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Microbial Fuel Cells: Advancements, Challenges, and Applications in

Sustainable Energy and Environmental Remediation

Article in Journal of Sustainability for Energy · September 2024

DOI: 10.56578/jse030305

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 Journal of Sustainability for Energy
https://www.acadlore.com/journals/JSE

Microbial Fuel Cells: Advancements, Challenges, and Applications

in Sustainable Energy and Environmental Remediation
Surajit Mondal , Shankha Shubhra Goswami*

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Abacus Institute of Engineering and Management, 712148 Magra, India
*
Correspondence: Shankha Shubhra Goswami ([email protected])

Received: 08-18-2024 Revised: 09-19-2024 Accepted: 09-23-2024

Citation: S. Mondal and S. S. Goswami, “Microbial fuel cells: Advancements, challenges, and applications in
sustainable energy and environmental remediation,” J. Sustain. Energy, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 198–221, 2024.
https://doi.org/10.56578/jse030305.

2024 by the authors. Licensee Acadlore Publishing Services Limited, Hong Kong. This article can be downloaded for free, and
reused and quoted with a citation of the original published version, under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Abstract: Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) represent a promising bio-electrochemical technology with the potential for
sustainable energy generation and environmental remediation. These systems exploit the metabolic processes of
microorganisms to directly convert organic substrates into electrical energy, providing an environmentally benign
alternative to traditional energy sources. The operation of MFCs relies on intricate biological and electrochemical
interactions, where microorganisms transfer electrons to electrodes, generating an electric current. MFCs can be
classified based on their configuration, electron transfer mechanisms, and operational conditions, each offering
distinct advantages and limitations in different contexts. Recent developments in MFC technology have focused
on improving power density, stability, and scalability. Innovations in electrode materials, biocatalysts, and reactor
design have enhanced energy output, making MFCs more viable for real-world applications. Notably, MFCs show
promise in wastewater treatment, as they can simultaneously degrade organic pollutants and generate electricity, thus
offering a dual-function solution that contributes to both sustainable energy production and environmental cleanup.
Despite these advances, several challenges persist, including the high cost of materials, limited power output, and
the need for better integration into existing infrastructure. These issues hinder the widespread adoption of MFCs.
Future research must focus on the development of cost-effective materials, the optimization of reactor design, and
scaling the technology to achieve commercial feasibility. With continued innovation and refinement, MFCs hold
the potential to play a transformative role in renewable energy systems and integrated waste management strategies,
contributing to the broader goals of sustainable development.

Keywords: Microbial fuel cell (MFC); Bio-electrochemical systems; Renewable energy; Wastewater treatment;
Electron transfer; Sustainable technology
1 Introduction
For more than a hundred years, the intense pace of industrialization and economic development has played a
central role in environmental degradation and accelerated climate change. The widespread shift toward industrialized
societies brought about mass production, urban expansion, and heavy reliance on fossil fuels, which, although they
enabled growth, also contributed significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and resource depletion [1, 2].
These changes have increasingly underscored the need for renewable, sustainable energy sources that not only meet
energy demands but also safeguard the environment. The move toward cleaner energy represents a critical response
to this issue, encouraging innovations that combine efficiency with environmental consciousness [3]. One such
groundbreaking innovation is the MFC, which functions as a bio-electrochemical system, using natural bacterial
processes to produce electricity.
The concept of MFCs dates back to the early 20th century when researchers first observed that certain bacteria
could produce electricity as a byproduct of their metabolic activities. These microorganisms, through the breakdown
of organic matter, release electrons that can be harnessed to generate electrical current [4, 5]. However, initial
observations showed only minimal power output, limiting the practical applications of this technology. Recent strides
in biotechnology, materials science, and electrochemistry have revolutionized MFC design and efficiency, making
it possible for MFCs to generate significant, usable quantities of electricity [6, 7]. Through these advancements,

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MFCs have transformed from a niche scientific curiosity into a potentially scalable technology capable of serving
dual functions: renewable energy generation and wastewater treatment.
MFCs offer a twofold benefit to the environment. As a renewable energy source, MFCs contribute to the reduction
of dependency on fossil fuels, lowering greenhouse gas emissions and thus helping to combat climate change [8].
At the same time, their application in wastewater treatment provides a sustainable way to process waste, as the
bacteria within the MFCs can feed on organic pollutants found in wastewater. This dual capability not only reduces
pollution but also turns waste into a productive resource, thus supporting a circular economy model where resources
are continuously recycled [7]. By integrating MFCs into urban wastewater treatment plants or even remote facilities,
there is potential for cleaner water outputs coupled with energy generation—an innovation poised to revolutionize
both the energy and environmental sectors.
Recent studies highlight significant progress in developing high-conductivity and biocompatible electrode ma-
terials like graphene, carbon nanotubes, and conductive polymers. These materials have improved electron transfer
efficiency and reduced system resistance. Advances in synthetic biology have enabled the genetic modification
of exoelectrogens like Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis, enhancing their metabolic rates and
electron transfer abilities [5, 6]. These innovations have contributed to increased power output and adaptability to
diverse substrates. New architectural configurations, including single-chamber MFCs, stacked designs, and hybrid
bio-electrochemical systems, have improved power density and scalability. Such designs are better suited for real-
world applications, including urban and rural waste management. Industries like food processing, pharmaceuticals,
and textiles have adopted pilot-scale MFCs for dual purposes—wastewater treatment and electricity generation.
These applications reduce operating costs and environmental footprints. MFCs are being explored as decentralized
power solutions for off-grid communities. Their ability to generate electricity from locally available biomass or
organic waste presents a cost-effective energy source [3, 4]. MFCs integrated with biosensors are now used for
real-time detection of pollutants and heavy metals in water, contributing to improved environmental management.
The adaptation of microbial electrolysis cells (MECs), a derivative of MFCs, for hydrogen production represents a
sustainable approach to meeting the increasing demand for clean fuel.
1.1 Significance of MFCs
Unlike conventional fuel cells, which rely on costly catalysts like platinum, MFCs employ microbes as natural
biocatalysts. This substitution not only reduces the cost of energy production but also taps into the natural metabolic
abilities of certain bacteria. These microbes have the unique capability to metabolize various types of organic matter
present in substrates like wastewater, organic sludge, and agricultural residues [9]. During this metabolic process,
the microbes break down complex organic molecules into simpler by-products, releasing electrons and protons as a
result. This natural breakdown process is harnessed to generate a direct electrical current, allowing MFCs to create
energy from readily available and renewable sources like biomass and wastewater [10, 11]. The accessibility and
abundance of these organic materials make MFCs an affordable and sustainable energy source with vast potential.
Moreover, the substrates used in MFCs—such as sewage, industrial wastewater, and agricultural waste—are
often categorized as pollutants that contribute to environmental contamination. By converting these waste streams
into an energy source, MFCs serve a dual purpose: they generate electricity while simultaneously addressing
pollution [12, 13]. This ability to transform waste into a resource aligns with the principles of a circular economy,
where waste is minimized, and resources are repurposed. MFCs not only reduce the need for expensive and rare
materials but also decrease waste treatment costs by integrating energy production with waste remediation.
The environmental benefits of MFCs make them particularly promising for regions where pollution from agricul-
tural runoff, industrial wastewater, or sewage poses a significant challenge. In such areas, MFCs could be incorporated
into existing waste treatment systems to produce clean energy while mitigating environmental hazards [10, 14]. By
addressing the twofold challenges of energy sustainability and waste management, MFCs represent a versatile and
practical solution that supports global sustainability goals.
1.2 Renewable Energy and Environmental Challenges
Bioenergy stands out as a promising clean energy option, offering ways to reduce carbon emissions and lessen
environmental harm. Yet, like many renewable energy solutions, bioenergy technologies come with their own set
of challenges [1, 4]. Solar and wind energy, though popular and effective at harnessing natural energy, are limited
by their dependence on weather conditions and the time of day, which makes their power generation intermittent.
To function as reliable energy sources, these technologies require substantial infrastructure investments for energy
storage (like batteries) and long-distance transmission systems. Similarly, other bioenergy solutions, including
biomass combustion and biogas production, need extensive feedstock processing and typically operate on a large
scale to be economically feasible [3, 5, 11]. These limitations underscore the need for complementary technologies
that can fill the gaps in renewable energy production.

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 MFCs present a unique and innovative solution to these limitations, as they produce electricity through the
conversion of organic waste. MFCs can function continuously as long as they have access to organic material,
which provides a steady, localized source of energy [8, 14, 15]. This continuous power generation makes MFCs
particularly suitable for decentralized energy systems, ideal for rural or remote areas where access to centralized
grids may be limited. In these settings, MFCs can serve as an independent energy source, potentially powering small
communities, agricultural operations, or remote industrial facilities [7, 16]. Because MFCs operate under ambient
conditions without needing high temperatures or pressures, they consume less energy in the conversion process
compared to other bioenergy technologies like biogas production or bioethanol fermentation, which require elevated
temperatures and pressurized environments.
Additionally, the versatility of MFCs to work with various organic wastes as fuel—such as agricultural residues,
industrial wastewater, or sewage—highlights their potential for broad application. This adaptability, combined with
their capacity to provide localized, sustainable energy, supports their role as a valuable addition to the renewable
energy landscape [15, 16]. By integrating MFCs into bioenergy portfolios, the renewable energy sector can
advance toward more robust, flexible, and sustainable solutions, especially for areas where conventional renewable
infrastructure might face logistical or economic hurdles. Thus, MFCs not only complement existing renewable
technologies but also expand the range of sustainable energy solutions available for diverse geographical and
economic contexts.

1.3 MFCs and Sustainable Waste Management

Waste management remains one of the most pressing challenges for modern societies, given the environmental and
economic burdens associated with waste disposal and treatment. With rising urbanization and industrialization, waste
streams from households, industries, and agriculture have increased substantially [17–19]. Traditional wastewater
treatment methods, such as aerobic and anaerobic digestion, have served as the backbone for managing liquid
waste, but these processes are often energy-intensive and require large-scale infrastructure. Aerobic digestion, for
example, consumes significant energy to supply oxygen to the system, while anaerobic digestion, though capable of
producing biogas, still results in a substantial sludge byproduct that requires further handling and disposal [12]. The
infrastructure demands, along with the high operational costs, make conventional treatment systems costly and less
sustainable in the long run.
MFCs offer a groundbreaking alternative by transforming the waste treatment paradigm. Unlike traditional
methods that rely on energy-consuming processes, MFCs harness the natural metabolic processes of bacteria to
break down organic pollutants while generating electricity in the process. This direct energy recovery reduces the
dependency on external power sources for wastewater treatment, thereby decreasing the overall energy footprint of
treatment facilities [6, 16, 18]. By converting wastewater treatment plants from net energy consumers to net energy
producers, MFCs have the potential to drive down operating costs, making these facilities more economically viable
and environmentally sustainable.
The dual functionality of MFCs also addresses the sludge problem commonly associated with conventional
wastewater treatment. Since MFCs rely on microbes to break down organic matter, they generate significantly less
sludge, reducing the need for subsequent treatment and disposal [11, 19, 20]. This not only cuts down on waste but
also minimizes the associated environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions and potential groundwater
contamination from sludge landfills. Furthermore, integrating MFCs into wastewater treatment facilities could
transform these plants into local energy hubs, offering a clean, renewable power source for community or industrial
use [20, 21]. The environmental and economic benefits position MFCs as a pivotal technology for advancing
sustainable water and sanitation systems, enhancing the efficiency and resilience of waste management practices
globally.

1.4 Historical Development of MFCs

In 1911, British botanist M.C. Potter made a pioneering discovery that bacterial cultures could transform
carbohydrates into electricity, thus laying the groundwork for MFC technology. Potter’s experiments showed that
certain bacteria could metabolize organic compounds and, in doing so, release electrons that could generate a small
electrical current [22]. Although groundbreaking, these early systems were hampered by very low efficiency and
power output, which limited their practical application and drew little attention from the scientific community at the
time. The concept largely faded into obscurity until the 1980s, when researchers began to revisit the potential of bio-
electrochemical systems in the context of environmental applications, particularly for wastewater treatment [7, 13].
This renewed interest marked a turning point for MFC research, as scientists started to recognize the dual benefits of
energy generation and pollution control.
The advent of modern biotechnology and materials science in the late 20th and early 21st centuries brought
about transformative changes in MFC design and functionality. A pivotal breakthrough was the discovery of
electrogenic bacteria—organisms capable of directly transferring electrons to electrodes without the need for chemical

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mediators [23, 24]. This discovery was crucial for advancing MFC technology, as it enabled a more direct and
efficient electron transfer process, greatly enhancing the power output of MFC systems. Electrogenic bacteria utilize
conductive pili or other electron transfer mechanisms that connect directly to an electrode, creating a streamlined
pathway for electricity generation [18, 25]. By facilitating more efficient energy conversion, this advancement
opened up new possibilities for MFC applications, not only in wastewater treatment but also in bioenergy and remote
power generation.
With these innovations, MFCs have evolved from low-efficiency devices to promising renewable energy systems
that can convert waste into electricity effectively [9]. The continuous improvements in electrode materials, reactor
design, and microbial selection have further boosted the viability of MFCs, making them a subject of interest for
various industrial and environmental applications. These advances are leading the way toward more sustainable
energy solutions that can be implemented in settings where traditional energy infrastructure may be impractical [4,
22, 24]. Consequently, MFCs are now recognized as an innovative technology with the potential to address both
energy generation and environmental sustainability, fulfilling the vision M.C. Potter set into motion over a century
ago.
1.5 Recent Advances and Research Focus
Recent advancements in MFC technology have been largely geared toward improving power density, cutting
costs, and enhancing the scalability of MFCs for real-world applications. These efforts are essential as researchers
and engineers work to move MFCs from lab-scale prototypes to commercially viable systems [21, 25]. Key areas
of focus include microbial engineering, system design innovations, and integrating MFCs with other technologies,
each contributing uniquely to the broader goal of developing efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable MFC systems.
One of the most promising avenues of MFC research lies in microbial engineering. By leveraging advances in
synthetic biology and microbial genomics, scientists are now able to genetically modify microorganisms to enhance
their electron transfer capabilities and optimize their metabolic rates. This genetic engineering approach enables the
creation of microbial strains that are more efficient at converting organic matter into electricity. For instance, specific
microbes can be engineered to metabolize particular substrates, making MFCs adaptable to a wide range of waste
materials and environmental conditions [26]. Tailoring microbial communities in this way increases the efficiency
of MFCs, broadening their applicability and reliability for both energy generation and wastewater treatment. Such
innovations in microbial engineering not only enhance power output but also improve the overall flexibility of MFCs,
making them a more versatile technology in various settings.
System design is another critical area in the advancement of MFC technology. Researchers have developed
various architectural modifications, such as air-cathode MFCs, stacked configurations, and single-chamber designs,
all aimed at optimizing power output while reducing material costs. Air-cathode MFCs, for example, eliminate the
need for complex cathode solutions, simplifying the design and making the system more cost-effective. Stacked
configurations allow multiple MFC units to be connected in series or parallel, enhancing power density and making
large-scale applications feasible. Single-chamber MFCs, which combine both anode and cathode in one unit, reduce
the complexity and cost of MFC systems, making them easier to deploy in resource-limited settings. These design
innovations have brought MFC technology closer to large-scale implementation, increasing its feasibility for both
urban wastewater treatment plants and decentralized energy systems in remote or rural areas.
The integration of MFCs with other technologies is a rapidly growing research area that further enhances
MFCs’ functionality and efficiency. Hybrid MFC systems, which combine MFCs with other bio-electrochemical
systems, can generate energy more continuously by addressing limitations in power output and operational stability.
Additionally, there is increasing interest in coupling MFCs with bio-electrochemical sensors, an integration that
serves a dual purpose: energy production and environmental monitoring. The electrical signals generated by MFCs
can act as indicators of water quality or pollutant concentration, offering a real-time, cost-effective method for
monitoring environmental conditions. Such integrations broaden the practical applications of MFCs, making them
valuable tools not only for clean energy production but also for public health and environmental safety.
These advancements in microbial engineering, system design, and technology integration underscore the growing
potential of MFCs as an adaptable and sustainable energy solution. With continued innovation, MFCs hold the
promise of playing a transformative role in energy and waste management, providing clean energy options that also
promote environmental resilience.
1.6 Objectives of the Review
This review aims to deliver an in-depth analysis of MFCs, emphasizing their dual potential as both a renewable
energy source and an eco-friendly solution for wastewater treatment [27]. By exploring the fundamental principles
that govern MFC operation, we intend to lay a solid groundwork for understanding how these bio-electrochemical
systems harness the metabolic activities of bacteria to convert organic waste into electrical energy. Beyond foun-
dational concepts, this review will delve into recent advancements in MFC technology, including improvements

201
in microbial engineering, system architecture, and hybrid integrations [28]. These developments have not only
increased power efficiency but also broadened the applicability of MFCs in diverse environments and contexts.
The review will also address the current challenges facing MFC technology, which need to be overcome for
large-scale commercial adoption. Issues such as enhancing power density, reducing production costs, improving
scalability, and managing the longevity of microbial communities are critical for positioning MFCs as a viable
alternative within the renewable energy landscape [22]. By synthesizing the latest research, we aim to provide a clear
picture of the technology’s current state and its limitations, offering insights into the hurdles that must be tackled to
unlock its full potential.
Furthermore, this analysis will highlight key areas for future investigation, identifying research gaps and potential
innovations that could propel MFCs toward mainstream adoption. Our ultimate objective is to outline realistic
pathways for scaling MFC technology to meet the growing global demand for sustainable energy and effective waste
management solutions [29]. Through this review, we hope to contribute to the evolving conversation on renewable
energy by showcasing how MFCs, with continued research and development, could become an integral part of the
world’s energy and environmental strategy.
2 Principles of MFCs
Unlike traditional fuel cells that depend on chemical reactions facilitated by expensive catalysts such as platinum,
MFCs offer a cost-effective alternative by utilizing microorganisms as natural biocatalysts [30]. These microorgan-
isms, typically specialized bacteria, play a central role in MFC function by metabolizing organic substrates—such as
wastewater, agricultural residues, and other biodegradable materials—breaking them down into simpler compounds.
During this metabolic process, the bacteria release electrons and protons as byproducts, which are then channeled
through the MFC’s architecture to produce electricity. The electrons travel toward an external circuit, generating an
electric current, while protons migrate through a selective membrane to complete the circuit on the cathode side,
where they combine with electrons and oxygen to form water.
This section will delve into the core principles that govern MFC operation, beginning with the electrochemical
processes that underpin energy generation [31]. A critical aspect of MFC function is microbial metabolism, whereby
bacteria break down organic matter through oxidation reactions, liberating electrons that can be harnessed as electrical
energy. We will explore various microbial electron transfer pathways, including direct electron transfer (DET), in
which bacteria utilize conductive pili or nanowires to establish direct contact with an electrode, and mediated electron
transfer, where molecules known as redox mediators facilitate electron movement. These pathways enable bacteria
to efficiently transfer electrons to the electrode, boosting the overall energy output of the system.
Another key area of focus is the design elements that drive MFC efficiency and effectiveness. MFC systems
typically consist of an anode chamber, where bacteria reside and organic substrates are metabolized, and a cathode
chamber, where electrons, protons, and oxygen react to complete the circuit. Innovations in anode and cathode
materials, chamber configurations, and membrane selection are critical for optimizing power generation. For
example, materials with high conductivity and biocompatibility can enhance bacterial attachment and electron
transfer, improving the system’s efficiency. Additionally, single-chamber and stacked designs are being explored to
streamline the system, reduce costs, and improve scalability for practical applications.
By examining these core principles—electrochemical reactions, microbial metabolism, electron transfer mech-
anisms, and system design elements—this section aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how MFCs
operate [26, 29]. Through this exploration, we aim to reveal the innovative underpinnings of MFC technology and
highlight the engineering strategies that make them a promising renewable energy source and sustainable waste
treatment solution.
2.1 Microbial Metabolism and Electron Generation
At the core of a MFC’s operation are the unique metabolic processes of specific bacteria known as exoelectrogens.
Unlike other microbes, exoelectrogens have the exceptional ability to transfer electrons outside their cells during
respiration, a property that makes them well-suited for MFC applications. These microorganisms oxidize organic
substrates, which can range from simple compounds like glucose and acetate to complex organic waste found in
wastewater. As they metabolize these substrates, exoelectrogens release electrons, protons, and byproducts such as
carbon dioxide. The electrons and protons produced in this process are essential to the MFC’s ability to generate
electricity, as they facilitate the creation of a current between the MFC’s anode and cathode [27].
In traditional aerobic respiration, microbes would use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. However, in
an MFC, anaerobic conditions at the anode prompt exoelectrogens to use the anode itself as the electron acceptor.
Electrons generated by the oxidation of organic material are transferred directly or indirectly to the anode, creating a
potential difference between the anode and the cathode compartments. This electron transfer, driven by the gradient
established between these compartments, is fundamental to the generation of electrical power in MFCs.

202
 The primary metabolic process in electron generation involves the oxidation of organic compounds at the anode.
The breakdown of substrates, such as glucose or acetate, initiates a series of biochemical reactions where electrons
and protons are produced [32]. These electrons travel along the bacterial membrane to reach the electrode, either
through direct conductive pili known as nanowires or through intermediary molecules, depending on the bacterial
species. Protons migrate through a selective membrane toward the cathode compartment, while electrons travel
through an external circuit connecting the anode and cathode [33]. This movement of electrons creates an electric
current, while protons combine with oxygen and electrons at the cathode to produce water, completing the circuit.
By leveraging these microbial metabolic processes, MFCs harness the natural electron transfer capabilities of
exoelectrogens, turning organic waste into a renewable source of energy [22]. The integration of these bacteria within
the MFC system highlights the innovative nature of bio-electrochemical technologies, which rely on living organisms
as key components in the energy conversion process. Through this mechanism, MFCs represent a sustainable solution
that bridges the gap between waste management and renewable energy production.
2.1.1 Oxidation reaction at the anode (Anaerobic chamber)
The oxidation of organic matter by the microorganisms generates electrons and protons.

C6 H12 O6 + 6H2 O → 6CO2 + 24H+ + 24e−

Here, glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) serves as the organic substrate, which is oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2 ), releasing
electrons (e− ) and protons (H+ ).
2.1.2 Reduction reaction at the cathode (Aerobic chamber)
At the cathode, oxygen is reduced by accepting electrons from the external circuit and protons from the anode
chamber, producing water.

O2 + 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2 O

The overall result is the production of electrical energy, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts.
2.2 Electron Transfer Mechanisms
Microbial electron transfer to the anode is indeed a pivotal process in MFCs, fundamentally impacting both the
efficiency and power output of these systems [34]. The effectiveness of this electron transfer determines how well
the MFC can convert organic substrates into electrical energy, making it a focal point of research and innovation
within the field.
The process begins when exoelectrogenic bacteria metabolize organic substrates at the anode. As these mi-
croorganisms oxidize the substrates, they release electrons, which must be efficiently transferred to the anode to
generate electricity. This electron transfer can occur through various mechanisms, including direct and mediated
pathways [35]. In DET, bacteria utilize specialized structures, such as conductive pili or nanowires, to connect di-
rectly with the anode. This direct connection facilitates a rapid transfer of electrons, enhancing the overall efficiency
of the MFC.
In cases where DET is not feasible, mediated electron transfer occurs. In this process, the bacteria release soluble
electron shuttles—often redox-active compounds—that can diffuse to the anode and transfer electrons. While this
method can still be effective, it may introduce limitations, such as reduced efficiency due to the time required for the
shuttle molecules to diffuse and the potential for them to be consumed or degraded in the process.
The efficiency of microbial electron transfer is influenced by various factors, including the type of bacteria used,
the nature of the substrate, and the design of the anode itself. Different species of exoelectrogens exhibit varying
abilities to transfer electrons, and optimizing the microbial community can significantly enhance performance [28,
35]. Additionally, the physical and chemical properties of the anode material—such as its conductivity, surface
area, and biocompatibility—play crucial roles in facilitating efficient electron transfer. High-surface-area materials,
for instance, can provide more sites for bacterial attachment, thereby improving the likelihood of effective electron
transfer.
The efficiency of microbial electron transfer ultimately dictates the power output of the MFC. Higher electron
transfer rates lead to increased current generation, enhancing the overall performance of the system. Therefore,
optimizing microbial electron transfer mechanisms is essential for maximizing the energy yield from organic sub-
strates [36]. Continued research in this area focuses on developing new materials and configurations that improve
electron transfer efficiency, exploring innovative microbial engineering techniques to enhance the capabilities of
exoelectrogens, and optimizing operational conditions to support robust microbial communities [30]. By addressing
these aspects, advancements in MFC technology can lead to more efficient and powerful systems, further solidifying
their role in sustainable energy production and wastewater treatment.

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2.2.1 DET
Some microorganisms possess the remarkable capability of DET, a process wherein they transfer electrons
generated during their metabolic activities directly to the anode surface of an MFC. This ability is a game-changer in
MFC technology, as it significantly enhances the efficiency and power output of the system. The primary facilitators
of this process are conductive proteins known as cytochromes, which are embedded in the cell walls of these
bacteria. Cytochromes play a crucial role in electron transport, allowing for the efficient movement of electrons from
the microbial cell to the anode.
In addition to cytochromes, certain exoelectrogenic bacteria also produce electrically conductive appendages
known as nanowires. These nanowires serve as extensions that enable the bacteria to transfer electrons to the anode
even when they are not in direct physical contact with the surface. This capability expands the effective area for
electron transfer and can significantly enhance the overall performance of the MFC [21]. For instance, when bacteria
utilize nanowires, they can facilitate electron transfer across greater distances, making it possible for microbial
colonies to thrive in environments where not every cell can be in close proximity to the anode [31].
Notable examples of bacteria that utilize the DET mechanism include Geobacter and Shewanella. Geobacter
species are well known for their ability to form biofilms on electrode surfaces, establishing strong physical connections
with the anode through their cytochromes and nanowires [35, 37]. This interaction enhances the transfer of electrons
and allows them to efficiently oxidize organic substrates, thereby generating electricity. Similarly, Shewanella species
are adept at utilizing iron oxides as electron acceptors in their natural habitats, and their capacity for DET further
allows them to interact effectively with MFC electrodes.
The unique mechanisms by which these exoelectrogens engage in DET make them particularly effective for
MFC applications. Their ability to form robust physical connections with the anode not only improves electron
transfer rates but also supports the establishment of stable microbial communities, which are essential for sustained
power generation [38]. This adaptability enables MFCs to operate efficiently over extended periods, leveraging the
metabolic activities of these microorganisms to convert waste into usable energy.
In summary, the ability of certain microorganisms to engage in DET is a key factor in the functionality of
MFCs [28, 39]. By utilizing cytochromes and nanowires, these bacteria can optimize their interaction with the
anode, leading to enhanced energy production. As research in this area continues to evolve, understanding and
harnessing the capabilities of exoelectrogens like Geobacter and Shewanella could lead to more efficient MFC
designs and broader applications in renewable energy and wastewater treatment.
Some exoelectrogenic bacteria, such as Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis, transfer electrons
directly to the anode via conductive appendages like nanowires or outer membrane cytochromes. These structures
create a direct electrical connection between the bacteria and the electrode. DET is highly efficient due to minimal
energy losses during electron transfer. It provides a streamlined pathway, ensuring that more electrons generated by
microbial metabolism are harnessed for electricity. However, DET requires close proximity between bacteria and
the anode, which can limit the active microbial surface area and power density.
2.2.2 Mediator-Assisted Electron Transfer (MET)
In scenarios where microorganisms lack the capacity for DET to the anode, they depend on electron mediators
to facilitate the transfer process. These mediators play a critical role in bridging the gap between the microbial
metabolism and the anode surface, thereby enabling the generation of electricity even from bacteria that do not
possess the specialized structures necessary for DET [40]. Mediators can be either naturally produced by the
microorganisms themselves or externally supplied to enhance the efficiency of the electron transfer process.
Common mediators used in MFCs include compounds such as quinones, phenazines, and neutral red. Quinones,
for example, are redox-active compounds that can undergo reversible electron transfer, making them effective
carriers of electrons between microbial cells and the anode [40]. Similarly, phenazines, which are produced by
certain bacterial species, have been shown to play an essential role in facilitating electron transfer by accepting
electrons from the bacteria and subsequently transferring them to the anode. Neutral red, a synthetic dye, also
functions as a mediator by accepting electrons and enhancing the overall efficiency of the electron transfer process.
While the use of mediators broadens the spectrum of microorganisms that can participate in electron transfer, it
also introduces certain inefficiencies [35]. One primary concern is the potential loss of electrons during the multiple
transfer steps involved. As electrons move from the microbe to the mediator and then from the mediator to the anode,
there is an inherent risk of energy loss at each interface. This can result in a lower overall power output compared to
systems employing DET, where the electron flow is more streamlined and efficient.
Additionally, the presence of mediators may lead to fluctuations in performance based on the concentration
and stability of these compounds [14, 41]. For instance, if the concentration of the mediator is insufficient or if it
degrades over time, the effectiveness of the electron transfer process can be compromised, further impacting the
MFC’s efficiency. This underscores the importance of carefully selecting and managing mediators to ensure optimal
performance.

204
 Despite these challenges, the ability to use mediators significantly expands the diversity of microbial communities
that can be utilized in MFCs. By incorporating various microbial species, including those that may not possess
the mechanisms for DET, researchers can optimize MFC designs for specific applications and improve the overall
sustainability of the technology [21]. Understanding the dynamics of MET remains an essential area of research,
as it holds the potential to enhance the performance of MFCs and broaden their applicability in renewable energy
production and waste treatment.
In MET, bacteria release redox-active compounds (e.g., quinones, phenazines, or externally supplied neutral red)
that shuttle electrons from the bacterial cell to the anode. These mediators are essential for microorganisms that
lack DET capabilities. Although MET expands the range of usable microbial species, it is less efficient than DET
due to potential energy losses during the mediator’s redox cycling. Mediators may degrade over time, requiring
replenishment, which increases operational complexity.
2.2.3 Symbiotic and syntrophic relationships
In certain MFCs, the collaboration between different microbial communities can significantly enhance the overall
efficiency and performance of the system. This collaborative interaction often manifests in the form of syntrophic
relationships, wherein multiple microbial species work together to break down complex organic substrates into
simpler compounds [42]. In this arrangement, one species may specialize in degrading complex materials, such
as polysaccharides or proteins, into simpler metabolites like fatty acids or alcohols, which are then utilized by
exoelectrogenic bacteria for further oxidation and electron generation.
This cooperation not only facilitates a more efficient breakdown of diverse substrates but also optimizes the
conditions for electron transfer. By having a mixed microbial community, MFCs can leverage the unique metabolic
capabilities of different species, allowing for a wider range of organic materials to be processed. For instance, while
some bacteria may excel at breaking down particular types of organic matter, others may be adept at transferring
electrons to the anode. The resulting synergy among these microbes enhances the overall electron transfer rate,
leading to improved power output and efficiency in energy conversion.
In addition to improving electron transfer, these syntrophic interactions can stabilize microbial communities
within the MFC. The presence of various microbial species helps create a balanced ecosystem whereby byproducts
of one species’ metabolism can be utilized by another, reducing the potential for toxic accumulation and promoting
a more resilient community [40]. This is particularly important in wastewater treatment applications, where the
composition of the organic material can vary widely.
Moreover, the ability to engage multiple microbial species in electron generation allows MFCs to adapt to
different environmental conditions and substrates. For example, under varying pH levels or temperatures, certain
species may thrive while others may not. A diverse microbial community can maintain stability and performance
even when conditions fluctuate, making the MFC system more robust and reliable.
Overall, the collaboration among microbial communities in MFCs through syntrophic relationships exemplifies
the complexity and potential of bio-electrochemical systems. By harnessing the strengths of different microbial
species, MFCs can achieve greater efficiency in both energy production and organic waste degradation [27]. As
research continues in this area, understanding the dynamics of microbial interactions will be crucial for optimizing
MFC design and performance, paving the way for their wider application in sustainable energy and wastewater
treatment solutions.
In mature biofilms, conductive networks form through cell-to-cell connections. These networks, comprising
nanowires or extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), enable electrons to travel from deeper layers of the biofilm
to the anode. Biofilm conduction supports thicker biofilms, enhancing current density. However, excessive biofilm
thickness can create resistance and limit substrate diffusion, thereby reducing overall efficiency. High-conductivity
and biocompatible materials (e.g., carbon-based electrodes) improve electron collection and microbial attachment,
enhancing DET and MET efficiency. Mixed consortia combining species with DET and MET capabilities create
synergistic effects, maximizing electron recovery. Optimized designs like single-chamber MFCs or air-cathode
systems reduce resistance and improve electron transfer pathways.
2.3 Electrochemical Reactions and Energy Conversion
The conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy in MFCs is fundamentally driven by electrochemical
reactions that facilitate the transfer of charge carriers, namely electrons and protons, produced during microbial
metabolism. This process is essential for the generation of electrical current within the MFC, transforming the
energy stored in organic substrates into usable electrical energy.
At the heart of this conversion process lies the metabolic activity of exoelectrogenic bacteria, which oxidize
organic compounds during their respiration. As these microorganisms break down substrates, they generate electrons
and protons as byproducts [27]. The efficient separation and management of these charge carriers are crucial for
the functioning of MFCs. In essence, the bacteria transfer electrons to the anode, while protons are either shuttled
across a membrane or diffuse through the electrolyte to the cathode.

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 The electron transfer occurs primarily at the anode, where bacteria engage in either DET (as discussed previously)
or mediated electron transfer if direct pathways are not available. This transfer is critical because it establishes a flow
of electrons through an external circuit, creating the electric current that MFCs harness for power generation [14].
The anode serves as the site of oxidation reactions, where organic substrates are converted into simpler products,
resulting in the release of electrons.
Meanwhile, protons generated during microbial metabolism must move towards the cathode, where they will
react with electrons and oxygen to form water. This reaction at the cathode completes the circuit and is essential for
maintaining the flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode. The separation of these charge carriers—electrons
traveling through the external circuit and protons moving through the electrolyte or a membrane—creates a potential
difference, which is the driving force for the electric current.
Maintaining a stable and efficient separation of charge carriers is crucial for optimizing the performance of
MFCs. Factors such as the type of microbial community, the design of the anode and cathode, and the composition
of the electrolyte can all influence the efficiency of electron and proton transfer [23]. For instance, high-conductivity
materials used for electrodes can enhance electron transfer rates, while selective membranes can facilitate proton
movement while preventing the passage of electrons, thereby ensuring efficient charge separation [43].
In summary, the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy in MFCs hinges on the effective management
of charge carriers generated during microbial metabolism [43, 44]. The intricate interplay between microbial activity,
electrochemical reactions at the anode and cathode, and the separation of electrons and protons is essential for the
overall efficiency and functionality of MFCs. As research continues to advance in this field, optimizing these
processes will be vital for enhancing the performance and scalability of MFC technology, ultimately contributing to
sustainable energy solutions [30].
2.3.1 Energy output in MFCs
The electrical energy produced in an MFC is contingent upon several interrelated factors that dictate the efficiency
and output of the system. Understanding these factors is essential for optimizing MFC design and enhancing its
application in renewable energy production [26].
One of the primary determinants of the voltage generated by an MFC is the electrode potential. The potential
difference, or voltage, is a result of the redox reactions occurring at the anode and cathode. At the anode, oxidation
reactions take place as microorganisms metabolize organic substrates, releasing electrons [22, 35]. The nature
of these substrates, alongside the specific microorganisms involved, significantly influences the overall electrode
potential. Different substrates can lead to varying degrees of electron release, while different microbial species
may possess unique metabolic pathways that affect the efficiency of electron transfer [14]. For instance, substrates
that yield higher electron transfer rates will contribute to a more favorable electrode potential, ultimately enhancing
the voltage output of the MFC. Furthermore, the type of materials used for the electrodes can also play a crucial
role. Conductive materials with high surface area and appropriate redox properties can facilitate better interactions
between the microorganisms and the electrode, further influencing the potential generated.
Another critical parameter is coulombic efficiency, which measures the proportion of electrons generated from
the oxidation of substrates that are effectively captured by the MFC to produce electricity. High coulombic efficiency
indicates that a larger fraction of the electrons produced during microbial metabolism is being utilized for current
generation, whereas lower efficiencies suggest that significant numbers of electrons are lost to side reactions or other
processes. Several factors can influence coulombic efficiency, including microbial competition, which may occur
when multiple microbial species are present, competing for the same substrate. In such cases, some microorganisms
may not effectively transfer their generated electrons to the anode, resulting in decreased efficiency [7]. Additionally,
substrate loss—where a portion of the substrate is consumed by the microbial community but not effectively converted
into electricity—can also impact coulombic efficiency.
Side reactions present another challenge. For example, some organic substrates can undergo fermentation
pathways that do not produce electrons in a form usable for electricity generation. The extent of these side
reactions can vary depending on the type of substrate and the microbial community structure within the MFC.
Therefore, optimizing the microbial community composition, substrate selection, and operating conditions is critical
to maximizing coulombic efficiency.
In summary, the electrical energy output of an MFC is influenced by a multitude of factors, with electrode
potential and coulombic efficiency standing out as pivotal parameters. A deeper understanding of these factors
allows for targeted strategies to enhance MFC performance, ensuring that these systems can effectively contribute
to sustainable energy solutions while efficiently treating organic waste. Continued research in this area holds the
promise of unlocking the full potential of MFC technology, leading to greater efficiency and broader applicability in
the fields of renewable energy and wastewater treatment.

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2.4 Factors Affecting MFC Performance
The overall performance of MFCs is influenced by a variety of interconnected factors, each playing a crucial
role in determining the efficiency and effectiveness of electricity generation from organic substrates. Understanding
these influences is key to optimizing MFC design and operation for sustainable energy applications.
Substrate type and concentration are among the most significant factors affecting MFC performance. The specific
organic substrate utilized, whether it be glucose, acetate, or a more complex mixture found in wastewater, directly
impacts the metabolic pathways of the microbial communities present in the MFC [38, 40]. Different substrates
provide varying amounts of energy and electron availability, with easily degradable substrates generally leading to
higher power outputs. For instance, glucose is a favored substrate due to its rapid breakdown and high electron
yield. However, it is important to note that while higher concentrations of readily degradable substrates can enhance
electricity generation, excessively high concentrations may inhibit microbial growth or lead to substrate inhibition.
This inhibition can occur when the concentration of the substrate becomes so high that it becomes toxic to the
microorganisms or disrupts their metabolic processes, ultimately hindering the MFC’s performance.
The microbial community composition within the MFC is another critical factor influencing substrate degradation
and power generation. The presence of exoelectrogenic bacteria, which are capable of transferring electrons to the
anode, is essential for efficient electricity production. However, other microbial species also play significant roles
in breaking down complex organic substrates into simpler compounds that exoelectrogens can further metabolize.
The interactions within a diverse microbial community can lead to enhanced substrate degradation and improved
electron transfer efficiency. For example, some bacteria may produce metabolic byproducts that are favorable for the
growth of exoelectrogens, creating a synergistic relationship that boosts overall performance.
Electrode materials significantly impact the efficiency of electron transfer in MFCs. The choice of materials for
the anode and cathode, as well as their surface area and porosity, are critical considerations. Highly conductive and
biocompatible materials facilitate microbial attachment and promote efficient electron transfer, reducing resistive
losses within the system [11, 14, 30]. The design and surface modifications of electrodes can enhance their interaction
with the microbial community, leading to improved power output. Moreover, the surface area of the electrodes plays
a vital role in providing sufficient sites for microbial colonization and electron transfer, thus affecting the overall
efficiency of the MFC.
Environmental conditions such as temperature and pH also influence microbial activity and, consequently, the
performance of MFCs. Most microorganisms exhibit optimal activity at moderate temperatures and near-neutral
pH levels. Extreme temperatures can inhibit microbial growth, while significantly acidic or alkaline conditions may
disrupt metabolic processes and reduce power output [26]. For instance, many exoelectrogens thrive in conditions
close to neutral pH, which supports their metabolic activities and enhances electron transfer efficiency. Therefore,
maintaining optimal environmental conditions is essential for maximizing the power generation potential of MFCs.
In conclusion, the performance of MFCs is multifaceted and influenced by various factors, including substrate
type and concentration, microbial community composition, electrode materials, and environmental conditions. A
comprehensive understanding of these interactions allows for targeted strategies to enhance MFC efficiency and
efficacy, paving the way for their broader application in renewable energy generation and wastewater treatment.
Continued research and innovation in these areas are essential for unlocking the full potential of MFCs as sustainable
energy solutions.
3 Applications of MFCs
3.1 Energy Generation
MFCs represent a promising alternative source of renewable energy by effectively harnessing organic waste,
agricultural by-products, and wastewater as substrates for electricity generation. This innovative technology taps
into the metabolic processes of microorganisms, converting the chemical energy stored in organic materials into
electrical energy [22]. The ability of MFCs to utilize waste products not only addresses the pressing issues of waste
management and environmental pollution but also provides a sustainable energy solution, thereby creating a circular
economy where waste is transformed into valuable resources.
One of the most significant advantages of MFCs is their potential to decentralize power production, particularly
beneficial for remote or off-grid areas that lack access to conventional energy infrastructure. In many regions,
especially rural communities, the availability of reliable energy sources is limited, hindering development and quality
of life. MFCs can serve as localized energy solutions, enabling these communities to generate their own electricity
from available organic waste materials. This decentralization not only reduces reliance on centralized energy systems
but also fosters energy independence, allowing communities to utilize their local resources effectively [14].
Moreover, the implementation of MFC technology in remote areas can significantly contribute to sustainable
development goals. By providing a clean and renewable energy source, MFCs can help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change [17]. They also address issues related to sanitation and

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wastewater management, as many MFCs can treat wastewater while simultaneously generating electricity. This
dual functionality is particularly valuable in developing regions where waste disposal poses significant health and
environmental risks.
In addition to enhancing energy access and environmental sustainability, MFCs can also spur economic opportu-
nities in rural areas [45]. The deployment of MFC technology can create jobs related to the installation, maintenance,
and operation of these systems, contributing to local economies. Furthermore, the agricultural sector can benefit
from the integration of MFCs by utilizing agricultural residues and by-products as feedstocks, creating a more
sustainable agricultural practice.
As the technology continues to evolve, ongoing research and innovation will be crucial to improving the efficiency
and scalability of MFCs. Advances in microbial engineering, electrode design, and system integration can further
enhance the performance of MFCs, making them more viable for widespread adoption [6, 42]. Ultimately, the
integration of MFCs into energy systems can play a vital role in transitioning towards a more sustainable, decentralized
energy future that not only meets the needs of communities but also contributes to broader environmental and
economic goals.
3.2 Wastewater Treatment
The ability of MFCs to utilize organic pollutants in wastewater as substrates for electricity generation while
simultaneously treating and cleaning the water represents a significant advancement in waste management and
renewable energy production [17]. This dual functionality positions MFCs as a compelling solution for industries
and municipalities striving to achieve both economic and environmental sustainability.
In many wastewater treatment facilities, organic pollutants such as sugars, fats, and proteins are abundant.
Traditionally, these pollutants are viewed as burdens that require significant energy input for removal, often through
energy-intensive processes such as aerobic and anaerobic digestion. However, MFCs turn this paradigm on its head
by converting these very pollutants into valuable electrical energy [11]. As microorganisms metabolize the organic
matter in the wastewater, they generate electrons, which can be harvested to produce electricity. This approach not
only reduces the overall energy consumption of the wastewater treatment process but also transforms a liability into
a resource.
For industries, the adoption of MFC technology can lead to substantial cost savings. By integrating MFCs
into existing wastewater treatment systems, companies can potentially offset some of their energy costs with the
electricity generated from the treatment process. This is especially beneficial for energy-intensive industries,
such as food processing, textiles, and pharmaceuticals, where wastewater is generated in large quantities [17, 42].
Additionally, the reduction in energy usage can enhance the overall sustainability of these operations, aligning with
growing regulatory pressures and public demand for greener practices.
Municipalities also stand to gain from implementing MFC technology in their wastewater treatment plants.
Many urban areas are faced with increasing demands for efficient waste management solutions, particularly as
populations grow and environmental regulations tighten. MFCs can help municipalities meet these challenges by
providing an innovative approach to wastewater treatment that not only cleans the water but also generates renewable
energy [44, 46]. The dual benefits of improved water quality and energy production can make municipal treatment
facilities more resilient and adaptable to future environmental challenges.
Furthermore, the environmental implications of using MFCs for wastewater treatment are significant. By
effectively removing organic pollutants, MFCs help mitigate the release of harmful substances into natural water
bodies, thus protecting aquatic ecosystems and promoting biodiversity. This aligns with global efforts to enhance
water quality and ensure sustainable management of water resources, particularly in regions facing water scarcity
and pollution.
In summary, the capacity of MFCs to convert organic pollutants in wastewater into electricity while simultaneously
purifying the water presents a transformative solution for energy generation and waste management [17]. This
innovative approach is especially attractive to industries and municipalities aiming to reduce costs and enhance
environmental sustainability. As research and development continue to advance MFC technology, its widespread
adoption could play a pivotal role in shaping a more sustainable future for wastewater treatment and renewable energy
production.

3.3 Environmental Monitoring

Integrating MFCs with biosensors offers a cutting-edge solution for real-time environmental monitoring, partic-
ularly in assessing the quality of water bodies. This innovative approach leverages the inherent capabilities of MFCs
to detect changes in the composition of wastewater or natural water sources, providing valuable data on the presence
of pollutants, including toxins and heavy metals [19].
The principle behind this integration lies in the fact that the metabolic activity of microorganisms within MFCs
is sensitive to the surrounding chemical environment. When the composition of the water changes—such as the

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introduction of harmful substances like heavy metals or toxins—microbial behavior and metabolism can be directly
affected [44]. These alterations often result in measurable changes in the electrical output of the MFC. For example,
the presence of toxic compounds may inhibit the growth of beneficial microorganisms or alter their metabolic
pathways, leading to a decrease in electron production and, consequently, a drop in voltage or current output.
By continuously monitoring the electrical signals generated by the MFC, researchers and environmental managers
can gain insights into the health of aquatic ecosystems. This real-time monitoring capability is particularly valuable in
industrial settings, where wastewater is discharged into natural bodies of water, and in agricultural areas where runoff
may introduce harmful chemicals into waterways. Traditional methods of water quality testing often involve time-
consuming laboratory analyses, which can delay response times in identifying pollution events. In contrast, MFC-
biosensor systems enable immediate detection of contamination, allowing for quicker interventions and remediation
efforts.
Furthermore, the integration of biosensors with MFCs not only enhances pollution monitoring but also creates a
synergistic relationship between energy generation and environmental surveillance. The electrical output generated
by the MFC can be utilized to power the biosensors themselves, making the entire system more self-sufficient and
cost-effective [6, 24]. This closed-loop approach reduces reliance on external energy sources, making it feasible for
deployment in remote or off-grid locations where conventional power supply may not be readily available.
In addition to detecting pollutants, MFC-biosensor systems can be designed to assess specific water quality
parameters, such as pH, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient levels. By correlating changes in electrical output with
these parameters, it becomes possible to develop comprehensive profiles of water quality that inform management
decisions and regulatory compliance [42]. This capability is particularly crucial in the context of environmental
protection and conservation, as it enables proactive measures to safeguard water resources.
In summary, the integration of MFCs with biosensors represents a transformative approach to real-time environ-
mental monitoring [17]. By detecting shifts in electrical output in response to changes in water composition, these
systems provide immediate insights into the presence of pollutants and overall water quality. The ability to monitor
environmental conditions in real-time enhances response strategies and contributes to the sustainable management
of aquatic ecosystems, ultimately supporting efforts to preserve water quality and protect public health [39, 44]. As
research progresses, the potential for widespread adoption of MFC-biosensor systems could significantly advance
our capabilities in environmental monitoring and protection.

3.4 Bio-Hydrogen Production

MFCs can be adapted to produce hydrogen through MECs, a related technology that utilizes an additional
voltage to stimulate hydrogen evolution at the cathode. This innovative approach combines the principles of bio-
electrochemistry with the burgeoning demand for clean hydrogen fuel, presenting a promising pathway for sustainable
energy production using waste biomass.
In a typical MFC setup, microorganisms metabolize organic substrates to generate electricity while treating
wastewater. In contrast, MECs utilize the same microorganisms but add a specific voltage to facilitate the electrolysis
of water, enabling the production of hydrogen gas at the cathode [41, 45, 46]. This process occurs through microbial-
mediated reactions where, upon applying a voltage, the protons produced during microbial metabolism are reduced
at the cathode to form hydrogen gas. This mechanism not only enhances the energy yield from organic waste but
also provides a cleaner alternative to conventional hydrogen production methods, which often rely on fossil fuels or
other carbon-intensive processes.
The use of waste biomass as a substrate for hydrogen production is particularly significant in addressing two
major global challenges: energy transition and waste management [44]. Agricultural residues, food waste, and
other organic by-products are abundant and often underutilized. By converting these waste materials into hydrogen
fuel, MECs help create a circular economy where waste is repurposed into a valuable energy resource [33]. This
approach aligns well with sustainability goals, as it reduces reliance on non-renewable energy sources and decreases
environmental pollution associated with waste disposal.
One of the primary advantages of MECs is their ability to operate at relatively low temperatures and ambient
conditions, making them suitable for integration into existing waste treatment facilities. This compatibility allows
for the dual function of waste treatment and hydrogen production, maximizing resource efficiency [26]. Additionally,
the hydrogen generated can be stored and utilized in various applications, including fuel cells for transportation,
electricity generation, and as a feedstock for industrial processes.
Moreover, the scalability of MEC technology presents an opportunity for diverse applications, from small-scale
systems suitable for rural or off-grid settings to large-scale implementations in urban waste treatment plants. By
effectively linking waste management with renewable energy production, MECs can contribute significantly to local
energy systems and promote energy independence in communities. As research in this field progresses, there
are opportunities to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of MECs. Advances in microbial engineering,
electrode materials, and system design can enhance hydrogen production rates and overall system performance [42].

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Exploring different microbial consortia that can optimize substrate degradation and hydrogen production will also
be crucial for maximizing the potential of MECs.
In summary, MECs present a novel application of MFC technology, enabling the production of clean hydrogen
fuel from waste biomass [21, 36]. By harnessing the metabolic processes of microorganisms and applying external
voltage, MECs facilitate hydrogen evolution while simultaneously addressing waste management issues. This hybrid
technology not only contributes to sustainable energy production but also plays a vital role in the transition to a
circular economy, making it a significant player in the future of renewable energy solutions. Table 1 includes some
experimental results from recent studies that will provide tangible evidence of MFC performance and practical
outcomes.

Table 1. Experimental case studies on MFC performance and applications

Case Study Key Details Implications

Case study 1: Source: Choudhury et al. [9]
1. Highlights MFC’s dual role in renewable energy and
MFC Type: Two-chamber MFC
environmental remediation. 2. Demonstrates potential for
Performance in Substrate: Synthetic wastewater with glucose
industrial wastewater treatment while generating electricity. 3.
Wastewater Performance: Achieved 800 mW/m²
Can be adapted for diverse wastewater treatment systems.
Treatment maximum power density
COD Removal Efficiency: 85%
Case study 2: Source: Jadhav et al. [19] 1. Demonstrates MFC’s feasibility in decentralized, hybrid
Integration System: MFC stack integrated with solar renewable systems. 2. Addresses energy access in remote or
with panels for rural electrification off-grid areas. 3. Ensures energy consistency by leveraging
Renewable Substrate: Agricultural waste solar power for daytime generation and MFCs for night-time
Energy Sources Output: Produced continuous power of 0.4 W operations. 4. Highlights the practical viability of hybrid
systems in low-resource environments.
Source: Authors’ own elaboration

In Japan, a pilot-scale MFC system at a wastewater treatment plant demonstrated energy-neutral operation.
Electricity generated offset operational energy requirements by 40%. This supports scaling MFCs for municipal
applications. An MFC-biosensor was used to detect heavy metal pollution in river water [8, 9]. It has successfully
detected lead at concentrations as low as 5 ppb. It also offers potential for real-time environmental monitoring
solutions. Recent advancements in MFC technology have been supported by experimental validations and real-
world implementations. For instance, a two-chamber MFC achieved a power density of 800 mW/m² while treating
synthetic wastewater with 85% COD removal efficiency [16, 17]. Similarly, a hybrid system integrating MFCs with
solar panels in rural India demonstrated the feasibility of decentralized energy production, ensuring an uninterrupted
electricity supply during night hours [19, 20]. Furthermore, pilot-scale trials in wastewater treatment facilities have
shown that MFCs can offset up to 40% of operational energy requirements, highlighting their potential for scalable
applications in municipal settings.
4 Challenges and Limitations
4.1 Low Power Density
Despite the significant promise that MFCs hold for sustainable energy production and wastewater treatment, they
face inherent challenges, particularly in terms of power density. Generally, MFCs produce lower power densities
compared to more established energy-generation technologies such as traditional fuel cells and batteries [39]. This
limitation is a key factor that researchers and engineers must address to enable the broader adoption of MFC
technology in practical applications.
Power density refers to the amount of electrical power produced per unit volume or area of the fuel cell, and it is
a critical metric in evaluating the performance and efficiency of any energy-generating system. While MFCs have
demonstrated their ability to convert organic waste into electricity, the overall power output is often not sufficient for
high-demand applications or for competing with conventional energy sources [3, 8, 21]. Several factors contribute
to this lower power density, including the kinetics of microbial metabolism, electron transfer processes, and the
properties of the electrode materials used in the system.
To enhance the power output of MFCs, optimizing the microbial communities is essential. The composition of
the microbial consortium directly influences the efficiency of substrate degradation and the overall electron transfer
processes. By engineering or selecting specific microbial species that exhibit higher metabolic rates and better
electron transfer capabilities, researchers can improve the energy conversion efficiency [6, 8]. Techniques such as
synthetic biology and microbial consortia optimization allow for the creation of customized communities that are
specifically tailored to different substrates, thus maximizing the power generation potential of MFCs.

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 In addition to optimizing microbial communities, the selection and modification of electrode materials play a cru-
cial role in enhancing power density. The anode and cathode materials must possess properties that facilitate efficient
electron transfer and minimize resistive losses. Researchers are exploring various materials, including conductive
polymers, carbon-based materials, and metal-organic frameworks, to improve the electrochemical performance of
MFCs [29, 33]. Increasing the surface area and porosity of the electrodes can also enhance microbial attachment
and promote better contact between the microbes and the electrodes, further boosting power output.
Furthermore, the design of MFC systems can also be optimized to improve power densities. Innovations such
as stacked configurations, air-cathode designs, and hybrid systems that integrate other energy generation methods
can contribute to enhancing the overall efficiency and scalability of MFC technology. By creating more effective
electrochemical environments, these design improvements facilitate better electron transfer and higher energy output.
Addressing these challenges is crucial for realizing the full potential of MFCs in energy generation and environ-
mental applications. As researchers continue to explore new strategies for optimizing microbial communities and
improving electrode materials, there is hope for achieving significant advancements in power density. This progress
could make MFCs more competitive with traditional energy technologies and lead to broader implementation in both
small-scale and large-scale applications.
In summary, while MFCs currently exhibit lower power densities compared to traditional fuel cells and batteries,
there is a concerted effort in the research community to enhance their performance through the optimization
of microbial communities and electrode materials. By addressing these critical aspects, it may be possible to
significantly improve the power output of MFCs, paving the way for their greater use in sustainable energy generation
and waste treatment solutions.
4.2 Cost and Scalability
MFCs present a promising technology for sustainable energy production and wastewater treatment; however,
they currently grapple with significant challenges concerning cost and scalability. One of the primary barriers to
widespread adoption is the expense associated with key components such as proton exchange membranes (PEMs),
electrodes, and other materials used in MFC construction. The high costs of these materials can make it difficult
to justify the economic feasibility of MFCs, particularly in comparison to more established energy generation
technologies [2, 3, 21].
PEMs are critical for the operation of MFCs, as they facilitate the selective transfer of protons from the anode
to the cathode while preventing the mixing of reactants. However, many of the commercially available PEMs are
derived from expensive polymers, which can increase the overall cost of MFC systems. Similarly, the electrodes must
possess high conductivity, durability, and biocompatibility, further driving up costs. These materials are essential
for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of the cells, but their expense can pose a significant hurdle to scalability,
especially for applications requiring large-scale implementation.
Scalability also presents a challenge, as the successful transition from laboratory-scale experiments to field
applications necessitates a deeper understanding of the long-term performance of MFC systems [10]. Many studies
have demonstrated the effectiveness of MFCs in controlled settings; however, the durability and reliability of
these systems in real-world conditions remain less well understood. Factors such as microbial community dynamics,
substrate variability, and environmental conditions can significantly affect the performance and lifespan of MFCs [13,
21]. Therefore, additional research is required to evaluate how MFCs perform over extended periods, particularly in
fluctuating or challenging environmental conditions that may be encountered in large-scale applications.
Moreover, integrating MFC technology into existing infrastructure, such as wastewater treatment facilities,
requires careful consideration of operational costs and maintenance requirements [30]. It is crucial to assess how
MFCs can be seamlessly incorporated into current systems to improve efficiency and reduce energy consumption.
Developing standardized protocols for monitoring and maintaining MFCs in operational settings will be vital for
ensuring their reliability and effectiveness over time [33].
To address these challenges, research efforts are increasingly focused on identifying alternative materials that
can reduce costs while maintaining or enhancing performance. For instance, advancements in nanomaterials and
conductive polymers could provide more affordable substitutes for traditional electrode materials and PEMs [18].
Additionally, innovations in system design, such as modular and decentralized configurations, could enhance the
scalability of MFCs, making them more adaptable to various applications, from small rural installations to large
municipal wastewater treatment plants.
In conclusion, while MFCs hold significant potential for renewable energy and wastewater treatment, their
widespread adoption is hindered by challenges related to cost and scalability [36]. The high expense of essential
materials, such as PEMs and electrodes, along with the need for a comprehensive understanding of long-term
performance, poses obstacles that researchers must address [43]. By focusing on innovative materials and designs,
the MFC community can work towards overcoming these challenges and unlocking the full potential of this technology
for sustainable energy solutions.

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4.3 Electrode Fouling
Biofouling on anode surfaces is a significant challenge in the operation of MFCs that can lead to reduced
conductivity and overall system performance. This phenomenon occurs when microorganisms, particularly non-
electrogenic species, adhere to the anode surface and form biofilms. While biofilms are essential for the function
of MFCs as they harbor the electrogenic microbes necessary for electricity generation, excessive biofouling can
hinder electron transfer and block active sites on the anode [30]. Consequently, addressing biofouling is crucial for
enhancing the efficiency and longevity of MFC systems.
To mitigate the issue of biofouling, researchers are exploring the development of biofouling-resistant materials.
These materials are designed to minimize the attachment of unwanted microorganisms while promoting the growth of
beneficial exoelectrogenic bacteria [3]. By modifying the surface properties of anodes—such as their hydrophobicity,
charge, and roughness—scientists aim to create environments that discourage the adhesion of fouling organisms. For
example, incorporating antimicrobial coatings or employing surfaces with specific textures can disrupt the ability of
non-electrogenic microbes to establish themselves on the anode, thus preserving the performance of the fuel cell.
In addition to material modifications, the development of self-cleaning mechanisms presents a promising approach
to combating biofouling in MFCs. Self-cleaning technologies can facilitate the removal of accumulated biomass from
the anode surface, thereby maintaining optimal conductivity and performance without requiring frequent manual
intervention [43, 44]. One such method involves the application of electrical pulses or vibrations to dislodge biofilms,
a technique that leverages the physical properties of the microbial layer to promote detachment. Alternatively,
researchers are investigating the use of fluid dynamics within the MFC design, optimizing flow patterns to enhance
the washing away of fouling microorganisms as part of the normal operation of the cell.
Moreover, integrating self-cleaning features with advanced monitoring systems can provide real-time feedback
on biofouling levels, enabling proactive measures to maintain optimal performance [5]. For instance, sensors could
be employed to track changes in voltage or current output, alerting operators when biofouling reaches a critical level,
thus allowing for timely interventions.
Another innovative approach involves harnessing the natural behaviors of microorganisms within the fuel cell.
Certain bacterial species exhibit motility and can actively migrate towards favorable environments [34]. By strategi-
cally engineering microbial communities to favor species with desirable characteristics, it may be possible to develop
a dynamic system where the beneficial bacteria effectively outcompete fouling species for space and resources on
the anode surface.
In summary, biofouling presents a significant obstacle in maximizing the efficiency of MFCs. However, through
the development of biofouling-resistant materials and the implementation of self-cleaning mechanisms, researchers
can mitigate this issue [18]. By optimizing surface properties, employing innovative physical cleaning techniques,
and utilizing intelligent monitoring systems, the performance and longevity of MFCs can be significantly enhanced.
These advancements not only promise improved energy conversion efficiencies but also contribute to the overall
sustainability and feasibility of MFC technology in real-world applications.
4.4 Microbial Efficiency
The efficiency of MFCs is significantly influenced by the types of microorganisms present in the system. Not
all microbial species possess the same capabilities when it comes to electron transfer, which is a crucial factor in
the overall performance of these bio-electrochemical systems [2, 3]. The identification and engineering of highly
efficient electroactive microorganisms have emerged as a critical area of ongoing research, as these microbes are
essential for maximizing power output and enhancing the viability of MFC technology.
Electroactive microorganisms, particularly exoelectrogens, are those capable of transferring electrons to an
electrode during their metabolic processes. This unique ability allows them to directly contribute to the generation
of electrical energy in MFCs. However, the efficiency of electron transfer can vary widely among different microbial
species, depending on various factors such as their metabolic pathways, cellular structures, and environmental
conditions [18, 31]. For example, species like Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis are well-known
exoelectrogens that demonstrate highly efficient electron transfer capabilities, making them prime candidates for use
in MFCs [34].
Identifying promising electroactive species involves not only the exploration of naturally occurring microorgan-
isms but also the potential for genetic engineering to enhance their performance. Advances in synthetic biology
and microbial genomics enable researchers to modify the metabolic pathways of these organisms, improving their
electron transfer efficiency [15, 39]. This can involve enhancing the expression of conductive proteins or nanowires
that facilitate DET to the anode, or optimizing metabolic pathways to increase the rate of substrate degradation and
energy production.
Moreover, the creation of microbial consortia—where multiple species with complementary metabolic capa-
bilities are combined—can further enhance electron transfer efficiency. By harnessing the strengths of different
microbes, researchers can establish syntrophic relationships that facilitate more effective breakdown of complex

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organic substrates and improve overall power generation [46]. In these interactions, one microbial species may
metabolize substrates to produce byproducts that another species can utilize, thereby creating a synergistic effect that
boosts electron transfer rates.
The application of advanced bioinformatics and high-throughput screening techniques also plays a pivotal role in
this research area. By employing these tools, scientists can analyze vast microbial populations and identify candidate
species with optimal electroactive properties [20, 24]. Furthermore, such approaches can help in understanding
the complex interactions within microbial communities, shedding light on how certain species can be cultivated or
engineered to improve overall performance in MFCs.
While the engineering of electroactive microorganisms presents exciting opportunities, challenges remain in
ensuring the stability and reliability of these engineered strains under operational conditions. Environmental
fluctuations, substrate availability, and competition from other microbial species can all impact the performance of
MFCs, making it essential to develop robust microbial systems that can maintain high efficiency over time.
In conclusion, the identification and engineering of highly efficient electroactive microorganisms are vital for
advancing the technology of MFCs [33]. By focusing on the natural capabilities of certain species, optimizing their
metabolic pathways through genetic engineering, and exploring the potential of microbial consortia, researchers
aim to enhance electron transfer efficiency. As this area of research continues to evolve, it holds the promise of
significantly improving the power output and overall sustainability of MFC technology, thereby contributing to
its broader application in renewable energy generation and wastewater treatment. Table 2 systematically details
challenges, solutions, and their implications, thus providing a comprehensive overview of strategies to overcome
barriers in MFC technology.

Table 2. Challenges facing MFC technology and strategies to overcome them

Challenge Strategies to Overcome Details and Implications

Optimizing microbial communities 1) Genetically engineer exoelectrogens like Geobacter sulfurreducens
Low power
to increase electron transfer rates via conductive pili and cytochromes.
density
2) Develop microbial consortia with complementary pathways for
efficient substrate utilization.
Advanced electrode materials 1) Use graphene, carbon nanotubes, or metal-organic frameworks to
enhance conductivity and microbial attachment. 2) Design hierarchical
porous structures to improve substrate diffusion and electron transport.
System design innovations 1) Implement stacked MFC configurations to amplify power density for
larger systems. 2) Employ air-cathode designs to simplify oxygen
reduction and boost efficiency.
High cost of Development of cost-effective 1) Replace costly PEMs with alternatives like hydrogel-based or
materials materials ceramic membranes. 2) Utilize biowaste-derived carbon materials,
such as activated carbon from biomass, for electrodes.
Scaling production 1) Scale up manufacturing processes for electrodes and membranes to
reduce costs through economies of scale. 2) Foster industry
partnerships to mass-produce MFC components at lower costs.
Electrode Biofouling-resistant materials 1) Design anode surfaces with antimicrobial coatings or nanoparticles
fouling and to prevent non-electrogenic bacterial growth. 2) Use textured surfaces
stability to enhance electrogenic biofilm formation while reducing unwanted
adhesion.
Self-cleaning mechanisms 1) Employ electrochemical techniques, such as voltage pulsing, to
dislodge biofilms. 2) Optimize flow patterns within MFC systems to
promote natural biofilm removal during operation.
Scalability and Standardized modular designs 1) Create plug-and-play modular systems scalable for diverse
market applications, including municipal treatment and rural electrification.
penetration Integration with existing systems 1) Retrofit MFCs into existing wastewater treatment plants to minimize
setup costs.
Policy and incentives 1) Advocate for subsidies or tax incentives to encourage adoption. 2)
Partner with governments and NGOs to pilot MFCs in off-grid
communities or small industries.
Limited Microbial engineering 1) Engineer robust microbial strains to withstand variable conditions
longevity and like pH and temperature.
reliability Durable materials 1) Use corrosion-resistant electrodes and membranes to enhance
system durability.
Field trials and long-term 1) Conduct field trials to evaluate performance in real-world,
monitoring fluctuating conditions and inform future designs.
Source: Authors’ own elaboration

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 While MFCs hold great promise, addressing their technical and market challenges is essential for their widespread
adoption. For instance, low power density can be mitigated through microbial engineering to enhance electron
transfer rates and by using advanced electrode materials like graphene. High costs can be addressed by developing
alternative materials such as biowaste-derived electrodes and scaling up manufacturing processes. To combat
biofouling, self-cleaning mechanisms and biofouling-resistant materials have shown promise. Scalability can be
achieved through modular designs and integration with existing systems, while policy incentives and subsidies
can drive market adoption. Finally, field trials and long-term monitoring are critical for ensuring reliability and
optimizing performance under real-world conditions.
5 Future Directions
For MFCs to gain widespread acceptance and integration into renewable energy and wastewater treatment
solutions, focused research efforts are needed to enhance several key aspects: power density, cost-effectiveness, and
system longevity. Addressing these challenges will require significant advancements in microbial biotechnology,
electrode materials, and system design [3, 12]. Each of these areas offers unique opportunities to improve the
efficiency and practicality of MFCs.
One critical avenue for enhancing MFC performance lies in the genetic engineering of microorganisms. By
developing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) with improved electron transfer capabilities, researchers can
substantially increase the efficiency of power generation in MFCs [9, 25]. For instance, manipulating metabolic
pathways can enable these microbes to more effectively oxidize substrates, leading to higher rates of electron
production. Genetic modifications may also enhance the expression of proteins responsible for DET to the anode, such
as cytochromes or conductive nanowires [28]. Furthermore, incorporating genes that enable these microorganisms
to thrive in a broader range of environmental conditions can ensure their robustness and adaptability, which is vital
for sustained operation in diverse settings.
In addition to optimizing microbial performance, the exploration of novel electrode materials represents another
promising area of research. The traditional materials used in MFCs often face limitations regarding conductivity,
durability, and susceptibility to biofouling. Advanced materials such as graphene and nanocomposites have shown
great potential in addressing these issues [4, 33]. Graphene, known for its exceptional electrical conductivity and
large surface area, can significantly enhance the performance of MFC electrodes by facilitating efficient electron
transfer. Nanocomposites, which combine multiple materials at the nanoscale, can be engineered to improve the
structural and electrochemical properties of electrodes, potentially leading to reduced resistance and enhanced overall
efficiency.
Moreover, the reduction of biofouling on electrode surfaces remains a critical concern [9, 11]. The incorporation
of novel materials that discourage the attachment of unwanted microorganisms while promoting the growth of
beneficial exoelectrogenic species can be an effective strategy. For example, hydrophobic or superhydrophobic
coatings could be used to create surfaces that repel water and reduce biofilm formation, thus maintaining optimal
conductivity and power output [25].
Beyond these advancements, the design of MFC systems themselves must evolve to maximize efficiency and
practicality [41]. Innovations in system architecture, such as modular or stacked configurations, can enhance
scalability and adaptability, allowing MFCs to be tailored for specific applications, whether in large municipal
settings or smaller, decentralized units. Additionally, optimizing flow patterns and fluid dynamics within the
MFC can improve substrate delivery and enhance the overall interaction between microorganisms and electrode
surfaces [31].
Research must also consider the economic aspects of MFC technology. The high costs associated with current
materials and components hinder broader adoption [15, 36]. Efforts to find cost-effective alternatives or to develop
manufacturing processes that lower production expenses will be essential. This includes evaluating the lifecycle
costs of MFC systems, ensuring that their operation and maintenance remain economically viable for potential users,
particularly in developing regions or industries with limited resources [2, 4].
Finally, the longevity of MFC systems is paramount for their success in real-world applications. Understanding the
factors that contribute to the degradation of performance over time, such as microbial community dynamics, substrate
variability, and environmental stressors, will be crucial in developing strategies to enhance system lifespan [12].
Researching long-term operational data and conducting field trials will provide valuable insights into how to maintain
optimal performance under varying conditions.
In summary, future research aimed at enhancing the feasibility of MFCs should prioritize improvements in power
density, cost reduction, and longevity. Advancements in genetic engineering of microorganisms, the development of
novel electrode materials, and innovative system designs will play critical roles in addressing these challenges [23].
By focusing on these key areas, the potential for MFCs to serve as sustainable solutions in renewable energy and
wastewater management can be significantly realized, paving the way for their broader adoption and impact.
Based on the current review, the authors intended to address some of the research questions provided as follows.

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 R1: How can synthetic biology be used to create microbial strains with enhanced electron transfer rates and
substrate versatility?
Rationale: Advances in genetic engineering could enable the development of tailored microbial communities
optimized for specific substrates or operational conditions.
R2: What novel electrode materials can be developed to simultaneously enhance conductivity, durability, and
resistance to biofouling?
Rationale: Exploring materials like graphene composites or bioinspired structures could address multiple tech-
nical challenges in MFCs.
R3: How can MFCs be effectively integrated with renewable energy systems (e.g., solar or wind) for consistent
energy output in off-grid settings?
Rationale: Combining MFCs with other renewable technologies could overcome their intermittent power output
and expand application scenarios.
R4: Can MFC-biosensors be enhanced to detect specific pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, pharmaceuticals) in real
time with higher sensitivity?
Rationale: Developing highly specific sensors could position MFCs as vital tools in environmental monitoring.
To advance MFC technology, future research should focus on addressing key challenges and exploring new
opportunities. For example, synthetic biology offers potential for engineering microbial strains with enhanced
electron transfer rates, enabling higher power outputs. In material science, innovative electrode designs incorporating
nanotechnology or bioinspired materials could address durability and biofouling issues. Furthermore, hybrid systems
combining MFCs with solar or wind energy could provide consistent power generation for off-grid applications.
Research methods such as high-throughput microbial screening and machine learning-based modeling can accelerate
discovery and optimization processes. Finally, field trials in extreme environments would validate the robustness
and scalability of MFCs for diverse applications, such as decentralized wastewater treatment and renewable energy
production. Table 3 succinctly presents innovative methods and their benefits, making it clear how these approaches
can contribute to the advancement of MFC technology in both research and practical applications.

Table 3. Innovative research methods for advancing MFC technology

Research Method Description Advantages

High-throughput 1) Utilize advanced bioinformatics and automated systems to 1) Accelerates discovery of efficient
microbial screening identify and test microbial species with superior exoelectrogens. 2) Optimizes microbial
electrochemical performance. 2) Allows for rapid optimization diversity for specific MFC applications.
of microbial community composition for enhanced electron
transfer and power output.
Machine learning 1) Apply machine learning algorithms to model and predict 1) Enables efficient, context-specific
in system design MFC performance under various conditions, such as substrate system designs. 2) Reduces
types and electrode configurations. 2) Simulates complex trial-and-error experimental costs by
interactions between microbial communities, substrates, and identifying optimal configurations
system architecture for better performance predictions. faster.
In situ real-time 1) Integrate sensors with MFC systems to track biofilm 1) Provides immediate feedback on
monitoring development, substrate consumption, and power output in system performance and microbial
real-time. 2) Allows for dynamic adjustments to optimize activity. 2) Improves operational
operational parameters (e.g., flow rate, substrate concentration). efficiency and reduces downtime
during MFC operation.
Nanotechnology in 1) Develop nanostructured electrodes using materials like 1) Enhances electron transfer rates by
electrode metal-organic frameworks, carbon nanotubes, or nanoparticles. increasing conductivity and active
development 2) Apply nanocoatings to reduce biofouling and improve surface area. 2) Boosts efficiency and
durability under long-term operation. longevity of MFC systems, lowering
maintenance costs.
Field trials in 1) Test MFCs in challenging environments such as remote areas 1) Validates the robustness and
extreme with low temperatures, high salinity, or nutrient limitations. 2) adaptability of MFCs in diverse
environments Evaluate long-term performance under fluctuating conditions real-world scenarios. 2) Demonstrates
to inform future designs and deployment strategies. MFC suitability for off-grid or
decentralized applications, expanding
potential markets.
Source: Authors’ own elaboration

6 Theoretical Implications
The theoretical implications of the research encompass several key areas that contribute to the understanding and
development of MFC technology. These implications can be grouped into the following categories as explained in

215
different paragraphs.
The review highlights the fundamental role of microorganisms, particularly exoelectrogens, in MFCs, which
is critical for advancing theoretical knowledge in bioelectrochemistry. By exploring the metabolic processes that
enable microorganisms to transfer electrons to an electrode, the research provides insights into the various electron
transfer mechanisms, including DET and MET [30]. This knowledge is crucial for enhancing microbial efficiency
and tailoring microbial communities for optimal performance in energy production.
The theoretical framework presented in the review illustrates how microbial metabolism interacts with electro-
chemical principles to generate electricity. This intersection of biology and electrochemistry serves as a basis for
future research on optimizing the performance of MFCs [4, 34]. Understanding these interactions can lead to the
development of models that predict MFC behavior under different operational conditions, allowing for the design of
more efficient systems.
The review discusses the significance of electrode materials and their impact on MFC performance. This
emphasizes the need for theoretical advancements in material science, particularly in the development of novel
conductive materials that can enhance electron transfer and reduce biofouling [5, 9, 26]. The implications of these
advancements suggest that interdisciplinary approaches combining biology, chemistry, and materials engineering
can lead to significant improvements in MFC efficiency and scalability.
The theoretical implications extend to the broader context of sustainability, where MFCs represent a promising
technology for both energy generation and wastewater treatment. The review underscores the potential of MFCs to
contribute to sustainable energy systems by utilizing organic waste as a substrate, thereby reducing pollution and
providing a renewable energy source [25]. This highlights the theoretical significance of MFCs in the discourse on
circular economies and sustainable resource management.
The challenges of cost and scalability discussed in the review have important theoretical implications for the
economic viability of MFCs. Understanding the economic factors influencing MFC deployment can guide future
research towards developing more cost-effective solutions, making MFC technology more attractive for commercial
applications [39]. This suggests a theoretical model where economic considerations are integrated into the design
and optimization of MFC systems.
The review identifies several key areas for future research, such as the genetic engineering of microorganisms
and the exploration of new electrode materials. These implications set the stage for theoretical investigations that
seek to address current limitations in MFC technology [1–4]. By outlining potential pathways for innovation, the
research encourages ongoing exploration of microbial biotechnology and materials science as critical components
in advancing MFC applications.
In summary, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the biological, electrochemical, and material
aspects of MFC technology [23, 25]. By bridging these disciplines, the review not only highlights the current
challenges but also identifies opportunities for future research that can enhance the efficiency, scalability, and
sustainability of MFCs in real-world applications.
7 Managerial Implications
The managerial implications of the research highlight several strategic considerations for stakeholders involved
in the development, implementation, and commercialization of MFC technology. These implications can guide
managers, decision-makers, and industry leaders in effectively leveraging MFCs for sustainable energy solutions and
wastewater treatment [12, 32]. The key managerial implications include the following.
Given the potential of MFCs to contribute to renewable energy generation and wastewater treatment, managers
should prioritize investments in research and development. This involves allocating resources to explore advance-
ments in microbial biotechnology, materials science, and system optimization [15, 29]. Encouraging collaboration
between academic institutions and industry can foster innovation and drive the development of more efficient MFC
systems.
The integration of biology, electrochemistry, and materials science is essential for advancing MFC technology.
Managers should promote interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers, engineers, and business professionals
to create comprehensive solutions that address the complex challenges associated with MFC development [36, 37].
This approach can lead to innovative designs and applications that maximize the performance and efficiency of
MFCs.
The review highlights the challenges related to the cost and scalability of MFCs. Managers should develop
strategies to reduce production costs through the identification of economical materials and the optimization of
manufacturing processes. This could involve sourcing local materials, leveraging economies of scale, or investing
in emerging technologies that promise lower costs without sacrificing performance [11, 12].
To assess the feasibility and effectiveness of MFC technology, managers should consider implementing pilot
projects in relevant settings, such as wastewater treatment plants or agricultural facilities [8, 9, 32, 46]. These projects

216
can provide valuable insights into operational efficiency, potential challenges, and real-world performance metrics,
helping to refine the technology before large-scale deployment [1, 2].
Given MFCs’ dual functionality in energy generation and wastewater treatment, establishing partnerships with
municipalities and industries can enhance market opportunities. Managers should engage with stakeholders in the
water treatment and agricultural sectors to explore collaborative projects that utilize MFC technology [16]. These
partnerships can facilitate knowledge sharing, funding opportunities, and co-development initiatives.
The potential of MFCs to promote sustainability aligns with growing consumer and regulatory expectations
for environmentally responsible practices. Managers should integrate MFC technology into their sustainability
initiatives and CSR strategies [37, 41]. Demonstrating commitment to renewable energy and waste reduction can
enhance corporate reputation and attract environmentally conscious investors and customers.
Educating stakeholders—ranging from potential clients to regulatory bodies—about the benefits and capabilities
of MFC technology is crucial [8]. Managers should invest in marketing and outreach efforts that convey the
advantages of MFCs, including their role in sustainable energy and waste management. Raising awareness can
facilitate acceptance and encourage adoption across various sectors [27].
Managers must stay informed about regulatory frameworks governing renewable energy and wastewater treatment.
Engaging with policymakers can help influence favorable regulations and incentives for MFC technology [23, 29].
Additionally, managers should ensure that MFC projects comply with existing environmental regulations while
advocating for supportive policies that encourage innovation and investment in this technology.
In summary, the managerial implications of the research on MFCs emphasize the importance of strategic
investment, interdisciplinary collaboration, cost reduction, and market education in promoting MFC technology [32,
34]. By addressing these implications, managers can effectively navigate the challenges associated with MFC
development and leverage its potential for sustainable energy production and wastewater treatment, ultimately
contributing to environmental sustainability and corporate success.

8 Limitations
The present research presents valuable insights into MFCs, yet it also has several limitations that could affect the
comprehensiveness and applicability of its findings.
While the review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of MFC technology, it may be limited by the scope
of the literature included [24]. If certain studies, particularly recent or emerging research, were overlooked, the
review could miss important advancements or contrasting viewpoints that could enrich the discussion on MFCs.
As a review article, it primarily synthesizes existing research rather than presenting new experimental data
or findings [15, 46]. This reliance on previously published studies may limit the ability to assess the real-world
performance of MFCs comprehensively. The absence of novel experimental results could restrict the practical
implications drawn from the review.
MFCs can be configured in various designs and used for multiple applications, from wastewater treatment to
renewable energy generation [9, 16]. The review may not address the full spectrum of MFC designs or the specific
challenges associated with each configuration, potentially leading to generalizations that do not apply universally
across different contexts.
While theoretical implications are important for guiding future research, an overemphasis on theoretical aspects
without adequate discussion of practical applications and limitations can limit the review’s utility for practitioners [24,
25]. A balance between theory and practice is essential for translating research findings into actionable strategies.
Although the review acknowledges cost challenges related to MFC technology, it may not provide in-depth
economic analyses or cost-benefit evaluations. A more detailed exploration of economic factors, including market
dynamics, financing models, and potential return on investment, would enhance the understanding of MFC feasibility
in commercial settings [39].
The review may not sufficiently address the regulatory landscape governing the deployment of MFC technology,
which can vary significantly by region and application [16, 29]. Additionally, it might overlook market trends and
competitive technologies that could impact the adoption and commercialization of MFCs.
While the review discusses sustainability, it may lack a comprehensive evaluation of the environmental impacts
of MFC technology compared to other renewable energy solutions [18, 32]. A thorough analysis of life cycle
assessments (LCAs) and sustainability metrics would provide a more complete picture of the ecological benefits and
trade-offs associated with MFCs.
The review discusses the potential for MFCs but may not adequately address concerns related to their long-term
performance, scalability, and operational stability. Insights into how MFCs perform under varying conditions over
extended periods would be crucial for understanding their practical applications and limitations. In conclusion,
while the research offers valuable insights into MFC technology, it is limited by the scope of literature reviewed,
a lack of experimental data, and a focus on theoretical implications [8, 41]. Addressing these limitations could

217
enhance the depth and applicability of the findings, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the potential
and challenges associated with MFCs.
9 Conclusion
MFCs stand at the forefront of innovative technologies that blend renewable energy production with effective
wastewater treatment solutions. The fundamental principle behind MFCs lies in their ability to harness the metabolic
processes of microorganisms to convert organic matter into electrical energy, presenting a dual advantage: generating
clean energy while simultaneously addressing pollution. This technology is particularly promising for its potential
to contribute to sustainable energy systems, but several significant challenges must be addressed to fully realize its
capabilities.
One of the primary hurdles MFCs face is the optimization of power output. While these systems can generate
electricity from organic substrates, their current power densities are generally lower than those of traditional energy
sources, such as fossil fuels or even other renewable technologies like solar and wind. To enhance power output,
ongoing research focuses on improving microbial communities through genetic engineering, which aims to cultivate
or modify microorganisms that can optimize electron transfer and increase energy yield. Additionally, developing
hybrid systems that integrate MFCs with other energy generation methods could help augment overall output, making
MFCs more competitive in the renewable energy market.
Cost is another critical factor hindering the widespread adoption of MFCs. The materials required for constructing
MFCs—such as electrodes, PEMs, and specialized biocatalysts—often come with high price tags. To mitigate
these costs, researchers are exploring alternative, more economical materials without compromising performance.
Innovations in nanotechnology and material science may lead to the discovery of cost-effective substitutes that still
provide high conductivity and durability. Furthermore, improvements in manufacturing processes and economies of
scale could lower the price of MFC systems, making them more accessible for commercial applications.
Despite these challenges, the potential for sustainable energy generation through MFCs is significant. The ability
to utilize organic waste materials—such as agricultural by-products, sewage, and other forms of wastewater—means
that MFCs can play a vital role in a circular economy. By converting waste into energy, they not only reduce
environmental pollution but also contribute to energy production, aligning with global goals for sustainability
and renewable energy development. This characteristic makes MFCs particularly appealing for industries and
municipalities looking to decrease their environmental footprint while simultaneously generating energy.
To facilitate the transition from laboratory research to commercial-scale applications, continued investment in
research and development is essential. This includes a focus on microbial engineering to enhance the capabilities of
the microorganisms involved, as well as rigorous system optimization to improve efficiency and reliability. Advances
in understanding microbial ecology and interactions within MFCs could also lead to more robust systems that can
perform well under varied operational conditions.
In summary, while MFCs currently face challenges related to power output and cost, their potential as a sustainable
energy solution is substantial. With continued research into microbial engineering, system optimization, and the
development of advanced materials, MFCs could emerge as a viable component of future energy systems. By
bridging the gap between energy production and waste management, MFC technology may not only contribute to
cleaner energy generation but also promote a more sustainable and circular approach to resource utilization.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization, S.S.G.; methodology, S.M.; validation, S.S.G. and S.M.; formal analysis, S.M.; investigation,
S.S.G.; resources, S.M.; data curation, S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.; writing—review and editing,
S.S.G.; visualization, S.S.G.; supervision, S.S.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Data Availability
Not applicable.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all individuals and organizations who are directly or indirectly
associated with the completion of this research article. We are thankful to the participants and volunteers who
participated in data collection and experimentation. Finally, we are grateful to our families and friends for their
unwavering encouragement and understanding during this endeavor.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

218
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