PLOS ONE

RESEARCH ARTICLE

From theory to practice: An integrated TTF-

UTAUT study on electric vehicle adoption
behavior
Ayed Alwadain1, Suliman Mohamed Fati2, Kashif Ali ID3*, Rao Faizan Ali4

1 Computer Science Department, Community College, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
2 Information Systems Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Prince Sultan University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 3 Faculty of Management Science (FOMS), UCP Business School, University of
Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan, 4 Department of Software Engineering, University of Management and
Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
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a1111111111 * [email protected]
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Abstract
In Industry 4.0, the adoption of new technology has played a major role in the transportation
sector, especially in the electric vehicles (EVs) domain. Nevertheless, consumer attitudes
OPEN ACCESS towards EVs have been difficult to gauge but researchers have tried to solve this puzzle.
The prior literature indicates that individual attitudes and technology factors are vital to
Citation: Alwadain A, Fati SM, Ali K, Ali RF (2024)
From theory to practice: An integrated TTF-UTAUT understanding users’ adoption of EVs. Thus, the main aim is to meticulously investigate the
study on electric vehicle adoption behavior. PLoS unexplored realm of EV adoption within nations traditionally reliant on oil, exemplified by
ONE 19(3): e0297890. https://doi.org/10.1371/
Saudia Arabia. By integrating the “task technology fit” (TTF) model and the “unified theory of
journal.pone.0297890
acceptance and usage of technology” (UTAUT), this research develops and empirically vali-
Editor: Sudarsan Jayasingh, Sri Sivasubramaniya
dates the framework. A cross-section survey approach is adopted to collect 273 valid ques-
Nadar College of Engineering, INDIA
tionnaires from customers through convincing sampling. The empirical findings confirm that
Received: September 2, 2023
the integration of TTF and UTAUT positively promotes users’ adoption of EVs. Surprisingly,
Accepted: January 5, 2024 the direct effect of TTF on behavioral intentions is insignificant, but UTAUT constructs play a
Published: March 12, 2024 significant role in establishing a significant relationship. Moreover, the UTAUT social influ-
ence factor has no impact on the EVs adoption. This groundbreaking research offers a com-
Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the
benefits of transparency in the peer review prehensive and holistic methodology for unravelling the complexities of EV adoption,
process; therefore, we enable the publication of achieved through the harmonious integration of two well-regarded theoretical frameworks.
all of the content of peer review and author
The nascent of this research lies in the skilful blending of technological and behavioral fac-
responses alongside final, published articles. The
editorial history of this article is available here: tors in the transportation sector.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297890

Copyright: © 2024 Alwadain et al. This is an open

access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and Introduction
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited. Environmental issues, which affect all forms of life on Earth, such as climate change, carbon
neutrality, and the reduction of carbon emissions, have emerged as some of the most signifi-
Funding: This research is supported by
Researchers Supporting Project number
cant challenges in the growth of economies [1]. These problems have grown in importance
(RSP2023R309), 434 King Saud University, throughout the history of economic development, crossing national boundaries and influenc-
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the funder/author has ing the welfare of all living things [2]. The use of fossil fuels by industry and the transportation

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

significant role in drafting, analysis, and revision of sector is the main contributor to environmental problems [3, 4]. Upadhyay and Kamble [1]
the manuscript. argued that manufacturing and energy are not only major contributors to environmental
Competing interests: The authors have declared issues but instead transportation sector is also held responsible for this. Mpoi et al. [5] argued
that no competing interests exist. that the transportation industry is accountable for 24 percent of the world’s gross carbon diox-
ide (CO2) emissions from energy sources such as fossil fuels. Moreover, the IEA [6] report
highlighted that more than 75% of transport CO2 emissions come from road vehicles. Similar
to this, Tiseo [7] in a Statista report, passenger vehicles stood out as the major source of CO2
emissions in 2020, accounting for a sizable 41% of all transportation-related emissions world-
wide. EVs stand out as favorable and workable solutions in a concerted effort to address and
combat environmentally harmful practises [1, 8].
Asadi et al. [8], EVs are expected to serve a dual function in this situation, reducing adverse
ecological impacts and protecting priceless non-renewable fuel resources during their entire
use. Additionally, Singh et al. [3] emphasise that EVs have the potential to be effective replace-
ments for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, which
are best reflected by affordable and clean energy. The 17 SDGs set out by the UN, which are
expected to be accomplished by 2030, serve as both a road map for improving the world and a
solid foundation for upcoming initiatives in business and research. The International Energy
Agency (IEA) reported an astounding increase in electric vehicle (EV) sales in 2021 compared
to previous years, culminating in a ground-breaking record high of 6.6 million EVs sold,
highlighting the unquestionable rise towards an electrified and sustainable future. Further-
more, the research emphasised that in 2021, sales of electric vehicles will account for almost
10% of all automobile sales worldwide. The global market value of EVs is projected to grow
over 11-fold from today’s levels of sale [6]. The increase in EVs is primarily led by developed
countries like Norway (86%), Iceland (73%), and Sweden (43%) [6]. By contrast, the sale of
EVs is still lagging in emerging and developing economies. The adoption of EVs in the Middle
East region is in the nascent stage [9]. UAE and Saudi Arabia are becoming the early adopters
of EVs in the region. However, the contribution of GCC countries is not very convincing in
comparison with the rest of the world [7]. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic and the Rus-
sia-Ukraine war have further disrupted the EV markets, especially in emerging and developing
economies. Conclusively, the global rise of EV adoption reveals a notable gap, especially in
Middle East region, due to geopolitical and pandemic disruptions, emphasizing the urgency
for targeted interventions to facilitate a more inclusive and sustainable EV transition.
Saudi Arabia is mainly dependent on the sale and consumption of fossil fuel energy sources,
which has put considerable pressure on the country to reduce its CO2 emission. According to
King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Centre, the transportation sector’s share of
CO2 emission was 21% in 2018. [10] Rahman et al., [11] argued that renewable energy is not
used on a large scale in Saudi Arabia for road transportation. Consequently, the transport sec-
tor is associated with high CO2 and greenhouse emissions. In the Middle East region, Saudi
Arabia has the highest number of vehicle owners. This increasing number of vehicles will sig-
nificantly increase the energy demand in road transportation [11].
Undeniably the 21st century is witnessing the role of individual behavior toward EVs [12].
According to Hardman [13], incentives have the potential to accelerate the adoption of EVs,
but their importance cannot be applied uniformly due to the variety of consumer incentives
across various locations. Maybury et al. [2] also emphasised that the move towards EVs is a
technical transformation that includes changes to both technology and customer acceptance.
As a result, completing this change quickly and effectively is a difficult challenge. In a nutshell,
despite the pressing need for Saudi Arabia to reduce CO emissions, there exists a significant
gap in the country transition to EV, exacerbated by a historical dependence on fossil fuels, lim-
ited use of renewable energy in road transportation, and the challenges of aligning consumer

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

incentives with the complex dynamics of technological transformation and consumer

acceptance.
The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in earlier academic works was largely influenced by
well-established paradigms of conventional technology adoption theories, such as the UTAUT
and the “Technology Acceptance Model” (TAM), which were highlighted by Zhang et al. [4],
the “Stimulus-Organism-Response” (SOR) model, which was investigated by Upadhyay and
Kamble [1], and the Theory of Planned. Nevertheless, Upadhyay and Kamble [1] emphasise,
that recent literature shows a change in thinking, with academics increasingly supporting dif-
ferent theories, views, and frameworks to clarify the dynamics of technology adoption within
the EV sector. The extant studies solely focusing on end-user perceptions of technology may
not be enough. Therefore, the individual and technology characteristics better explain the cus-
tomer’s intention to adopt EVs. Prior literature explains the adoption concept in various
domains such as automotive [14], banking [15, 16], education [17], healthcare [18],
manufacturing [19], and tourism [20]. Amidst evolving EV adoption literature, there is a
growing recognition for diverse framework beyond traditional theories, necessitating deeper
exploration of individual and technology dynamics. There is a paucity of empirical evidence
for the adoption of EVs. To address the problem and research gaps, the following research
objectives have been developed.
• To explore whether there is a substantial impact of TTF on consumer’s intention to buy elec-
tric vehicles (EVs).
• To determine that the UTAUT model significantly affects the customer’s intention to pur-
chase EVs.
• To determine that combining the TTF and UTAUT frameworks results in a deeper under-
standing of customer intention towards EVs.
After achieving the above study objectives, this research has both contribution and implica-
tions. This study contributes by integrating TTF and UTAUT framework for a comprehensive
view of EV adoption. It addresses the literature gap by providing insights into challenges and
opportunities in Middle East EV adoption, especially in Saudi Arabia. The empirical research
fills a theoretical gap, offering valuable evidence for future research and practical application
in the EV domain. In term of implications, the research underscores the importance of align-
ing technology with user preferences, urging managers and decision-makers to recognize key
determinants for creating a favourable environment for EV adoption within a comprehensive
framework.

Theoretical framework & hypotheses development

Theoretical background
The prior literature has indicated that a rage of theories influence individual decision to use
technology. The review study of Dash et al. [21] argued that firms failed to adopt new technol-
ogy because of lack of planning for change, poor vision & adoption, and ignoring customer
expectations. Börstler et al. [22] claimed that it is a well-known issue that adoption decision
are rarely driven by evidence. Thus, the current research is based on Unified Theory of Accep-
tance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Task-Technology Fit.
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). The past studies
affirmed the existence of various theories pursuing to explain why individuals adopt technol-
ogy. These theories, however, were restricted in their ability to adequately explain technology
adoption because they only covered specific features and frequently overlapped in their

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

explanations [23]. The past studies highlighted that the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
is considered as the base of UTAUT theory by Venkatesh et al. [24]. Furthermore, UTAUT
theory was developed by removing redundant or equivalent elements from the eight most
prevalent technology adoption models [25]. As proposed by Venkatesh et al. [24] the intention
and usage of technology are influenced by four main factors: performance expectancy, effort
expectancy, facilitating condition and social influence. The constructs performance expectancy
refers to the degree to which individual believe that utilizing the technology will empower
them to achieve optimal improvement in job performance [23, 26]. Whereas effort expectancy
pertains to the ease of effort associated with the utilization of technology [23, 27]. On the other
hand, facilitating conditions involve the extent to which individuals are confident that the cur-
rent organizational and technical infrastructure is in place to support the utilization of the
technology [23, 27]. Finally, the belief that individual actions related to the use of technology
will be accepted and embraced by affluent individuals or peers is referred to as social influence
[23, 26]. The review study of Dash et al., [21] argued that facilitating conditions emphasizes
user behaviour and remaining three constructs focuses on usage behaviour. In other words, a
crucial aspects of UTAUT is that the decision of individual or organization is based on social
or competitive factors to adopt new technology [21].
The UTAUT theory is widely used and applied in diverse context, such as mobile com-
merce [28], healthcare [29], higher education [30–33], fintech [34], environmental studies
[35], and electrical vehicle [4, 36]. In the current study context, the study of Zhang et al. [4]
examined the adoption factors of EVs in China through UTAUT theory. Jain et al. [36] investi-
gated the elements affecting the adoption of EVs in India using the theoretical underpinnings
of the UTAUT theory. The UTAUT theory was adopted by Chaveesuk et al. [37] to analyse
customer acceptance trends for autonomous vehicles in Thailand. Finally, Abbasi et al. [38]
investigated the motivations for Malaysian users’ acceptance of EVs by employing the UTAUT
theory.
Task-technology fit model (TTF). Task-technology fit framework (TTF) evaluates the
compatibility of technological resources with the requirement of specific task [39]. Gebauer
and Ginsburg, [40] argued that individual will only embrace technology if it seamlessly inte-
grates into their routines activities and enhances overall performance. According to Cai et al.
[27] TTF consist of two factors: task characteristics and technology characteristics. Task char-
acteristics encompasses the challenges that potential adopters need to manage when employing
technology in a specific context [27]. Conversely, technology characteristics encompasses the
benefits offered by the technology [27]. Sediyaningsih et al. [23] argued that whenever techni-
cal features are compatible and properly tailored, it encourages to adopt new technology. On
the contrary, if technological features are not compatible, the technology usage is discouraged
[23]. Dayour et al. [26] argued that technology must be utilized and good fit with the task to
support performance. In the same vein, Börstler et al. [22] contended that TTF is closely linked
to cognitive fit, suggesting that better performance results from a strong alignment between
task and the mental representation of problem solver.
Predominantly, TTF was designed with organizational context in mind, based on technol-
ogy and employee-handled work activities [39]. However, in the recent years, TTF has
expanded beyond the workplace to encompass a wider range of context and technologies like
satisfaction and continuance intention of EV drivers (Cruz-Jesus et al., 2023) [41], online
gamification [42], e-service quality [43], m-health [44], and blockchain food delivery [45].
Integration of UTAUT and TTF. This research integrates the UTAUT and TTF to
explain the user adoption of EVs from both perspective including TTF and technology percep-
tions. According to Zhou et al. [46] argued that individual variances of UTAUT (45.7%) and
TTF (43.3%) lower than the integrated model of UTAUT-TTF (57.5%). This highlight the

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

advantage of integrated model over individual models. Khashan et al. [25] argued that the inte-
gration of both theories is crucial, emphasizing that user preference to adopt new technologies
goes beyond mere perceptions. It also hinges on how effectively the characteristics of those
technologies align with the tasks they are intended to assist users in completing. Several studies
have found a strong association among TTF and UTAUT constructs, which may facilitate
adoption in automotive [14], banking [15], construction [27], education [47], healthcare [48],
and public sector [49] as shown in Table 1. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of empirical evidence
supporting the application of the integrated framework in the EVs domain. This points to a
theoretical gap in previous research, which can be addressed by incorporating it into the cur-
rent study to fill this void.

Hypotheses development
Task and Technology characteristics (TAC & TEC). According to Zhou et al., [46], the
term "task characteristics" (TAC) refers to essential elements of user task needs [50]. On the
other hand, Al-Rahmi et al. [17], "technology characteristics" (TEC) pertain to how technology
can be used to obtain the best alignment. Zhou et al., [46] highlighted the crucial significance
of both task and technology features in supporting the acceptance of cutting-edge technology
in the context of TTF. According to Wang et al. [51], consumers are more likely to assume that
adopting new technology can enhance their performance when they see a harmonic relation-
ship between technology capabilities and tasks. The positive effect of these elements on TTF,
which ultimately supports personal behavioural objectives, is highlighted by prior studies. For
instance, Zhou et al., [46] hypothesize that TAC and TEC have a positive effect on TTF. The
prior research has a strong foundation for the link between TAC, TEC, and TTF, as shown by
publications by Afshan and Sharif [50], Wang et al. [51], and Wang et al. [52]. The ensuing
hypotheses have been established as a result.
H1: TAC positively affects TTF.
H2: TAC positively affects TTF.

Table 1. Integration of UTAUT and TTF.

Theoretical Industry/sector Country Sampling Summary of findings References
framework type technique
UTAUT and Automotive South Korea None Both UTAUT-TTF can server an essential role in predicting [14]
TTF consumer behaviour.
Banking Lebanon and China Probability and The outcomes highlight that both UTAUT and TTF are essential [15, 46]
Non-probability theoretical framework to explain the mobile banking user adoption.
Construction China None The constructs of TTF have significant association with UTAUT [27]
variables.
Education India, China, Probability and The integration of information system theories (UTAUT-TTF) [17, 47, 52, 56,
Malaysia Non-probability promote students active learning and enable them to exchange 72, 74]
information and knowledge more efficiently.
Healthcare China, Turkey, Iran, Probability and The findings indicated that UTAUT and TTF help to understand [18, 48, 51, 53,
South Korea, Non-probability the user intention to adopt healthcare services. 57]
Pakistan
Retail USA Probability Both frameworks (UTAUT and TTF) positively explain the [58]
consumers intention to adopt technology-driven products.
Public sector Pakistan, Jordan, Probability and Both UTAUT and TTF are the stronger predictors of BI than either [49, 77, 78]
Yemen Non-probability UTAUT or TTF alone.
Services Tiawan None Both theoretical frameworks are important to adopt new and [79]
innovative technologies.
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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

Task technology fit (TTF) and behavioral intention (BI). Empirical evidence, in the
opinion of Gebauer and Ginsburg [40], supports the notion that people are reluctant to imme-
diately accept and use new technology whenever it fails to meet their demands or enhance
their performance. Individual impressions of the technology are a recurrent theme in many
theories regarding technology adoption. TTF makes it clear that people’s attitudes toward
technology are influenced by other factors as well, in addition to their technological prefer-
ences. Instead, they are being influenced by other technological perspectives, people may find
the technology useful and consent to its adoption largely because of TTF, as shown by Gu et al.
[53]. The fundamental tenet of TTF holds that people won’t adopt technology until it properly
supports their daily activities and enhances their usefulness [54]. According to Al-Rahmi et al.
[17], and Gu et al., [53], TTF has a major impact on behavioural intention (BI), which is
proved by the body of literature. The ensuing hypothesis has been proposed.
H3: TTF positively affects user behavioral intention of EVs.
H4: TTF positively affects performance expectancy (PE).
Effort expectancy (EE) & performance expectancy (PE). The term "effort expectancy"
refers to how easy a user perceives utilising technology to be [51]. Performance expectancy, on
the other hand, is the extent to which the adoption of technology is anticipated to boost users’
effectiveness in accomplishing specific tasks [51]. In the overall picture of EVs, effort expec-
tancy indicates how consumers perceive the ease with which EVs may be used for transporta-
tion. Previous scholarly debates have shown a favourable association between EE, PE, and
users’ behavioural intentions. For instance, Zhou et al., [46] argued that the acceptance of
mobile banking among users in China is positively correlated with effort expectancy, perfor-
mance expectancy, and user adoption. According to Wang et al. [51], effort expectancy affects
both performance expectancy and the propensity to utilise medical wearable technologies effi-
ciently. In a similar vein, Paulo et al. [55] concluded that, in the context of implementing
mobile augmented reality for tourism in Portugal, EE holds substantial connections with PE
and BI. Finally, Wan et al. [56] confirmed that effort expectancy shows a significant association
with both PE and BI in the uptake of online courses. In conclusion, users are more likely to
expect enhanced performance and show a stronger propensity to adopt EVs when they per-
ceive utilising them to be simple and easy. As a result, a hypothesis is put forward, relying on
prior research.
H5: PE has a positive relationship with the intention of adopting EVs.
H6: EE positively affects performance expectancy.
H7: EE has a positive relationship with BI.
Social influence (SI) and BI. According to Wang et al. [51], social influence (SI) refers to
a person’s sense of how important others support their particular behaviours. According to
Zhou et al. [46], this construct, which is comparable to subjective norms, reflects the influence
of environmental circumstances. According to Wang et al. [51], the fundamental idea behind
social influence is that people frequently attempt to strengthen their relationships with signifi-
cant others by aligning their behaviours with these others’ points of view. As evidenced in
research studies by Alazab et al., [19], Afshan & Sharif [50], and Abdekhoda et al., [57], the
body of existing literature repeatedly shows that social influence serves as a substantial prede-
cessor to technology acceptance. If their behaviours are endorsed by social groups, users are
more likely to embrace EVs. The ensuing hypothesis has been developed as a result.
H8: Social influence has a positive relationship with BI.

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

Fig 1. Research model.

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Facilitating conditions (FC) and BI. According to Wang et al., [51], facilitating condi-
tions (FC) include a person’s view of how much the organisational and technological infra-
structure promotes the use of a system. By drawing a comparison, Zhou et al. [46] claimed that
perceived behavioural control and FC are related concepts that capture the influence of a
user’s knowledge, resources, and skills. In the context of electric vehicles (EVs), FC refers to
the expertise, knowledge, and support necessary to efficiently run EVs. Previous academic
studies have convincingly shown that favourable circumstances are crucial in enhancing the
behavioural intention to adopt new technology. For instance, studies by Wang et al., [51], Park
et al., [58], and Zhao & Bacao [59] all indicated that favourable circumstances greatly increase
people’s propensity to embrace novel technologies. The ensuing theory has been stated as a
result. Additionally, Fig 1 highlights the research model.
H9: Facilitating conditions positively affect BI to accept EVs.

Research methodology
Data collection and analysis
The selection of the sample population and method are based on study objectives. The data
was collected from the central and western regions of Saudi Arabia. Elshurafa and Peerbocus
[60] affirmed that more than 60% population lives in these regions. The online questionnaire
was sent to the potential respondents through the convenience sampling method. Similar to
the past studies [51], the inclusion criteria included the adults who owned EVs and the poten-
tial users. The current study delved into the acceptance of EVs from the viewpoints of both EV

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

Table 2. Demographic statistics (N = 273).

Items Sub-items frequency Percentage
Gender Female 147 53.85%
Male 126 46.15%
Age 18–25 83 30.40%
26–35 97 35.53%
36–50 76 27.84%
51 or above 17 6.23%
Education Diploma 89 32.60%
Bachelors 152 55.68%
Postgraduate 32 11.72%
Occupation Students 111 40.66%
Employed 105 38.46%
Others 57 20.88%
Region Central 138 50.55%
Western 135 49.45%
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users and non-users. 293 of the 708 delivered surveys were returned. A total of 273 valid ques-
tionnaires were considered suitable for data analysis after incomplete responses were excluded,
yielding a response rate of 38.56%. Additionally, a pre-testing and pilot test were carried out
before the questionnaires were distributed. Table 2 provides comprehensive demographic
information for the entire group.
All participants received explicit information detailing the nature of their involvement, in
accordance with ethical guidelines. Furthermore, the written informed consent from all the poten-
tial participants have been obtained for the inclusion in the study. This included questions regard-
ing their personal information, demographics, and opinions on the use of electric cars (EVs). It
was made clear to participants that they might answer the questionnaire anonymously. Addition-
ally, their private information was handled with the strictest confidence both during and after the
survey and was only used for research. As a result, our study adhered to ethical norms and han-
dled any potential privacy-related issues without going beyond acceptable ethical bounds.

Measurement
The eight variables that make up the study framework are all measured using a variety of
items. According to Zhou et al., [46], the majority of these elements were extracted from earlier
academic works to guarantee the conservation of content validity. Technology Characteristics
(TEC) and Task Characteristics (TAC), each evaluated by four items, make up the components
of Task-technology fit (TTF). These ideas were taken from Kang et al., [18] and Zhou et al.,
[46], respectively. PE, SI, FC, and EE are the four components of the UTAUT theory. These
UTAUT variables’ corresponding items were modified from Abdekhoda et al., (2022). Lastly,
four items adapted from Zhang et al., [4] were used to examine behavioural intention. As indi-
cated by Paulo et al. [55], a 7-point Likert scale was used, with response alternatives that ranged
from "1" (strongly disagree) to "7" (strongly agree) [61].

Analysis
Assessing multivariate assumptions and CMB
Before performing the data analysis, multivariate assumptions were performed to confirm the
dataset’s quality. Hair et al., [62] recommended that in multivariate technique, the dataset

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

must satisfy the statistical assumptions like outlier, multicollinearity, and normality. To ana-
lyze the outlier, Mahalanobis D2 was used to detect multivariate outliers. The threshold value
of D2 is higher than 4 [63]. In terms of multicollinearity, full collinearity analysis was per-
formed as recommended by Hair et al. [64]. The study results highlight that all constructs’ val-
ues are less than 5 [65]. Finally, the normality analysis was performed through skewness and
kurtosis, all the values fall between ±2 [66].
Moreover, common method bias (CMB) can potentially affect research findings in behav-
ioral sciences. As recommended by Podsakoff et al., [67], a Harman Single-factor test was per-
formed to analyze CMB and if a single factor variance is less than 50% then CMB is not an
issue. The results depicted that a single factor could explain the maximum variance was
approximately 24%. Thus, CMB is not an issue in this study.

Structural equation modeling (SEM)

In accordance with Hair et al., [65], the “partial least square structural equation modeling”
(PLS-SEM) approach was adopted through SmartPLS. PLS-SEM provides consistent and com-
prehensive explanations of actual phenomena and this technique is excellent to other tech-
niques like regression analysis [64, 65]. The analytical process of PLS-SEM consists of
measurement and structural models.
Measurement model. The measurement model describes the constructs’ reliability and
validity statistics. In terms of validity, both convergent and discriminant validities were
reported in the following sections. Additionally, the factor loading and variance inflated factor
(VIF) results were reported.
Reliability and convergent validity. Table 3 exhibits the results for convergent validity and
reliability for an array of constructs along with the corresponding items. Two indicators, com-
posite reliability (CR) and rho_A were used in the reliability assessment process. The recom-
mended criterion for CR and rho_A was set at 0.70, indicating satisfactory reliability, in
accordance with the recommendations given by Hair et al. [64]. However, it’s important to
remember that CR values between 0.60 and 0.70 are also regarded as acceptable, as suggested
by Hair et al. [65].
In the PLS-SEM literature, average variance extracted (AVE) and item loading were the pri-
mary indicators to measure convergent validity [62]. The threshold value of items
loading � 0.708 was considered excellent [65]. However, if item loading falls between 0.4 to
0.7 and the value of AVE is �0.5 then the construct should be retained [64, 65]. Moreover, the
threshold value of AVE is �0.5. Based on the Table 3 results, all the constructs and their corre-
sponding items have achieved the minimum threshold limits.
Discriminant validity. Cross-loading, Fornell-Larker, and the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio
of correlation (HTMT) are the three methods that are frequently used to evaluate discriminant
validity in the body of extant literature. Notably, new findings from Henseler et al. [68] suggest
that determining discriminant validity in the setting of PLS-SEM may not be best addressed by
cross-loading and Fornell-Larker. As a result, the HTMT criterion was chosen as the preferred
strategy in the present study [69, 70]. The stipulated criterion for HTMT values is below 0.85
for different structures and lower than 0.90 for similar constructs, consistent with the recom-
mendations of Hair et al. [65]. The discriminant validity findings for each study variable are
summarised in Table 4. It is noteworthy that the HTMT values for all research variables con-
tinue to be below the cutoff point of 0.85.
Structural model. In the path estimation approach, the bootstrapping technique with the
5000 resampling method and one-tailed were adopted to estimate the statistical significance
between the study variables (p<0.05 & 0.10). Table 5 highlights the structural model statistics.

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Table 3. Reliability and validity statistics.

Variables Items Factor loading VIF Reliability AVE
CR rho_A
TAC TAC1 0.760 1.683 0.836 0.731 0.562
TAC2 0.814 1.993
TAC3 0.780 1.848
TAC4 0.634 1.090
TEC TEC1 0.714 1.666 0.844 0.764 0.576
TEC2 0.737 1.708
TEC3 0.817 1.812
TEC4 0.764 1.693
EE EE1‘ 0.838 2.053 0.875 0.809 0.639
EE2‘ 0.843 2.057
EE3‘ 0.833 1.997
EE4‘ 0.668 1.245
SI SI1 0.723 1.628 0.839 0.748 0.567
SI2 0.754 1.685
SI3 0.742 1.728
SI4 0.791 1.808
FC FC1 0.685 1.223 0.864 0.786 0.615
FC2 0.813 1.851
FC3 0.807 1.848
FC4 0.823 1.870
TTF TTF1 0.662 1.200 0.871 0.798 0.630
TTF2 0.833 2.067
TTF3 0.820 1.943
TTF4 0.846 2.194
PE PE1 0.830 1.859 0.893 0.842 0.676
PE2 0.828 1.844
PE3 0.805 1.793
PE4 0.825 1.878
BI BI1 0.865 1.030 0.708 0.856 0.593
BI2 0.681 1.669
BI3 0.791 1.708
BI4 0.786 1.721
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As expected, the association among task-technology-framework were positive and significant

such as TAC!TTF (H1: β = 0.256, t-value = 6.198, p<0.001), and TEC!TTF (H2: β = 0.532,
t-value = 13.812, p<0.001). Thus, H1 and H2 have been accepted. Contrary to expectations,
the association of TTF!BI (H3: β = 0.086, t-value = 1.066, p = 0.146) was not statistically sig-
nificant. Thus, H3 has not been supported. On the other hand, the association of TTF!PE
(H4: β = 0.533, t-value = 13.275, p<0.001) was statistically and positively significant. Hence,
H4 has been accepted. In term of UTAUT relationships, the association of EE!PE (H5: β =
0.328, t-value = 6.978, p<0.001) and EE!BI (H6: β = 0.150, t-value = 2.309, p<0.001) were
statistically significant. Thus, H5 and H6 were supported. Unexpectedly, the association of
SI!BI (H7: β = 0.079, t-value = 1.186, p = 0.121) was statistically insignificant. Hence, H7 has
not been accepted. Furthermore, the relationship of FC!BI (H2: β = 0.113, t-value = 1.777,
p = 0.041) was supported at a 90% confidence interval level. Thus, H8 has been accepted.

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Table 4. Discriminant validity.

Variables TAC (1) TEC(2) EE (3) SI (4) FC (5) TTF (6) PE (7) BI(8)
TAC (1)
TEC(2) 0.726
EE (3) 0.683 0.684
SI (4) 0.790 0.782 0.844
FC (5) 0.709 0.745 0.675 0.659
TTF (6) 0.702 0.661 0.762 0.574 0.758
PE (7) 0.799 0.794 0.792 0.761 0.574 0.791
BI(8) 0.430 0.494 0.459 0.538 0.470 0.476 0.558
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Finally, the association of PE!BI (H9: β = 0.336, t-value = 3.589, p<0.001) was positive and
significant. Thus, H9 has been accepted.
Apart from the direct relationship, Table 5 indicates the indirect relationships. Based on the
analysis, EE!PE!BI (β = 0.11, t-value = 3.273, p<0.001), TEC!TTF!PE!BI (β = 0.095, t-
value = 3.448, p<0.001), and TAC!TTF!PE!BI (β = 0.046, t-value = 2.573, p<0.001) were
positive and significant.
Moreover, Table 5 shows the effect size (f2). As recommended by Cohen (1988) the value of
f2 above 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 can be considered weak, moderate, and strong respectively (Hair
et al., 2019). Based on the analysis, H1, H6, and H9 have a weak effect size, H5 has a moderate
and H2 and H4 have a strong effect size.
Additionally, R2 facilitates the extent of the model’s ability to explain a particular dependent
variable. According to Cohen [71], R2 values of 0.02, 0.13, and 0.26, respectively, signify low,
moderate, and large explanatory power. The results of the analysis show that TTF (0.504), PE
(0.605), and BI (0.447) have significant coefficients of determination, which indicates large
explanatory power as shown Table 6. Finally, Fig 2 highlights the structural model of this
research.

Discussion
The main goal of this study was to combine TTF and UTAUT frameworks to examine a theo-
retical model for the acceptance of EVs. When the integrated model was utilised, it explained

Table 5. Path model analysis.

Relationships β-value t-value p-value f2 Decision
H1; TAC!TTF 0.256 6.198 0.001 0.089 Accepted
H2; TEC!TTF 0.532 13.812 0.001 0.386 Accepted
H3; TTF!BI 0.086 1.066 0.146 0.005 Not accepted
H4; TTF!PE 0.533 13.275 0.001 0.448 Accepted
H5; EE!PE 0.328 6.978 0.001 0.170 Accepted
H6; EE!BI 0.150 2.309 0.013 0.020 Accepted
H7; SI!BI 0.079 1.186 0.121 0.004 Not accepted
H8; FC!BI 0.113* 1.777 0.041 0.01 Accepted
H9; PE!BI 0.336 3.589 0.001 0.057 Accepted
Indirect effect
TAC ! TTF ! PE ! BI 0.046 2.573 0.007 Accepted
TEC ! TTF ! PE ! BI 0.095 3.448 0.001 Accepted
EE ! PE ! BI 0.110 3.273 0.001 Accepted
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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

Table 6. R2 and Q2 analysis.

Constructs R2 Q2
TTF 0.504 0.298
PE 0.605 0.479
BI 0.447 0.123
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44.7% of the variation in BI to use EVs reported in Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, it was apparent
from empirical examination that seven of the nine hypotheses proposed in this study were
confirmed. The following explanation is offered for a more thorough understanding in line
with the study’s goals.
Assessing the value of the Task-technology fit (TTF) framework in revealing consumers’
behavioural intentions to embrace EVs was the main goal of the initial study. Three hypotheses
(H1–H3) were developed to accomplish this goal. The empirical results support the crucial
roles that task and technological variables have in the TTF framework. These findings are in
perfect conformity with earlier research from academic publications [47, 48, 51, 56, 72]. Liu
et al. [73] contended that TTF is an essential predictors of BI. In the EV context, Cruz-Jesus
et al. [41]) argued that TTF is an important predictor of intention then in internal combustion
vehicles. The possible explanation of this is due to range of anxiety, which causes drivers to be

Fig 2. Structural model.

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

more cautious while using in-car amenities to conserve battery charge, which is intensified by
the insufficiency of public infrastructure [41]. By taking into account EV manufacturers’ stra-
tegic strategy, these results can be explained. Manufacturers must carefully evaluate the com-
patibility between consumers’ work needs and the functions provided by EVs while marketing
their EV models. For those who must travel frequently, as opposed to those who spend their
time largely in offices, EVs may be a better option. While the latter could incline more towards
conventional vehicles, the former group may find EVs to be a practical and appropriate option.
Surprisingly, Wan et al. (2020) found no evidence to support the hypothesized relationship
between TTF and behaviour. This might be explained by the fundamentally technological
characteristics of EVs, which emerge in two essential dimensions. Customers can first custom-
ise vehicle features, such as style and colour, to suit their tastes. Second, there are many differ-
ent functions that EVs can perform. H1 and H2 are supported by these arguments, while H3 is
rejected.
The UTAUT theory significantly increases user BI to embrace EVs, which is the second
objective. To achieve this goal, five hypotheses (H5-H9) were developed. The empirical results
show that, with the exception of social impact, all hypotheses between UTAUT factors and BI
were marked by positive and statistically significant associations. The results support an earlier
study [27, 53, 56, 57, 74] about the relationship between effort expectation (EE) and perfor-
mance expectation (PE). Furthermore, the results are consistent with earlier research [25, 49,
59, 75] about the relationship between effort expectation (EE) and performance expectation
(PE). Tian and Yang (2023) argued that performance expectancy has the most significant asso-
ciation with BI. The empirical findings show that Social Influence (SI) does not demonstrate a
clear association with BI in the context of adopting EVs, in contrast to past studies. This result
conflicts with the claims made by Wang et al. [51], but it is in line with the findings of Alazab
et al. [19]. The adoption of existing EVs by consumers may not be strongly influenced by their
consideration of other users’ experiences, which is a reasonable explanation for this incongru-
ity. Additionally, the participants might have more experience with and knowledge of technol-
ogy, which would reduce their dependency on social networks. Last but not least, a favourable
and statistically significant association between Facilitating Conditions (FC) and BI is found, a
finding that is consistent with past academic research [50, 57].
The third objective emphasises that combining the TTF and UTAUT models provides a
better understanding of how users would adopt electric vehicles (EVs). The influence of TTF
on PE is where this integration is most visibly present. The empirical results show a significant
and favourable connection between these constructs. These findings are consistent with previ-
ous research that has underlined the importance of technological and performance-related
variables when it comes to integrating new technology [14, 23, 72, 73, 76]. Wan et al. [56]
assert that an improved impression of the utility of EVs correlates with a higher degree of tech-
nological fit. Sediyaningsih et al., [23] argued that the integration of TTF and UTAUT theory
have well-explained the BI to use metaverse. The combined use of TTF and UTAUT produces
a thorough and effective model for identifying the elements that influence the adoption of new
technology [27, 48, 57].

Contributions and implications

Theoretical contributions. The research’s findings offer significant new contributions
and ramifications. First, this study emphasises the critical need to broaden our understanding
of electric vehicles (EVs), which has primarily relied on a single theoretical framework, in
response to a call in the literature [4, 38]. The TTF and UTAUT frameworks are combined in
this research to offer a fresh viewpoint that enhances the debate on electric vehicles. Through a

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

methodical empirical approach, this work also aims to enhance the field of technological accep-
tance models. The validated model also reveals crucial associations with strong coefficients. Sec-
ond, in addressing the identified literature gap, this research contributes by examining the
specific challenges and opportunities in the Middle east region, especially in Saudia Arabia
related to EV adoption. This study offers nuanced insights and proposes targeted interventions
to foster a more inclusive and sustainable transition to EVs in this unique and dynamic environ-
ment. Finally, this empirical research makes a significant contribution by addressing the identi-
fied theoretical gap in EV adoption literature. By applying an integrated framework of UTAUT
and TTF, the study offers empirical evidence to fill the existing void in research in the context of
EV adoption. This contribution serves to enrich and validate the theoretical landscape, provid-
ing valuable insights for future research and practical applications in the EV domain.
Practical implications. Apart from theoretical contributions the research outcomes have
threefold practical implications. First, at organization level the EV industry should prioritize
initiatives that enhance TTF by optimizing in-car facilities, addressing rage of anxiety con-
cerns, and improving the overall user experience. By doing so, they can positively influence
consumer BI, and emphasizing the need for a strategic alignment between technology and
user preferences. Second, manager and decision-makers should recognize the significance of
UTAUT theory in shaping the customer BI to adopt EV. Strategies should be devised to align
marketing and educational efforts with the key determinants identified in the UTAUT model,
thereby fostering a favourable environment. Finally, acknowledging the value of combining
TTF and UTAUT, organizations and policymakers should adopt an integrated approach in
understanding customer intentions towards EVs. This involves the interplay between technical
aspects of EV technology (TTF) and broader socio-psychological factors outlined in UTAUT.
By implementing policies and strategies that considered both these dimensions can lead to a
more holistic understanding of consumer behaviour, facilitating effective decision-making in
the EV industry.
Limitations and future directions. While the study’s limitations suggest captivating
directions for further research, it does provide new insights into the world of transportation.
Firstly, the TTF and (UTAUT) frameworks serve as the main pillars of the current study.
Future research could include alternative theories like the perceived value theory and the suc-
cess framework for information systems to expand the breadth of our knowledge. Second, a
cross-sectional technique for data collection was used in this study. Because user behaviour
displays dynamic and changing patterns, future studies could benefit from longitudinal study
approaches. A more sophisticated comprehension of how users’ adoption behaviours change
over time would be provided by such a method. Thirdly, the sample size was impacted by
restrictions brought on by the current study’s resource limits. A suggested approach would
involve repeating a similar framework with a larger and more varied sample size to increase
the study’s robustness. Fourthly, although moderating variables including context (e.g., age,
gender), technology trust, and other aspects were not fully examined, the research conclusions
are limited. Future research could explore a thorough approach that takes these moderating
factors into account. The study’s scope is also limited to Saudi Arabia, where EV adoption is
still in its infancy. Future research might think about conducting a comparison study that
compares early-stage and advanced-stage EV adoption to broaden the study’s focus and pro-
vide cross-context insights.
Conclusion. In conclusion, the study successfully integrated the TTF and UTAUT frame-
work to comprehensively examine the adoption of EV. The integrated model explained 44.7%
of the variation to BI to adopt EV in Saudi Arabia, confirming seven out of nine hypotheses.
The findings underscore the critical role of TTF, the significant impact of UTAUT factors on
BI, and the enhanced understanding achieved through combining both models. The study

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PLOS ONE Integrated TTF-UTAUT in EV

insights have practical implications for EV manufacturers and policy makers, emphasizing the
need for strategic alignment with user preferences and a holistic approach to technology
adoption.

Supporting information
S1 File. Past studies on TTF and UTAUT relationship. This file highlights the past literature
studies on TTF and UTAUT relationship.
(DOCX)

Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Ayed Alwadain, Kashif Ali.
Data curation: Kashif Ali.
Formal analysis: Suliman Mohamed Fati, Kashif Ali.
Funding acquisition: Ayed Alwadain, Suliman Mohamed Fati.
Investigation: Kashif Ali.
Methodology: Ayed Alwadain, Suliman Mohamed Fati, Kashif Ali, Rao Faizan Ali.
Project administration: Ayed Alwadain, Suliman Mohamed Fati.
Resources: Suliman Mohamed Fati, Rao Faizan Ali.
Software: Ayed Alwadain, Rao Faizan Ali.
Supervision: Ayed Alwadain, Suliman Mohamed Fati.
Validation: Ayed Alwadain, Suliman Mohamed Fati, Rao Faizan Ali.
Visualization: Rao Faizan Ali.
Writing – original draft: Ayed Alwadain, Kashif Ali.
Writing – review & editing: Suliman Mohamed Fati, Rao Faizan Ali.

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