2.1.

Gas Transportation
Pipeline Design
Phases in pipeline design Key Piping Codes and Standards
1) Conceptual engineering stage: ASME B31 codes, such as:
• Establish technical feasibility and constraints on the system design and − ASME B31.1 - Power Piping
construction;
• Eliminate nonviable options;
− ASME B31.2 - Fuel Gas Piping
• Identify the required information for the forthcoming design and construction; − ASME B31.3 - Process Piping
• Allow basic cost and scheduling exercises to be performed − ASME B31.4 - Liquid Piping
• Identify interfaces with other systems planned or currently in existence. − ASME B31.8 - Gas Distribution and Transportation
2) Preliminary design stage • Each Code provides the typical loading conditions to be considered;
• Verifying the sizing of the pipeline; (allowable stresses; minimum wall thickness calculations; and minimum
• Determining the pipeline grade and wall thickness; fabrication, inspection and testing requirements)
• Verifying the pipeline’s design and code requirements for installation, • There are similarities in each Code, but the exact rules are different.
commissioning, and operation;
• Codes contain some rules and minimum standards, and provide
• Prepare authority applications.
guidance and items to consider.
3) Detail engineering • Once a Code is selected for a particular piping system, only that
The design is developed in sufficient detail that technical input for all code should be applied.
procurement and construction tendering can be defined. • Almost no method adequately provides rules for all possible loading
• Optimize the route; conditions, piping configurations and applications.
• Select the wall thickness and coating; • Good engineering judgment is needed.
• Confirm code requirements; • “It is the responsibility of engineers to apply these functional
• Perform additional design as defined in the preliminary engineering stage; requirements, supplemented with other proven good practice to
• Development of the design and drawings in sufficient detail; the particular circumstances of each gas supply system.”
• Prepare detailed alignment sheets based on the most recent survey data;
• Prepare a list of materials with quantities and specifications for procurement;
• Prepare design data and other information required for the certification
authorities.
 Pipeline Design consideration Types available:
• Steel
o Most widely use in process industry
o High pressures and temperatures and, similarly, in sub-zero
temperatures and vacuum services
o Types
❖ Low carbon steel - steel low in carbon (0.3% or less),
sulfur, and phosphorus
❖ Low alloy steel - addition of molybdenum, chromium,
nickel and etc.
Materials
Consideration: ❖ High alloy steel - contain 5% or more of alloying metals
• Not the best but the most optimal choice ❖ Chromium steel - alloys containing 12 - 17% chromium
• Key technical consideration: strength, ductility, toughness, • Stainless Steel (use in challenging condition)
and corrosion resistance. o low carbon steel with chromium at 10% and other alloying
• Key nontechnical consideration: price, availability, elements like nickel, vanadium, columbium, etc
complexity
o (+) good corrosion resistance, excellent fire and heat resistance
Selection Process
o Operating temperatures : –200°C to 982°C
• Eliminate pipe that:
- Not allowed by code/standard
o (-) higher cost than steel & high coefficient of expansion
- Not chemically compatible with the fluid (impractical for certain applications)
- Do not meet system operating condition rated • Cast iron
pressure or temperature Use in sewer lines and water mains. Drawback: brittleness
- Not compatible with environment condition • Polyethylene (PE)
• Evaluation of nontechnical consideration Corrosion resistant but only can be use underground dur to UV
• Highest rank material selected exposure, lower strength compared to steel
• Design proceeds with technical calculation
 Specification consideration:
• Conveyed fluid properties (eg. density, viscosity) and
temperature
• Design Pressure
• Design Temperature
Weldability: the ease with which metals can be fused
• Incidental pressure without producing defects in the finished product
* Low carbon steel commonly use for gas (<0.29%)
Mechanical Property
Pressure – Temperature Relationship Yield Strength – Limiting value at this transition from
The hotter the fluid, the lower the pressure it can hold and elastic to plastic occurs
therefore higher should be the pressure rating Ultimate Tensile Strength – Limit to which any further
Should comply with standard such as PI 5L, ASTM A 106, BS EN addition of load under constant strain
10208, BS EN 10216, BS EN 10217 will lead to failure
Effect of Alloying Ductility – Elongation of specimen and its reduction in
cross sectional area before failure
Carbon – More strength and hardness but less ductility and toughness
Hardness – Ability to resist deformation
Manganese – Improve hot working characteristics by increase hardening when
Toughness – Ability to resist sudden and brittle
combined with sulfur
fracture due to rapid applications of loads
Nickel – Improve hardenability by increasing strength and toughness. Combine
with chromium, improve impact and fatigue resistance and improve Sizing of Pipeline
low temp properties Fluid flow design (determine minimum acceptable
Chromium – Hardening element & improves material strength at higher temp. diameter to transfer fluid efficiently)
Improve oxidation and corrosion resistance Ideal Gas Equation
Carbon Equivalent Value (evaluation of the weldability of the material) PV = nRT
Real Gas Equation
PV = ZnRT Z = gas compressibility factor
Equations and when to use it Pressure integrity design - determines the minimum pipe wall
thickness necessary to safely handle the expected internal and
Weymouth Panhandle A Panhandle B external pressure and loads
Diameter <= 15 inch 12-60 inches >36 inches
Length <20 miles Long Long Pipes split longitudinally
Pressure 100-1000 psia 800-1500 psia >1000 psia Hoop stress in the wall is twice that of
Longitudinal stress in the wall

Weymouth r : Radius of pipe

Longitudinal stress: σe = Pr / 2t t : Thickness of wall
Hoops stress : σh = Pr / t P : Pressure inside pipe
Maximum tensile/hoop stress allowed in pipe

Panhandle
Design Formula for Steel Pipe (ASME B31.8) Fatigue
P = (2St/D) x F x E x T • Progressive and localised structural damage that occurs when a
material is subjected to cyclic loading
P: Design Pressure F: Design Factor
S: Yield Strength (or SMYS) E: Longitudinal Joint Factor • Static Failure: Deformation, yield before failure (at yield strength)
t: Nominal Wall Thickness T: Temperature De-rating Factor • Fatigue Failure: sudden, no deformation, below yield strength
D: Nominal Outside Diameter (difficult to predict)
Design Factor “F” : dependent upon the location class unit Constant daily pressure cycling
S3N = 2.93 x 1010 S: constant amplitude stress range (N/mm2)
N: number of cycle
Size of Pipes
DN (Diameter Nominal) – dimensionless specification only
indirectly related to diameter
Location Class 1 = 10 or fewer buildings in 1.6km pipe section
Location Class 2 = 11 - 46 buildings in 1.6km pipe section
NPS (Nominal pipe size) – American standard size for pipes
Location Class 3 = 47 or more buildings in 1.6km pipe section *DN = NPS*25
Location Class 4 = multi-storey buildings, heavy traffic, many OD: Outside diameter
underground utilities
Temperature Derating Factor, T

Longitudinal Joint Factor, E: Depend on welding (can be seen in ppt)

Proximity to Properties
Depends on size, material , pressure of pipe, there are minimum
distance to the building (can be seen in ppt)
 Valve Design (ASME B16.34)
Valve (API 6D specification) - Find the Minimum wall thickness based on inside diameter (See) ppt
- Find working pressure (bar) based on temperature for specific material
Gate Valve Plug Valve
Selection of Valve
• Characteristics of the process fluid • Maintenance requirements
• Frequency of operation • Environmental considerations
• Isolation requirements
Required Spacing of Valves
To determine number and spacing of valves, it requires:
• Amount of gas released due to repair and maintenance
Ball Valve Check Valve • The time to blow down an isolated section
• The impact in the area of gas release
• Continuity of service
• Operating and maintenance flexibility of the System
• Future development in the vicinity of the pipeline
• Significant conditions that may adversely affect the
• Operation and security of the line
Ordering Valves (what to check)
• Chemical composition of carbon steel pressure-containing parts
• Pressure class
• Valve size
• face-to-face / end-to-end dimensions of valves
• Valve ends: Flanged ends or Welding ends (shall specify the outside
diameter, wall thickness, material grade, SMYS of the mating pipe)
• Cavity-pressure relief
• Drain and vent
• Toughness test requirements
• Coating
 Gas Network Analysis
Fittings
• To determine the amount of gas, flow rate of the gas and the pressure
Type of fitting:
used in a pipeline system
– bends and elbows;
• Understand usage of gas during peak hour
– tees;
• Measure time of maintenance and failure of pipe
– reducers;
• Transient analysis -> effect of time over the operational behavior
– caps;
*understand customer behavior for the network analysis
– branch connections
Fittings are needed when: Linepack (volume of gas that can be "stored" in a gas pipeline, that can be
• change in direction used while ensuring continuity of supply)
• change in size • 'stored' in the pipeline by compressing it
• make branches • the volume of gas injected into a pipeline (at the inlet), can be greater
• end cap the line than the volume of gas withdrawn from the pipeline (at the outlet)
• additional gas volume that can be stored in a pipeline depends on the
Gas Demand pressure rating of pipeline
Factors affecting short term gas demand: Routing
• temperature • days around holidays • shortest route need not to be the most suitable.
• wind • Economic growth • physical survey shall be made
• day of the week • Shifts in industrial structure • ascertain impact of pipeline on environmentally sensitive area
• weekend • Energy prices • Ground condition
Consumption variation case for analysis Loading Conditions (designed so that it can withstand the effects of the
• Hourly consumption variation (human behavior predictable forces)
• internal pressure; • buoyancy;
throughout the day)
• backfilling of the pipeline; • environmental loads such as
• Seasonal consumption change (winter -> gas
• road traffic; flooding, ice, snow, wind;
demand grow for heater)
• weight loading imposed during • settlement;
• Abnormal consumption change (weather changes,
hydrostatic testing; • seismic risk
abrupt demand changes)
• the attachment of branch connections;
Loads on Pipe - Sx : stress due to external loads, such as soil or traffic loads
• Pipeline sections shall be supported, anchored or buried so the
pipeline section will not move with respect to its installed position,
except for permitted displacement due to pressure loads, thermal
loads and displacements expected after installation - Sb :stress due to the weight of the pipe and its contents
• Comprehensive design is needed Where a section of the pipeline Straight pipe or large radius bend
passes through areas which can impose significant external loads
Design pressure for pipes
Fittings

Ps: surcharge pressure due to

vehicle loadings

Design for Longitudinal Stress

SL = Sp + St + Sx + Sb
- Sp : stress due to internal pressure
SH = hoop stress Supports and Anchorage for Piping
- St :stress due to thermal expansion • Piping and equipment shall be supported to prevent or
reduce excessive vibration
• Should not interfere with free expansion and contraction
• Bend in buried pipe cause longitudinal force that need to
be resist by anchorage

Coeff steel =1.17 x 10^(-5)

ASME B31.8 requires for supports and anchorage: Pressure Regulating Station (Production plant -> pressure
• If pipe operate at a hoop stress <50% of the specified regulating station -> last pressure regulating before metering)
minimum yield strength, supports may be welded directly to
the pipe. Pressure Regulating Station
• If >50% of the specified minimum yield strength, supports Consist of:
shall be welded to a member that fully encircles the pipe. • Insulating joint (separated different material pipeline & isolate
exterior force current such as electrical & earth current)
Purpose of pipe support • Inlet emergency shut down (ESD) valve • Pressure regulators
• Gas heaters or heat exchanger • Silencers
• to support weight of pipe-during operation & testing • Filter separators • Meters
• to take the ‘thermal or expansion load’ • Valves • Pressure Gauge
• to take the ‘occasional earth quake load’ • Slam shut valve • Pressure transmitter
• to take ‘hydraulic thrust in piping’ • Relief valves • Temperature transmitter
• to absorb ‘vibration of piping system’
• to take the ‘occasional wind load’ Pressure Regulating Station Design
• Monitor regulator shall be positioned upstream of the active regulator
• to support the system during ‘maintenance conditions’
• Pipework at station shall be suitable to withstand the maximum and
Computational Analysis of pipe network minimum pressure and temperatures
- Higher pipe temperature and/or large temperature differences • Expansion of pipe due to temperature and pressure should be consider
in relation to special pipe configurations; • The pipeline should be anchored so rise in temperature and pressure
– Any circumstances that can lead to excessive construction do not cause excessive stress
settlement ifferences as a result of the construction techniques • Above ground section shall be protected from corrosion
employed; • All components shall be factory coated before deliver to sites
– Above ground pipeline sections locally supported. • Coating should bond strongly with steel surface
• Paint need to be maintain as exposure to atmosphere, heat and
Analysis of loads, displacements, stress and strains sunlight may cause flake off
• Lining on pipeline can be physically damaged, crack & delaminate
• Overpressure protection (monitor, overpressure shutoff valve)
• Isolation valve need to be installed at inlet and outlet of each stream or Metering
other part that may need isolation for maintenance Components
• Regulators and control valves need to be installed to prevent freezing • Vortex flowmeters
• Differential Pressure (∆P)
• Gas velocities in piping should not exceed 30 m/s at peak conditions • Rotameter (variable area)
– Orifice plates
• Extraction system in upstream inlet needed if there is dust or liquid in • Ultrasonic meter
– Venturi tubes
upstream gas • Coriolis meter
• Turbine meter
• Filtration system (max&min inlet pressure, • Thermal mass flow meter
• Positive displacement
IGEM/TD/13- Design standard – Diaphragm meter
• Welded joints should be used in preference to flanges or screwed – Rotary meter
connections to eliminate potential leakage sources. Explosive Atmospheres
• Above ground main pipework and fittings shall be fire resistant • Dangerous quantities and concentrations of flammable gas
material such as steel. • IEC 60079 specifies the requirements for construction,
• Pipework shall be designed to allow the removal and replacement of testing and marking of electrical equipment and Ex
equipment components intended for use in explosive atmospheres
• Pipe shall be seamless or longitudinally welded. Measures in explosive atmosphere
• Fittings material should be compatible with selected pipe and have 1. Avoiding of the formation of an explosive atmosphere
appropriate strength for the proposed test pressure. • Avoid flammable substance
• Welds shall not be closer to each other than 150 mm or one pipe • Deactivation (add nitrogen or CO2)
diameter, whichever is the smaller. • Limit the concentration through ventilation
2. Prevention of the ignition of an explosive atmosphere
• Zoning
• Apparatus used need to meet regulations
3. Limiting of the results of an explosion to a harmless level
 Type of Protection
• IEC 60079-1: Gas – Flameproof enclosures "d";
• IEC 60079-2: Gas – Pressurized enclosures "p";
• IEC 60079-5: Gas – Powder filling "q";
• IEC 60079-6: Gas – Oil immersion "o";
• IEC 60079-7: Gas – Increased safety "e";
• IEC 60079-11: Gas – Intrinsic safety "i";
• IEC 60079-15: Gas – Type of protection “n”;
• IEC 60079-18: Gas and Dust – Encapsulation "m";
• IEC 61241-1: Dust – Protection by enclosures “tD”;
• IEC 61241-2 (IEC 61241-4): Dust – Pressurization “pD”;
• IEC 61241-11: Dust – Intrinsic safety “iD”.
Zoning Equipment Groups

Temperature Class
Most common values used are: Highest temperature of an electrical device can reached to prevent ignition
• Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for > 1000 h/yr
• Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for > 10 h/yr, but <1 000 h/yr
• Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for < 10h/yr
Selection of Station Location 2. Operating and Maintenance cost
Avoid: >> To work out the economic pipe size of Sytem
a) Proximity to residential properties or areas that may be
subject to residential development; Regulations @Hong Kong : Gas Safety Ordinance (Cap. 51)
b) Proximity to tall buildings that may cause problems with Internal Cleaning and Gaging Operation
gas dispersal;
• The pipeline section shall be cleaned with a pig or foam
c) Vulnerable sites where traffic accidents, etc, could result
pig :"A device that moves through the inside of a pipeline for the
in damage to the station.
purpose of cleaning, separating, dimensioning, or inspecting.“
Shall be designed such that:
• To clean the pipe and check for ovality, a pig with an attached
1) the station or parts of the station can be taken out of service by
gaging plate shall be run several times
operating a number of valves;
• pig travel speed shall be controlled and monitored on a
2) efficient long-term operation under all weather conditions;
pressure gauge
3) the station suffers no adverse effects due to subsidence,
settlement, corrosion or any other cause; Pig a Pipeline
4) Maintenance can be carried out without interrupting the gas flow Three categories: conventional pig for onstream, geometry pigs for
5) unauthorized operation of components is prevented. inspection and in line inspection tools for corrosion
6) minimum spacing between components to facilitate maintenance
and firefighting. Conventional pigs type:
7) station shall be fenced to prevent unauthorized entry. • Cleaning pigs (remove accumulated solid sand debris in pipe
8) provisions to facilitate the evacuation of personnel from the wall- brushes can be added)
station in case of emergency. • Sealing/displacement pigs –to remove or displace liquid
Costs in Gas Transmission System • Batching pigs- separate dissimilar fluids
1. Capital cost: • Gauging pigs: used after constructing the pipeline to determine
• Pipeline • SCADA and telecommunication any obstructions in the pipeline
• Valve station • Permits
• Stations (compressor/ • Right of way acquisitions
metering/pressure regulating) • Engineering and construction management
 3. Testing
Testing
• Pressure Pump - pressure rating of the pump must be higher than
• Test to ensure the pipe can withstand maximum
the anticipated maximum test pressure.
operating pressure (MOP)
• Test Heads, Piping, and Valves - design pressure of the test heads
• Pressure tests shall prove the strength and tightness
and piping and the rated pressure of hoses and valves in the test
of pipeline
manifold shall be no less than the anticipated test pressure.
• ASME B31.8 841.321: pipelines that operates at >30%
• Obtains test pressure after consulting the project engineer
yield strength, the pipe should be tested for
• Completes pressure test plan and submits for approval
minimum of 2 hrs to test the strength
• Ensures the pressure gauges used have been properly calibrated
• Removes all persons not directly involved with the test from the
Hydrostatic Test immediate test area
• Purpose: to eliminate any defect that might threaten its • Installs the calibrated pressure gauge so it is visible at all times
ability to sustain its maximum operating pressure or to show • Installs temperature recorder
that none exists • Install a calibrated flow meter in the fill line to record the fill rate and
• Consist of : raise the pressure level above operating volumeentering test section
pressure to see whether or not any defects with failure • Fills and vents system as necessary to remove as much air as practical
pressures above the operating pressure exist • Pressurizes the system, raising the pressure in the system gradually
until the designated test pressure is achieved
• Steps to do hydrostatic test: • Maintains this test pressure for 10 minutes before inspection. Then, if
1. Planning test is above maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP), reduces to
- Safety precautions MAWP while making a full thorough inspection for leaks
- Water source and disposal • When the test is completed, vents the test pressure to atmosphere
- Ambient conditions
- Selection of test sections
2. Filling
continuous to minimize the amount of air in the lin
Pneumatic Test -Leakage

• The tightness test should be carried out to confirm that there is no significant leakage at a tightness test pressure of at least Maximum
operating pressure.
• Test medium shall be air or nitrogen.
• During a tightness test, the rate of pressure change is used to check that there are no leaks.
• While the test pressure will drop due to a leak, it can also change with temperature which can lead to misinterpretation, suggesting
phantom leaks or masking real leaks. The effect of any change in temperature should be taken into account.
• During pneumatic test, all joints shall be examined with a bubble- producing solution specifically compounded for leak detection.
Pipeline drying
• Pigging equipment to run through the pipeline to dewater it.
• Three methods of drying the pipeline are:
• Hot Air Drying – water absorbs heat energy and thus speeds evaporation.
• Nitrogen Purge Drying - nitrogen is very dry and therefore have a high capacity for water adsorption
• Vacuum Drying - evaporation of water intensifies and boiling point of water drops with decreasing atmospheric pressure.
• Methanol swabbing - Methanol will normally be used to dewater pipelines to prevent hydrate formation. During pipeline conditioning,
methanol slugs will be pigged through the system to apply a combined methanol/hydrotest water film on all internal surfaces.

By reducing the pressure down to the saturated vapor pressure for the
ambient temperature, the water is caused to boil and remove it from
the pipeline as a gas with a vacuum pump
 2.2. Welding
Process of joining metals by heating them to melting temperature
Types of Welding 3. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas Welding • Electrode is used only to create the arc, is not consumed
in the weld
• Gas flame as source of heat (acetylene + oxygen)
• Arc creates between the base metal and a tungsten
• Widely used in maintenance and repair work due to easy
electrode.
transportation (in cylinder)
• Inert gas is used to displace air and eliminates the
Electric Arc Welding possibility of weld contamination
• unites pieces of metal at joint faces melted by the • The tungsten electrode has a high melting point (non
heat from an electric arc burning between the consumable)
electrode and the workpiece • Welding torch is designed to carry welding current and
• Advantage: higher heat concentration (increase direct inert gas to the weld zone
depth of penetration and speeds up the welding
operation) 4. Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Arc is started by short circuiting the welding current • A consumable electrode (form of wire) fed from spool
between the electrode and the work surface through the torch (welding gun) at a preset controlled
• 2 types: speed.
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)-> electrode consumed • Consumable wire electrode serves two functions: it
• striking an arc between a coated-metal electrode and the base metal maintains the arc and provides filler metal to the joint
• Electrode supplies filler metal to develop the weld shape • often chosen for welding thicker material
• coating from electrode forms a covering (inert gas) over the weld
deposit, shielding the arc from atmosphere and contamination Filler Material
2. Gas shielded arc welding • To fill space between joint left after welding
• both the arc and the molten • Composition should match base material
• puddle are covered by a shield of inert gas • Two types:
• Primary gas: helium, argon, or carbon dioxide
1. Welding Rod Flux
• Ensure the base metal is clean before welding
• filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during the • Impurities remaining called oxides
welding process • Flux: material used to dissolve oxides and release
• Purpose: supply fillet metals to joint trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal
• Always store them in a dry place at room temperature with 50% max • In shielded metal arc welding: flux is on electrode
relative humidity (moisture cause coating disintegrate
Travel Speed
2. Welding Electrode • Rate at which the electrode travels along a weld seam
• the component that conducts the current from the electrode holder • Too fast: molten pool cools too quickly, locking in
to the metal being welded impurities and causing the weld bead to be narrow
• Electrodes: consumable and nonconsumable • Too slow: metal deposit piles up excessively and the weld
Electric Arc is high and wide
Starting the Arc Welding Layers
• The electrode is hold in a vertical position to the surface of the work. • May be joined with one or more weld beads, depending
• The arc is started by tapping it on the work surface and then raising it to a on the thickness of the metal
distance equal to the diameter of electrode. • When making a multiple-pass weld, there is the buildup
• When the proper length of arc is established, a sharp, crackling sound is heard. sequence based
• When the electrode is withdrawn too slowly, it will stick to the plate or base • Instruction on interpass temperature: temperature
metal. below which the previously deposited weld metal must
• After you strike the arc, end of the electrode melts and flows into the molten be before the next pass may be started.
crater of the base metal Area of Weld
Current • Fusion/Penetration zone is the region of the base metal
• Amount of current used during a welding operation depends primarily upon that is actually melted.
the diameter of the electrode (indicated in electrodes) • The depth of fusion is the distance that fusion extends into
• When the current is too high, electrode melts faster and the molten puddle the base metal or previous welding pass
will be excessively large and irregular. • Heat affected zone includes base metal that isntmelted;
• With current that is too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base however, the structural or mechanical properties of the
metal and the molten pool will be too small. metal have been altered by the welding heat.
Welding Position Macro Examination
(1) flat, (2) horizontal, (3) vertical, or (4) overhead. • Principally used for checking the internal quality of welds
• What being check? Porosity, lack of weld penetration, lack of
Welding Procedure Specification side wall fusion, poor weld profile and other important defects
• document that provides details of the required variables
Hardness Test
for a specific welding application to provide guidance
• WPS specifies an allowable range for each variable. Include: • Use diamond indentor to test the hardness
type of base metal, joint design, welding position, type of • Tensile and hardness directly proportional
shielding, preheating and post-heating requirements, • Hardness serve as indicators of: Strength and Microstructure of
welding machine setting, and testing requirements a known material.
Welding Consumables (Welding Consumables) • Factor that may influence hardness: pre- heat, weld heat input,
• Chemical composition of the deposited weld metal shall have adequate cooling rate, total thickness at the weld, alloy content of the
resistance to degradation from the pipeline contents under the intended steel, post weld heat treatment and etc.
operating conditions. Non-destructive Testing
• Weld metal produced shall have a tensile strength greater than the • Visual Inspection
minimum specified for the parent metal. • Magnetic particle inspection - detection of surface or near
• Weld metal of joints between dissimilar materials shall have a tensile surface flaws in welds.
strength at least equal to that specified for the higher strength parent metal. • Liquid penetrant inspection - inspect metals for surface
Welding Test defects and subsurface defects
Destructive Testing & Impact Test • Radiographic inspection – inspecting weldments with rays
• Destructive: Given loads, test until weld fails that penetrate through the welds (X rays or gamma rays)
• Impact : Check ability of weld to absorb energy under impact • Ultrasonic inspection of testing uses high-frequency waves
• Compares the toughness of weld with base metal to locate and measure defects in welds.
Radiographic Testing of Weld
Tensile Strength Test
• Penetrating radiation is passed through a solid object, a weld,
• Put in tensile test machine, pull sample until breaks (steadily increase load)
onto a photographic film, resulting in an image of the object’s
• Recorded in stress strain curves
internal structure being deposited on the film
• The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its Tack Welding (Ganjelan)
• Purpose: hold pipe in place temporarily. (number of tack
thickness and density.
depends on diameter
• Energy not absorbed by the object will cause exposure of the
• Outside diameters up to and including 114.3 mm, a
radiographic film. (Dark film)
minimum of three tack welds each not less than 25 mm
• Areas of the film exposed to less energy remain lighter.
long shall be spaced equally around the joining
• Therefore, areas of the object where the thickness has been
circumference.
changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks, will
• diameters over 114.3 mm at least four tack welds each
appear as dark outlines on the film
not less than 25 mm long shall be used.
• Positive method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and
Preheating
voids in the interior of welds
• Purpose: Remove moisture in weld area
• Cons: expensive, slow, dangerous for health
• Reduce temperature difference between arc and base
(prevent internal stress during welding)
Other Welding Considerations • Reduce hardness in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), which
Pipe End Preparation creates a weld that is less brittle and more ductile.
• Slow cooling rate (allows hydrogen to escape) ->
• Ensure that the joint surfaces are smooth and uniform & clean
minimize cracking
• Manual thermal cutting shall not be used for bevelling the ends of pipes for
Post-weld Heat Treatment
welding
• fusion faces on pipes and the adjacent material shall be free from debris • used for stress relief (used for stress relief.)
• Cleaning to base metal shall extend for at least 25 mm from the edge of the -> reduce risk of brittle fracture, to avoid distortion on
fusion faces (internal and external) machining, or eradicate the risk of stress corrosion
• Align pipe before welding (distance as close as possible) • produce specific metallurgical structures in order to
Alignment achieve the required mechanical properties
• shall minimize the internal offset between surfaces (if Rectification of Welds
>1.5mm, need to makesure the gap spread evenly) • If welds fail to test -> need to be replace or repair
• Offset the seam (bibir pipa) by angle of 90 degree or • Weld shall be deep and long
circumferential distance of 250 mm • Can be remove by thermal cutting
2.3. Corrosion
General overview Galvanic Series
• Deterioration of a metal as a result of chemical reactions with • Natural potential difference between different metals when
environment surroundings immersed in a conducting electrolyte
• Metals can corrode (iron corrode quickly, stainless steel slow) • Material listed uppermost in the table will be the anode and the
• Elements of Corrosion: other (more noble) material will be the cathode
o Electrolyte (substance capable carrying electric current)
o Anode (Positively charged metal particles dissolve to
electrolyte leaving eelctron)
o Cathode (Hydrogen ions accept the electrons at the
cathode and become hydrogen gas.)
o Return circuit (for electron)
• The flow of current is caused by a potential (voltage)
difference between the anode and the cathode

Anode corrode !

flow of ions (charged particles) into the electrolyte at the

anode is what causes corrosion -> ions don’t go to cathode
Anode Cathode
Eg: if lead (-0.5 volt) and copper (-0.2 volt) are the pair of metals
selected, the potential difference will be 0.3 volt (lead as anode)
Types of Corrosion Corrosion Control System
• General corrosion Coating
• Localized corrosion • Coating is placed between the metal and the surrounding
• Small anode area, large cathode area electrolyte, corrosion current could not flow and there would
• Galvanic corrosion be no loss of metal
• Stray current corrosion • Hazards to coating on underground pipe are:
a) Undetected handling damage during construction
Corrosion between Dissimilar Surface b) Stones or debris in backfill that damage the coating.
• Buried pipe and backfilling material (soil) -> if have high potential c) Tree roots working through coating.
difference d) Excavations by others which expose the structure
• New steel pipe welded into an old underground rusty steel pipe damage the coating with excavation equipment
-> New steel pipe will corrodes • Coating materials : Galvanised, bitumen, coal tar, epoxy
• Dissimilarity of surface powder, extruded polythene
o Pipe wrench scars will be anodic to adjacent cathodic pipe metal • Strongest option: 3 layer coating consist of:
o Bright metal exposed by the thread cutting will likewise be o Epoxy primer (main anticorrosion function)
anodic where exposed to earth o Adhesive layer (connect the epoxy layer and PE layer)
Stress Corrosion o Extruded polyethylene or polypropylene
stressed areas of the material are anodic to the unstressed areas of the Has favorable electrical insulation, low water-absorbing
material quality and strong resistance to mechanical damage
Stray Current Corrosion
electrical current flowing through electrical path other than Surface Preparation for Coating
intended paths o Degree of adhesion and level of performance of protective
coatings is dependent on the degree of surface preparation
obtained
o Surface must be dry and clean for good coating adhesion blast
cleaning with the proper abrasive is generally considered to be
the best method for preparing steel
Some method of cleaning (coating prep): Resistivity of Pipeline Environments
1. Power Tool Surface Cleaning
use of angle grinders fitted with abrasive discs or wire wheels,
needle guns, and power sanders to remove loose rust and
paint from the surface Higher resistivity
2. Ultra-High Pressure Water Jetting of electrolyte=
Relies entirely on the energy of water striking a surface to more corrosive
achieve its cleaning effect
3. Abrasive Blasting
– Sa 1 – Light blast cleaning
– Sa 2 – Thorough blast cleaning
– Sa 2½ – Very thorough blast cleaning Pipe-to-Soil Potential Test
– Sa 3 – Blast cleaning to visually clean steel • For cathodic protection system, the potential between the structure
and its electrolyte (soil or water) have to be measured.
Cathodic Protection
-> use reference cathode (negative) & pipe (positive) + voltmeter
• Prevent corrosion by covert anodic area to cathodic area by
providing opposing current which supplies free electrons and force
local anodes to be polarized to the potential of the local cathodes
• Does not eliminate corrosion; only transfers the corrosion from the
structure being protected to the cathodic protection anode bed
• Two form of cathodic protection
1. Galvanic anodes = sacrificial system Pipeline External Corrosion Direct Assessment Methodology (ECDA)
dissimilar metal cell is needed that has more anodic • Structured process that is intended to improve safety by assessing
characteristics (Magnesium / Zinc / Aluminium) and reducing the impact of external corrosion on pipeline integrity
-> need to be replace frequently • Seeks to prevent external corrosion defects from growing to a size
2. impressed current protection that is large enough to affect structural integrity.
utilize a separate source of
direct current.
Four steps of ECDA AC Current Attenuation Survey
• Pre-assessment - collects historic and current data to determine • The electromagnetic current attenuation survey is an above-
whether ECDA is feasible ground survey to locate coating defects on buried pipelines, and
-> data collection, integration, and analyses provide comparative assessment of coating quality.
• Indirect Inspection - aboveground inspections to identify and define • An AC signal is applied between the coated pipe and remote earth.
the severity of coating faults, and potential corrosion area • When the signal current flows along a straight conductor (pipeline),
• Direct Examination - analyses of indirect inspection data to select sites it creates a magnetic field, cylindrical in shape, around the pipeline.
for excavations and pipe surface evaluations. • The applied AC signal flows along the pipeline, decreasing in
• Post Assessment - analyses of data collected from the previous three magnitude as the signal leaks to earth through the capacitive and
steps and determine reassessment intervals resistive effects of the coating.
Indirect inspections • At coating defects, where the pipeline is in direct contact with the
Close Interval Potential Survey soil, the signal leakage to earth will be more significant.
• Aims to identify locations along the length of a buried pipeline that are
Direct Current Voltage Gradient Survey
not registering a sufficient potential difference between pipe and soil
• To determining the location of coating defects or other defects
• pipeline under cathodic protection, is held at negative potential due to
• DC rectifier current that flows to and in the pipeline (impressed
electron (current) flowing to (and in) the pipe, the minimum potential
current) causes the pipeline to be negatively-charged with respect
difference between pipe and soil would be -0.85 Volts
to the surrounding soil
->more positive voltages-0.7 Volts, suggest insufficient cathodic
• In the case of a well-coated section of pipeline, the potential at
protection and indicate external corrosion take place
The Pearson Survey ground level in the vicinity of the pipe will be close to zero
• To locate coating defects in buried pipelines • If coating defects are present, the local potential at the defect
• Once defects are identified, the protection levels provided by the CP locations increases significantly
system can be investigated at these locations in more detail. • DCVG voltage will drop to zero when the operator is straddling the
• AC signal imposed on pipeline by means of a transmitter during survey defect, as the reference electrode smeasure the same potential
• Two survey operators make earth contact through aluminum poles.
• The signal measured by the receiver provides a measure of the
potential gradient over the distance between the two operators.
• Defects are located by a change in the potential gradient.
Direct Examination Pipe Inspection
Determine which indications from the indirect inspection step • destructive testing: uses hydrostatic inspection technique to verify that a
are most severe and collect data to assess corrosion activity pipeline is within the safety margin for operation.
include these activities: • non-destructive inspection (NDI) techniques detect flaws that can cause
1) Prioritization of indications found during the indirect potential failure in future.
inspection step Non-destructive Examination (NDE) Inspection
2) Excavations and data collection at areas where corrosion Ultrasonic Examination
activity is most likely; • Ultrasonic energy generated by exciting a piezoelectric crystal with an
3) Measurements of coating damage and corrosion defects; electrical pulse, transmitted into the material through a couplant.
4) Evaluations of remaining strength (severity); • The energy travels in the pipe until it is reflected, refracted, or attenuated.
5) Analyses of discovered condition(s) • Energy received back to the transducer deforms the piezoelectric crystal,
6) A process evaluation. resulting in voltage.
Corrosion Depth Measurement
1) Pit depth gauge
2) Profile gauge
3) Ultrasonic thickness probe
4) Automated methods (e.g. laser mapping)
Profile gauge Magnetic Particle Inspection
Ultrasonic Probe • Commonly used to detect surface andslightly subsurface
Post Assessment discontinuities, such as cracks in ferromagnetic materials.
• It is relatively fast and typically requires minimal surface preparation.
1) Root-cause analysis; • Magnetic flux in a magnetized object is locally distorted by the presence of a
2) Determining mitigation; discontinuity. This distortion causes some of the magnetic field to exit and re-enter the
3) Reprioritization; test object at the discontinuity.
4) Remaining life calculations; • Fine ferromagnetic particles applied to material. These particles arrange themselves
5) Definition of reassessment intervals; along the magnetic flow lines, forming an outline or indication of the discontinuity
6) Assessment of ECDA effectiveness
Ultrasonic EMAT Technique Ultrasonic Guided Wave Testing
• Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) is an Ultrasonic Testing • Electrical or mechanical energy can follow the boundaries of
(UT) technique that generates the sound in the part inspected. these waveguides to propagate long distances. Acoustic energy
• An EMAT induces ultrasonic waves into a test object with two can propagate in the wall of a pipe.
interacting magnetic fields. • Acoustic waves that propagate in a pipe in which the
• AC current in wire induces eddy current in the metal surface. When this wavelength > thickness of the structure are known as ultrasonic
is combined with a static magnetic field, a force is produced which causes guided waves. Such waves can be used for NDE of materials to
the steel metal grid to oscillate, thus launching a guided ultrasonic sound detect flaw mechanisms such as corrosion in buried pipe.
wave in the pipe wall. • Guided waves offer 100% volume inspection of a large from a
• Defects in metal will result in reflections of the sound wave single access position.

Ultrasonic In-Line Inspection (ILI)

• Provide a means of delivering NDE technologies within the pipe to detect
and characterize wall degradation.
• Such tools can be equipped with ultrasonic
• A tool (Pig Inspection Gauge) can be inserted into pipe.
• Launching and receiving stations built into the transmission pipelines system Radiography (Gamma or Xray)
• An array of transducers distributed around the circumference of the ILI tools. NDE Technique Selection
• The tool contains the onboard electronics necessary to acquire and store
• technique selection is often a compromise of component
ultrasonic data, such as pulsers, receivers, and digitizers.
access, examination speed, detection capabilities and
• Straight incidence of the ultrasonic pulses is used to measure the wall
limitations, component preparation, and cost
thickness and 45o incidence is used for the detection of cracks.
• Proper method selection is based on the damage mechanism,
• ILI tools generally use additional mechanical caliper, which consist of arms
desired sensitivity, and access to the pipe.
that directly contact the pipe wall, translating displacement of the arms into a
• Technology application will be limited by piping access and
measurement of deformation relative to the center of the ILI tool.
what defects must be detected.
• The operations of ILI tools can also be influenced by internal debris if
significant enough -> need to be clean by pig
2.4. PE Pipe Design
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR)
=outside diameter of pipe (D) /thickness of pipe wall (t)

The higher the SDR,

the thinner the pipe, and
the lower the pressure rating
pipe’s tensile strength decrease
as its thickness decrease
PE Pipeline System Design
• pressure capacity - based on working pressure requirements
• hydraulic design - flow consideration
o Head Loss in Pipes ISO versus ASTM methods of standardization
o Head Loss in Fittings ISO :PE 100 is a polyethylene pipe grade material
o Pipe flow PE 100 defines the product as being made with PE that
Pressure Capacity maintains a minimum required strength (MRS) rating of 10
MPa (multiplied by 10) over a 50-year period (statistically
Df: design factor/derrating projected) at 20 degrees Celsius
coefficient (from table)
S: Hydrostatic design basis (table) ASTM: PE4710 (focus on density, slow crack growth
resistance, and hydrostatic design stress (HDS))
product is made of PE with a “4” rated density, “7”
rated slow crack growth class, and has a 1,000-psi
MOP: Maximum operating pressure maximum recommended HDS with a 0.63 design
MRS: Minimum required strength factor at 23 degrees Celsius
C : overall service coeff (>2)
Sigma s = design stress
Comparative Polyethylene Pipe Pressure Ratings (PR) for PE4710 and PE Electrofusion welding method – joining PE pipes with PE made
100 in Water Services materials, such as couplers, tapping saddles, reducers

Cut -> clean -> heat -> cool

* Alat item buat panasin kalo butt
welding pake plate

DR: Dimension ratio Cmin = 1.25 for water Qualification of Welded Joints BS EN 12814
• Part 1 Bend test (Fail if break)
Hoop stress in thermoplastic • Part 2 Tensile test
• Part 3 Tensile creep test
Aboveground Application for PE Pipe • Part 4 Peel test
• Part 5 Macroscopic examination (mainly on alignment)
Design include:
• Part 6 Low temperature tensile test
• Temperature (exposed to demanding fluctuations in temperature )
• Part 7 Tensile test with waisted test specimens
• Chemical exposure (Reduction in the long-term strength of the PE
material due to chemical attack) Non-destructive evaluation for Fusion Joints
• Ultraviolet radiation (UV component in sunlight can produce a
deleterious effect on the PE) • Visual inspection
• Potential mechanical impact or loading • External bead assessment
• Internal Pressure • Data recording device
PE Pipe Welding Methods • Hydrostatic Pressure Testing prior to Start-up
Butt welding method - for pipes at same diameter & outer diameter *Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) has not established NDE inspection standards
Squeeze-Off Polyethylene (PE) Pipe
method by which the square cut end of two pipes are first cleaned, • flow stop techniques carried out on a PE pipe to reduce the flow of
then heated by pressing the pipes against a hot plate after which fluid by ‘squeezing’ (compressing) the pipe.
the plate is removed and the molten pipe ends then pressed • PE pipe is squeezed in a controlled manner between 2 horizontal
together and allowed to cool circular bars, until the pipe walls are compressed to a predefined level