Filtration

1.​ Write about the Objectives, Applications, Theories & Factors

influencing Filtration.
Ans. Filtration is a process used to remove solid particles from a liquid or gas using
a filter.​
In pharmaceutical industries, filtration is very important for purifying solutions,
separating unwanted particles, and ensuring product quality.

🔹 Objectives of Filtration

●​ To remove suspended particles from liquids or gases

●​ To obtain a clear solution free from impurities
●​ To separate desired solid from liquid (in case of solid products)
●​ To prevent blockage or damage to machinery or pipelines
●​ To ensure the final product is safe and clean

🔹Applications of Filtration
Filtration is used in various pharmaceutical processes:

●​ Sterile filtration: To remove bacteria and microorganisms from injectables, eye

drops, etc.
●​ Clarification: To make syrups and solutions clear and attractive.
●​ Air filtration: HEPA filters are used in cleanrooms to remove dust and microbes.
●​ Crystallization process: To separate pure solid crystals from the solution.
●​ Water purification: Filtration removes solids before water is used or released as
waste.

🔹Theories of Filtration
Understanding how filtration works helps improve its speed and efficiency. Three main
scientific theories explain this:

✅ A. Poiseuille’s Law (Flow through narrow tubes)

●​ It explains how liquid flows through tiny cylindrical pores.​

●​ Filtration rate increases with:​

○​ Larger pore radius

○​ Higher pressure
 ○​ Lower viscosity
○​ Shorter length

Equation:

Where:

●​ Q = Filtration rate
●​ r = Radius of pore
●​ ΔP = Pressure difference
●​ η = Viscosity
●​ l = Length of the pore​

✅ B. Darcy’s Law (Flow through porous media)

●​ Used when liquid passes through a filter cake or bed.
●​ Filtration depends on permeability, area, pressure, and viscosity.

Equation:

Where:

●​ A = Area
●​ L = Thickness of cake
●​ k = Permeability of cake
●​ Others same as above
✅ C. Kozeny-Carman Equation (Advanced model)
●​ Gives more accurate results for fine, compact cakes.
●​ Consider porosity and surface area of the particles.

Equation:

Where:

●​ ε = Porosity
●​ S = Surface area of particles
●​ K = Constant
●​ Others same as above

🔹Factors Influencing Filtration

Several factors affect the rate and efficiency of filtration:

✅ 1. Surface Area of Filter Media

●​ Larger area = more space for liquid to pass through = faster filtration

✅ 2. Particle Size of Solids

●​ Large particles form a porous cake = faster flow
●​ Small particles block pores = slow flow

✅ 3. Filter Cake
●​ Thin cake = easier filtration
●​ Thick cake = slows down filtration but improves clarity

✅ 4. Viscosity of Liquid
●​ High viscosity (thick liquids like syrup) = slow filtration
●​ Low viscosity (water) = fast filtration
✅ 5. Pressure Difference
●​ More pressure = faster flow
●​ Applied using vacuum or pumps
●​ Must be controlled to avoid filter damage

2.​ Write in detail about Filter Aid and Filter Media.

Ans 2.
✅ Definition:
A filter aid is a material added to a slurry (mixture of solid and liquid) to help in better
filtration. It makes the filter cake more porous, prevents clogging, and increases
flow rate.

✅ Characteristics of a Good Filter Aid:

●​ Chemically inert (does not react with product)
●​ Lightweight and easy to handle
●​ Can be easily removed from the final product
●​ Must form a porous layer to allow smooth liquid flow

✅ Common Materials Used as Filter Aids:

Material Use

Diatomaceous earth Most common, made from fossil remains

Activated charcoal Used to remove color and odor

Perlite Lightweight volcanic material

Asbestos (rarely used Previously used but now avoided due to health
now) risks

Cellulose fibers Used in pharmaceutical and food applications

✅ Example:
In sparkler filter presses, a pre-coat layer of diatomaceous earth is applied to improve
the filtration of syrups.
🔹2. Filter Media
✅ Definition:
Filter media is the actual material that holds back solid particles during filtration and
allows the liquid to pass through.

✅ Characteristics of Good Filter Media:

●​ Strong and does not tear or break under pressure
●​ Resistant to chemicals
●​ Has uniform pore size
●​ Easy to clean or replace
●​ Should not release fibers or particles into the filtrate​

✅ Common Materials Used as Filter Media:

Material Example Use

Cloth Cotton, wool Used in filter presses

Paper Filter paper Used in labs for small-scale filtration

Membrane filters Cellulose acetate, Used for sterile filtration (bacteria

nylon removal)

Sintered glass or Porous glass disc Used in labs or high-temp processes

metal

Cartridges and Polypropylene Used in air and water filters in clean

pads rooms

✅ Example:
Membrane filters (0.22 micron) are used to sterilize injectable solutions by removing
bacteria.
 3.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,
Merits and demerits of plate & frame filter.
Ans 3.
🔹1. Principle
The plate and frame filter press works on the principle of pressure filtration.

●​ The slurry (liquid + solid) is passed under pressure through filter cloths fixed on
plates.
●​ Solids are trapped on the cloth and form a filter cake, while the clear liquid
(filtrate) passes through and is collected.
●​ The pressure difference helps in fast and efficient separation.​

🔹2. Construction
It consists of:

●​ Plates – Solid parts with grooves, covered with filter cloth.

●​ Frames – Hollow spaces for holding slurry and cake.
●​ Filter Cloth – Placed on both sides of plates to hold solids.
●​ Slurry Inlet – Where the mixture enters.
●​ Filtrate Outlet – Where clear liquid comes out.
●​ Hydraulic Pump – To press the plates and frames together.
●​ Supporting Frame – Holds the whole unit together
🔹3. Working
1.​ The press is closed tightly using hydraulic pressure.
2.​ Slurry is pumped into the frames under pressure.
3.​ Liquid passes through filter cloth and comes out from outlets.
4.​ Solids stay on the cloth, forming a filter cake.
5.​ After filtration, plates are opened and the cake is removed manually or
automatically.
6.​ The filter is cleaned and reused for the next cycle.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Pharmaceutical industry – To filter syrups, solutions, herbal extracts.
●​ Biotech industry – To separate microorganisms or cells.
●​ Food industry – To clarify juices and sugar solutions.
●​ Chemical industry – To filter pigments and dyes.
●​ Wastewater treatment – To remove solid sludge.

🔹5. Merits
●​ Gives very clear filtrate
●​ Allows cake washing and drying
●​ Simple to operate and clean
●​ Low cost and long life of filter cloth

🔹6. Demerits
●​ Batch process – not continuous
●​ Labour-intensive – needs manual handling
●​ Slow – especially for thick or sticky slurries
●​ Filter cloths can get clogged..
 4.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,
Merits and demerits of Filter Leaf.
Ans.
🔹1. Principle
The filter leaf works on the principle of surface filtration.

●​ A slurry (solid + liquid mixture) is passed through a filter cloth stretched over a
metal frame (the leaf).
●​ Solid particles are trapped on the surface of the cloth, forming a filter cake, and
the clear liquid (filtrate) passes through the cloth and is collected.

🔹2. Construction
A filter leaf unit consists of:

●​ Filter Leaf: A hollow metal frame covered with filter cloth. It may be flat,
circular, or rectangular.
●​ Filter Cloth: Stretched over both sides of the leaf frame; holds the solids.
●​ Drainage Canal: A wire mesh inside the leaf to support the cloth and allow
filtrate flow.
●​ Outlet Pipe: Connected to the leaf’s inside to collect clear liquid.
●​ Tank or Vessel: Contains the slurry and holds multiple filter leaves.
●​ Pump or Vacuum System: Helps in moving the slurry through the leaf.
🔹3. Working
1.​ Multiple filter leaves are placed vertically or horizontally inside a tank.
2.​ Slurry is pumped into the tank.
3.​ The liquid passes through the cloth on both sides of the leaf.
4.​ Solids collect on the outer surface of the cloth, forming a filter cake.
5.​ The filtrate passes through the cloth, mesh, and outlet pipe into a collection
system.
6.​ After the process is complete:
○​ The tank is emptied.
○​ Leaves are taken out.
○​ Cake is washed, dried, and manually scraped off.
○​ Filter cloths are cleaned and reused.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Pharmaceutical industry – for filtering syrups, active pharmaceutical
ingredients (APIs), or decolorizing solutions using activated carbon.
●​ Chemical industry – for separating crystals or solid products.
●​ Edible oil & beverage industry – for purifying oils or juices.
●​ Waste treatment plants – for solid-liquid separation in sludge.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

●​ Large surface area available for filtration.
●​ Filtration on both sides of each leaf increases efficiency.
●​ Suitable for batch as well as semi-continuous operation.
●​ Easy removal of cake by taking out leaves.
●​ Uses less floor space compared to plate and frame filters.
●​ Low labor cost for cake removal in horizontal leaf filters.

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)

●​ Not suitable for very thick or viscous slurries.
●​ Cleaning the filter cloth takes time.
●​ Filter cloth may get damaged during scraping.
●​ Cake must be removed manually if not automated.
 5.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,
Merits and demerits of Rotary Drum Filter.

🔹1. Principle
Ans.

A rotary drum filter works on the principle of vacuum filtration and continuous
operation.

●​ A large rotating drum, partially dipped in slurry, has a vacuum applied inside it.
●​ The vacuum draws the liquid through a filter cloth on the drum surface, while the
solid particles stick to the cloth and form a filter cake.
●​ The drum rotates, and at different points in its rotation, the cake is washed,
dried, and removed.

🔹2. Construction
A rotary drum filter has the following parts:

●​ Drum: Hollow, cylindrical drum made of metal, with perforations and covered
with filter cloth.
●​ Filter Cloth: Fixed on the outside of the drum; traps solids.
●​ Vacuum System: Creates suction inside the drum to pull liquid through the cloth.
●​ Slurry Tank: The bottom of the drum is dipped in slurry.
●​ Drainage Zone: Collects the clear liquid coming through the cloth.
●​ Water Sprays: Used to wash the cake (optional).
●​ Drying Zone: Air or gas is blown to dry the cake.
●​ Scraper Knife: Scrapes off the filter cake from the drum surface.
🔹3. Working
1.​ The drum slowly rotates in the slurry tank.
2.​ A vacuum is applied inside the drum.
3.​ As the drum rotates:
○​ Slurry sticks to the cloth due to vacuum.
○​ Liquid (filtrate) passes through the cloth and enters the drum.
○​ Solids remain on the cloth as a filter cake.
4.​ In the upper zone:
○​ The cake is washed with clean liquid (optional).
○​ Then dried using air or gas.
5.​ The scraper blade removes the dry cake.
6.​ The cleaned cloth moves back into the slurry to start again.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Pharmaceutical industry – for separating solid drugs from mother liquor,
recovering activated carbon, etc.
●​ Chemical industry – for filtering crystal slurries and other suspensions.
●​ Food industry – for filtering starch, sugar solutions, or juice pulp.
●​ Wastewater treatment – for continuous sludge dewatering.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

●​ Continuous operation – no need to stop for cleaning or reloading.
●​ Suitable for large-scale filtration processes.
●​ Automatic cake removal saves labor.
●​ Washing and drying can be done in the same cycle.
●​ Works well for thin slurries with small solid particles.

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)

●​ Not suitable for very thick or sticky slurries.
●​ High initial cost and maintenance.
●​ Not ideal for precise or sterile operations (e.g., sterile injectables).
●​ Vacuum system consumes power.
●​ Cleaning the drum and cloth takes time during shutdown.
 6.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,
Merits and demerits of Meta Filter.

🔹1. Principle
Ans.

A meta filter (also called a sintered metal filter) works on the principle of surface and
depth filtration.

●​ It uses a rigid porous metal element that allows liquid to pass through while
trapping solid particles on the surface and inside the pores.
●​ Filtration is done under pressure or vacuum.
●​ The filter element can be reused after cleaning.

🔹2. Construction
A typical meta filter consists of:

●​ Filter Element:
○​ Made of sintered metal powder (e.g., stainless steel, bronze, nickel).
○​ Shaped like a cylinder, disc, or hollow candle.
○​ Pore size usually ranges from 1 to 100 microns.
●​ Supporting Mesh:
○​ A wire mesh supports the filter element and prevents breakage.
●​ Filter Housing:
○​ A metal body that holds the filter element.
○​ Has inlet and outlet ports for liquid flow.
●​ Sealing System:
○​ Gaskets or O-rings prevent leakage during operation.
🔹3. Working
1.​ The slurry or liquid is pumped into the filter housing.
2.​ Due to pressure or vacuum, the liquid passes through the sintered metal pores.
3.​ Solid particles get trapped on the surface or within the pores.
4.​ The clean filtrate comes out through the outlet.
5.​ When the filter becomes blocked:
○​ It can be backwashed with clean liquid or
○​ Removed and cleaned using steam, hot water, or ultrasonic methods.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Filtration of solvents, syrups, and chemical solutions.
●​ Filtration of corrosive or high-temperature liquids.
●​ Clarification of edible oils, juices, and wine.
●​ Used to remove particles from gases in sterile environments.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

✅ Reusable – long service life with proper cleaning.
✅ High strength – can withstand high pressure and temperature.
●​

✅ Resistant to chemicals and solvents.

●​

✅ Can be sterilized using steam or autoclaving.

●​
●​
 ●​ ✅ Compact and leak-proof design.
🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)
❌ High initial cost due to expensive materials.
❌ Cleaning is time-consuming if particles clog the inner pores.
●​

❌ Not suitable for very fine or sticky slurries – may clog the pores quickly.
●​

❌ Fixed pore size – cannot be changed once manufactured.

●​
●​

7.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,

Merits and demerits of Cartridge Filter.

🔹1. Principle
Ans.

A cartridge filter works on the principle of depth or surface filtration.

●​ Liquid passes through a cylindrical filter cartridge, which traps dirt and solid
particles inside or on its surface.
●​ Filtration happens under pressure.
●​ The filter cartridge is replaceable, and it must be changed when it becomes
clogged.

🔹2. Construction
A cartridge filter unit consists of:

●​ Filter Cartridge:
○​ Made from materials like polypropylene, nylon, polyester, cellulose, or
glass fiber.
●​ Core and End Caps:
○​ The cartridge has a rigid inner core for support.
○​ End caps with gaskets or O-rings ensure leak-proof sealing.
●​ Housing (Shell):
○​ Made of stainless steel or plastic.
○​ Holds one or more cartridges vertically inside.
●​ Inlet and Outlet Ports:
○​ Allow liquid to enter and exit the filter under pressure.
🔹3. Working
1.​ Liquid enters through the inlet at the bottom or side of the housing.
2.​ It flows through the cartridge – either outside to inside or inside to outside.
3.​ Particles are trapped inside the filter material or on its surface.
4.​ Clean liquid (filtrate) exits through the outlet.
5.​ When the cartridge becomes blocked:
○​ It is removed and replaced with a new one.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Filtration of water for injection (WFI), IV fluids, syrups, and eye drops.
●​ Used for air and liquid filtration.
●​ Air/gas filtration using hydrophobic cartridges (e.g., PTFE).:
●​ At point-of-use for sterile fluid delivery.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

✅ Easy to install and replace – saves time and labor.
✅ Wide range of pore sizes available (from 0.1 to 50 microns).
●​

✅ Compact and space-saving design.

●​

✅ Suitable for sterile filtration when using membrane cartridges.

●​

✅ Can filter both liquids and gases.

●​
●​

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)

❌ Disposable – needs frequent replacement, which increases cost.
❌ Low dirt-holding capacity – clogs quickly with very dirty liquids.
●​
●​
 ❌ Must be used with clean pre-filtered liquids to extend life.
❌ Some cartridge materials may not be compatible with strong solvents.​
●​
●​

8.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,

Merits and demerits of Membrane Filter.
Ans.

🔹1. Principle
A membrane filter works on the principle of surface filtration.

●​ It removes particles by size exclusion — only substances smaller than the

membrane pores can pass through.
●​ Common pore sizes include 0.45 µm (for clarification) and 0.22 µm (for
sterilization — removes bacteria).
●​ The process operates under low pressure or vacuum.

🔹2. Construction
●​ Filter Membrane:
○​ Thin polymer sheet made from materials like cellulose acetate, nylon,
PTFE, PES (polyethersulfone), etc.
●​ Support Layer or Backing:
○​ Non-woven polyester or plastic mesh to prevent tearing of the membrane.
●​ Holder or Housing:
○​ Made of stainless steel or plastic.
○​ Contains a membrane disc between two support screens with inlet and
outlet ports.
🔹3. Working
1.​ The liquid to be filtered is poured into or pumped through the membrane unit.
2.​ As liquid passes through the tiny pores, bacteria, particles, and suspended
matter are trapped on the surface of the membrane.
3.​ The clean (sterile) filtrate exits from the outlet.
4.​ After use, the membrane is:
○​ Either disposed of (if single-use), or
○​ Sterilized using steam/autoclaving (if reusable type)

🔹4. Uses
●​ Sterile filtration of:
○​ Injectables, eye drops, vaccines, antibiotics
●​ Final filtration step before filling sterile containers.
●​ Air/gas filtration using hydrophobic membranes (like PTFE).
●​ Water purification and microbial testing in labs.
●​ Vent filters in fermenters and bioreactors.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

●​ ✅ Provides absolute filtration – removes bacteria and fine particles
●​ ✅ Quick and easy to use – especially in labs and sterile areas.
effectively.

●​ ✅ Available in a wide range of pore sizes.

●​ ✅ Can be used for both liquids and gases.
●​ ✅ Low adsorption – good for sensitive drugs (membrane doesn’t absorb
medicine).

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages) (1.5 marks)

❌ Low dirt-holding capacity – can clog quickly with turbid liquids.
❌ Expensive compared to other filters.
●​

❌ Membrane is fragile – can tear under high pressure or mishandling.

●​

❌ Some membranes are not compatible with strong solvents.

●​

❌ Needs pre-filtration for dirty solutions to avoid quick blockage.

●​
●​
 9.​ Write in detail about the Principle, Construction, Working, Uses,
Merits and demerits of Seitz Filter.
Ans.

🔹1. Principle
The Seitz filter works on the principle of depth filtration.

●​ It uses thick filter pads made of cellulose fibers mixed with filter aids (like
diatomaceous earth) to trap particles.
●​ The liquid passes through the tortuous paths inside the pad, and particles are
removed by adsorption, mechanical trapping, and charge attraction.

🔹2. Construction
The main parts of a Seitz filter are:

●​ Filter Pads:
○​ Thick, flat discs or sheets made from cellulose fibers with or without
added filter aids.
○​ Come in different grades (coarse to fine) for various filtration needs.
●​ Filter Holder / Housing:
○​ A metal frame that holds multiple filter pads between plates.
○​ Looks like a plate and frame filter press, but uses pads instead of
cloths.
●​ Gaskets and Spacers:
○​ Provide proper sealing between pads and plates.
●​ Inlet and Outlet Ports:
○​ For feeding slurry and collecting filtrate.
🔹3. Working
1.​ The filter pads are pre-wetted with water or the solution to remove air.
2.​ The slurry is pumped into the filter under low to medium pressure.
3.​ The liquid flows through the pads:
○​ Particles are trapped within the pad (not just on the surface).
○​ Clean filtrate comes out from the outlet.
4.​ After filtration, used pads are removed and replaced for the next cycle.

🔹4. Uses
●​ Filtration of vaccines, serum, blood products, fermented solutions.
●​ Used for cell removal from culture broth.
●​ Clarification of wine, beer, fruit juice.
●​ Removing activated carbon after decolorization.

🔹5. Merits (Advantages)

✅ Suitable for high turbidity liquids (dirty solutions).
✅ Large surface area and deep structure = high dirt-holding capacity.
●​

✅ Available in different grades for fine to coarse filtration.

●​

✅ Quick changeover – pads are easy to install and remove.

●​

✅ No pre-coat required in most cases.

●​
●​

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)

❌ Single-use – pads must be discarded after use, increasing cost.
❌ Pads may release cellulose fibers if not wetted properly.
●​

❌ Not suitable for sterile filtration unless used with very fine pads.
●​

❌ Cannot be cleaned or sterilized in place like metal filters.

●​

❌ Pads swell in water and may change size or leak if not fitted correctly.
●​
●​
 Centrifugation
1.​ Write in detail about the objectives, principle & applications of
Centrifugation.
Ans. Centrifugation is a process used to separate solid particles from liquids or
liquids from other liquids based on their density using centrifugal force.​
It is widely used in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries.

🔹Objectives of Centrifugation
The main goals of centrifugation are:

✅ To separate solids from liquids (e.g., separating drug crystals from liquid).
✅ To clarify liquids by removing fine suspended particles.
1.​

✅ To remove water or solvents from wet solid materials (dewatering).

2.​

✅ To separate two immiscible liquids (e.g., oil and water).

3.​

✅ To concentrate particles, such as cells, proteins, or suspensions.

4.​

✅ To improve drying efficiency before further processing.

5.​
6.​

🔹Principle of Centrifugation
Centrifugation works on the principle of sedimentation by centrifugal force.

●​ When a mixture is rotated at high speed, a force called centrifugal force

pushes heavier particles outward.
●​ The separation happens because heavier particles move faster to the outer
wall, while lighter ones remain closer to the center.

Key points:

●​ The faster the rotation, the greater the centrifugal force.

●​ The denser particles settle faster, leading to quicker separation.
●​ This force is much higher than gravity, so centrifugation is faster than normal
settling.

🔹Applications of Centrifugation
✅ In Pharmaceutical Industry:
●​ Separation of drug crystals from mother liquor.
●​ Clarification of syrups and suspensions.
●​ Harvesting microorganisms in fermentation processes.
 ●​ Purification of vaccines and biological products.
●​ Separation of blood components (plasma, red cells, etc.).

✅ In Chemical and Food Industry:

●​ Dewatering of sludges in waste treatment.
●​ Separation of cream from milk.
●​ Clarification of fruit juices, oils, and beer.

✅ In Research and Labs:

●​ Separation of proteins, DNA, RNA, or cell organelles.
●​ Used in analytical ultracentrifuges for molecular weight determination.

2.​ Write in detail about the construction, working, uses, merits and
demerits of Perforated basket centrifuge
Ans. A perforated basket centrifuge is a type of mechanical filtration equipment
used for solid-liquid separation.​
It is widely used in the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries to separate
wet solids from liquids quickly and efficiently.

🔹Construction
The main parts of a perforated basket centrifuge are:

1.​ Perforated Basket – A rotating metal drum with small holes; lined with filter cloth
to hold solids.
2.​ Filter Cloth – Placed inside the basket to trap solids and allow liquid to pass.
3.​ Casing – Outer cover to collect filtrate and protect from splashing.
4.​ Inlet Pipe – Feeds slurry (solid + liquid) into the basket.
5.​ Motor & Shaft – Rotates the basket at high speed to create centrifugal force.
🔹Working
1.​ The slurry is fed into the rotating basket through the central inlet.
2.​ Due to high-speed rotation, centrifugal force pushes the mixture outward.
3.​ Liquid passes through the filter cloth and basket perforations and is collected
as filtrate.
4.​ Solid particles remain inside the basket and form a filter cake on the cloth.
5.​ After enough solid is collected, the machine is stopped.
6.​ The solid cake is manually or mechanically removed.
7.​ The machine is cleaned and restarted for the next batch.

🔹Uses
✅ Pharmaceutical industry – to separate drug crystals from mother liquor.
✅ Chemical industry – to remove solids from process liquids.
●​

✅ Food industry – for sugar, starch, salt, or herbal extract separation.

●​

✅ Textile and dye industries – for recovery of dyes or pigments.

●​

✅ Also used in wastewater treatment to remove solid sludge.

●​
●​

🔹Merits (Advantages)
✅ Simple design and easy to operate.
✅ Fast separation process due to strong centrifugal force.
●​

✅ Suitable for crystalline and fibrous solids.

●​

✅ Low maintenance cost.

●​

✅ Easy to clean and restart for batch processing.

●​
●​

🔹6. Demerits (Disadvantages)

❌ Batch process – must stop to unload solid cake.
❌ Manual discharge may be slow and require labor.
●​

❌ Not suitable for very fine or slimy solids (may clog the filter cloth).
●​

❌ May cause vibrations if solids are unevenly distributed.

●​
●​
 3.​ Write in detail about the construction, working, uses, merits and
demerits of Non-perforated basket centrifuge.
Ans. A non-perforated basket centrifuge is a type of centrifuge where the basket has
no holes (perforations).​
It is mainly used to clarify liquids by settling solids without removing the solid during
rotation.​
It operates as a batch-type machine and is useful for separating fine solids from
liquids.

🔹Construction
The main parts of a non-perforated basket centrifuge are:

1.​ Solid Basket – A closed metal drum without holes; where the slurry is collected
and spun.
2.​ Motor & Shaft – Used to rotate the basket at high speed.
3.​ Feed Pipe – Feeds the slurry into the basket from the top.
4.​ Outer Casing – Covers the basket to ensure safety and collect liquid.

🔹Working
1.​ The slurry is introduced into the rotating basket through the inlet.
2.​ As the basket spins, centrifugal force pushes the solid particles outward.
3.​ The clear liquid collects at the center/top of the basket.
4.​ The liquid is removed by siphoning or decanting.
5.​ The solid remains inside the basket.
6.​ After stopping the rotation, the solid is manually removed.
🔹Uses
●​ ✅ Pharmaceutical industry – clarification of syrups, extracts, or enzymatic
●​ ✅ Biotechnology – separation of cell mass or fermentation broth.
liquids.

●​ ✅ Food industry – juice clarification or removal of small particles.

●​ ✅ Laboratories – for batch-wise liquid-solid separation with fine particles.

🔹Merits (Advantages)
✅ Simple design and easy to operate.
✅ Suitable for fine particles that may clog perforated baskets.
●​

✅ Less chance of filter cloth damage.

●​

✅ Good for liquid clarification where solid removal is not required during
●​
●​
rotation.

🔹Demerits (Disadvantages)
❌ Cannot remove liquid continuously during rotation (must be stopped).
❌ Manual removal of solids is needed.
●​

❌ Not suitable for large volumes or thick slurries.

●​

❌ Takes more time compared to perforated basket centrifuges.

●​
●​

4.​ Write in detail about the construction, working, uses, merits and
demerits of semi continuous centrifuge
Ans. A semi-continuous centrifuge is a type of centrifuge that works partly like a
batch and partly like a continuous system.​
It allows multiple batches to be processed one after another with less manual
handling than in purely batch centrifuges.​
This makes it more efficient and faster than non-continuous machines.

🔹Construction
The main parts of semi-continuous centrifuge includes:

1.​ Perforated Basket – A rotating drum with small holes, lined with filter cloth to
separate solids from liquids.
2.​ Inlet Pipe – Feeds slurry into the basket.
3.​ Filter Cloth – Traps solid particles while letting liquid pass through.
4.​ Outer Casing – Encloses the basket and collects filtrate.
 5.​ Motor & Shaft – Rotates the basket at high speed to create centrifugal force.

🔹Working
1.​ The slurry is fed into the rotating basket.
2.​ Due to centrifugal force, the solid sticks to the basket wall, and the liquid
passes through the filter cloth.
3.​ After the liquid is removed, the solid cake remains inside the basket.
4.​ A scraper blade automatically removes the cake from the basket wall.
5.​ The machine is then immediately ready to process the next batch without
needing to stop.
6.​ This allows multiple cycles to be done faster than traditional batch centrifuges.

🔹Uses
●​ ✅ Pharmaceutical industry – for separating drug crystals, fermentation
●​ ✅ Chemical industry – for fast separation of chemicals and intermediates.
biomass, and suspensions.

●​ ✅ Food industry – used in sugar, starch, and edible oil processing.

●​ ✅ Textile industry – for separating dyes or pigments.​

🔹Merits (Advantages)
✅ Faster than batch centrifuges – less downtime between cycles.
✅ Automatic discharge of solids using scraper – reduces labor.
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✅ Suitable for medium to large-scale operations.

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 ✅ Can be used for washing and dewatering solids.
✅ Safer and more hygienic due to enclosed system.
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🔹Demerits (Disadvantages)
❌ More complex than batch centrifuges – needs regular maintenance.
❌ Higher initial cost due to automation features.
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❌ Not fully continuous – still runs in cycles (semi-continuous).

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❌ Not suitable for sticky or slimy materials that are hard to discharge.
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5.​ Write in detail about the construction, working, uses, merits and
demerits of super centrifuge.
Ans. A super centrifuge (also called a tubular bowl centrifuge) is a high-speed,
continuous centrifuge used to separate very fine solids from liquids or to separate
two immiscible liquids (like oil and water).​
It is widely used in the pharmaceutical, biotech, food, and chemical industries.

🔹Construction
The main parts of super centrifuge includes:

1.​ Rotating Bowl – A long, vertical, narrow metal tube that rotates at very high
speed.
2.​ Motor– Drives the bowl to create strong centrifugal force.
3.​ Inlet Feed – Feeds the liquid mixture into the center of the spinning bowl.
4.​ Heavy and Light phase Discharge Outlets – Two discharge outlets are
provided at different heights at the top.
🔹Working
1.​ The mixture (liquid + solid or two liquids) is fed into the rotating bowl through
the inlet tube.
2.​ The bowl spins at a very high speed, creating strong centrifugal force.
3.​ Heavier particles (or heavier liquid) move to the wall of the bowl.
4.​ Lighter liquid stays near the center and flows out through the outlet.
5.​ If solids are present, they stick to the bowl wall and are removed manually
after stopping the machine.
6.​ The process is continuous for liquid-liquid separation but batch-type for
solid removal.

🔹Uses
✅ Pharmaceuticals – to clarify injectables, vaccines, or antibiotics.
✅ Biotech – to separate cells, enzymes, and fermentation broths.
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✅ Oil industry – to separate oil-water mixtures.

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✅ Food industry – for juice clarification or milk fat separation.

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✅ Laboratories – for fine particle separation.

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🔹Merits (Advantages)
✅ Very high-speed separation – faster than other centrifuges.
✅ Can separate fine particles or emulsions efficiently.
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✅ Suitable for continuous operation in liquid-liquid systems.

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✅ Requires less space due to vertical design.

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✅ Produces clear and clean output.

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🔹Demerits (Disadvantages)
❌ Solid removal is manual – requires stopping the machine.
❌ High cost of machine and maintenance.
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❌ Not suitable for thick slurries or large solid particles.

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❌ Requires skilled operators to handle high speeds safely.

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