal
transmission.
39)Saltatory Conduction:The jumping of nerve impulses from one node of Ranvier to another
in a myelinated nerve fiber.
40)Astrocytes:Star-shaped glial cells in the CNS that support neurons and help maintain the
blood–brain barrier.
41)Oligodendrocytes:Glial cells in the CNS that produce myelin.
42)Microglia:Small immune cells in the CNS that perform phagocytosis (clean up dead cells
and debris).
43)Ependymal Cells:Glial cells that line the brain ventricles and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
44)Schwann Cells:Glial cells in the PNS that produce myelin sheaths around axons.
45)Satellite Cells:Support cells in the PNS that surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia.
46)Integration:The process of combining and interpreting sensory information in the nervous
system.
47)Phagocytosis:The process by which a cell engulfs and digests particles or harmful
organisms.
48)CNS (Central Nervous System):Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
49)PNS (Peripheral Nervous System):Includes all nerves outside the CNS.ReflexesQuick,
automatic responses to stimuli, processed by the nervous system.
