Geology and Hydrogeochemical studies on groundwater quality of gidan makku paikoro area of

Niger state North central Nigeria

 BY

BELLO MUDASSIR
U18/FAT/GLG/1089

Teller no-11844

Supervisor name- Mrs Aishat Musa

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINING

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

IBRAHIM BADAMASI BABANGIDA UNIVERSITY LAPAI, NIGER STATE

DECEMBER, 2023

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
 Background of the Study

The majority of the rocks in the research region are composed of phyllite, granite gneiss, schist,

and metamorphic and meta-sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary and basement complex rock

formations are the two primary types found in Niger State (Amadiet al., 2012). Sedimentary

rocks from the foundation complex rock, the Bida Basin, and a small portion of the Sokoto Basin

cover half of the landmass of Niger State.Water is a vital resource for human existence, and the

development of every town is dependent on the availability of basic infrastructural developments

such good roads, portable water, power, and space for enterprises and agriculture (Amadiet al.,

2010). Water makes up over 70% of the earth's surface and is one of the planet's most plentiful

natural resources, behind oxygen. The planet's surface is composed of 96.5% water in the oceans,

1.7% in glaciers, 1.7% in groundwater and ice caps, and 0.0001% in the form of atmospheric

vapour. Without transportable, superior quality water, we cannot exist. It is fragile and

irreplaceable; there is no alternative.

Because of population growth, urbanisation, and industry, water use and sustainability are

becoming more and more challenging. Any society's development is correlated, either directly or

indirectly, with its use of water. Groundwater is shielded from surface contamination by the earth

media, which is composed of several underground layers that serve as natural filters for absorbed

water. Nearly half of our domestic and industrial water sources, including wells, rivers, and one-

third of our lakes and streams, are polluted and dangerous to swim in, fish in, or drink from,

according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's most recent water surveys. The

pollutants are mostly sewage, industrial wastes, soak aways, and the like. In Nigeria and most

other African nations, groundwater is a popular supply of high-quality water. It is often accepted

as appropriate and frequently meets the requirements for high-quality water. The quality of
groundwater varies with location and water table depth due to the many processes and reactions

that occur on water from the time it condenses in the sky until it is discharged by a well or spring

(Jain et al., 1996). Water quality is described as the natural, physical, and complex state of the

water plus any modifications brought about by possible human involvement.

1.2 Whereabouts and Availability

1.2.1 Place

The mapped region is located in GidanMakun in Paikoro, Niger state, North-central Nigeria, and

on a 1:50000 scale piece of the Minna sheet 164NE, it is between latitudes 009o28'N and

09º30'N and longitudes 006o27'E and 006º38'E. Convenient accessibility to the study region is

provided by well-connected road networks, including major roads like Minna-Abuja. These

routes facilitate effective fieldwork and data collection by providing convenient access to a

variety of sampling points within the research region.

1.2.1 Availability

The region is accessible by a large road, although the outcrops with disclosure are mostly

reached via trails and major roads.

Figure 1.1: Map of the study area indicating Paikoro LGA in Niger State (Source: Authors view)

1.3 Climate and Vegetation

The two seasons that make up Nigeria's overall climate are the dry and the wet. The rainy season

lasts from April through October, with August recording the most rainfall. The average yearly

rainfall distribution pattern is between 900 and 1000 mm at the lowest and 1300 mm at the

maximum (McCurry, 1976). A NE trade wind known as the harmattan is seen between

November and February; this wind pattern results in reduced visibility during this time. The

temperature normally rises throughout the day between March and April. The temperature

fluctuates from 20 to 34 degrees Celsius (Udo, Reuben K. 1978).

Plants that are cultivated or dispersed across an area are categorised using their vegetation. There

is little question that the vegetation in the region is dependent upon the local climate (Daniel,

2020). Tall grasslands with light forest, sparsely spaced trees in the dry season, and equally
spaced trees in the wet season are the area's defining features. Along with certain agricultural

products grown by the locals, the vegetation in Paikoro local government also contains millet,

sorghum, maize, cowpea, and peanuts. Human activities including farming, mining, and

urbanisation have had an impact on Paiko's natural vegetation.

1.4 Relief and Drainage

Because there are several seasonal stream routes across the mapped region, water is the main

factor causing weathering and erosion. The present condition of the rocks and their surroundings

is the consequence of a range of mechanical, chemical, and biological surface processes that the

rocks underwent when they were exposed to the surface. Seasonal streams and rivers drain the

ground efficiently and provide good drainage for the exposed rocks along their paths. Cereals

(maize, rice, sorghum, and millets) have been produced in a variety of methods on the region's

primarily clayey to sandy clay soils.

Although there are a few little hills visible in the study area's surrounds, the landscape is

otherwise flat. The mapped region has a topographic profile that is high, level, rough, and has

gently undulating terrain. The majority of the outcrops are highly exposed and are located around

the outskirts of the communities, with an average height of up to 265 metres above sea level. The

terrain of the mapped region is usually undulating and is covered with vegetation, mostly

consisting of trees and plants.

1.5 Goals and Purposes

Hydrogeochemical investigations on the groundwater quality of Gidan Makun, Paikoro region,

are the goal of this study project.

One of the goals is to create an in-depth geological map of the research region.

2. To evaluate the local water's physico-chemical qualities.

3. To assess the area's water sources' quality status by contrasting their physical and chemical

characteristics with the NIS and WHO water criteria.

1.6 The Study's Scope

Comprehensive geological mapping, sample collecting and analysis, and data interpretation are

all included in the study's scope.

1.7 Restrictions

a) Some locations could not be mapped because of vegetation covering them.

b) Certain places were hard to go to because of urbanization-related restrictions.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Basement Complex

The Nigerian basement complex is a component of the Pan-African mobile belt and is

situated between the West African and Congo Cratons, south of the Tuareg Shield (Black,

1980). The basement complex is one of the three primary litho-petrological components of

Nigerian geology (Fig. 2.1). The Jos Plateau is penetrated by the Mesozoic calc-alkaline ring

complexes, or newer Granites, and is unevenly covered with Cretaceous and newer deposits.

A large quantity of migmatization occurred after the isoclinal folding, intense deformation,

and localised metamorphism that accompanied the first three cycles. Alongside the Pan-

African deformation, there was regional metamorphism, migmatization, significant

granitization, and gneissification that resulted in syntectonic granites and homogenous

gneisses (Abaa, 1983). The Nigerian basement, which is situated in the reactivated zone

formed by plate collision between the active Pharusian continental margin and the passive

continental margin of the West African craton, was impacted by the 600 Ma Pan-African

orogeny (Burke and Dewey, 1972; Dada, 2006). The basement rocks (600 Ma) are estimated

to have been generated by at least four major orogenic cycles of deformation, metamorphism,
and remobilization: the Liberian (2,700 Ma), Eburnean (2,000 Ma), Kibaran (1,100 Ma), and

Pan-African cycles. Granites and granodiorites underwent late tectonic emplacement and

contact metamorphism coincided with the latter phases of this last deformation. In Nigeria's

basement complex, faulting and fractures signalled the end of the orogeny (Gandu et al.,

1986; Olayinka, 1992). There are four main petro-lithological units that may be identified:

1. The gneiss-migmatite complex (MGC)

2. The metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of the Schist Belt

3. The more ancient granites (granitoids from Pan Africa)

4. A simple and distorted dikes

 Fig.2.2:Geological sketch map of Nigeria showing the major geological components;

Basement,YoungerGranites,andSedimentaryBasins (After Obaje, 2009).

2.1.1 The Migmatite-Gneiss Complex (MGC)

Most people refer to the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex as the basement complex (Rahman, 1988;

Dada, 2006). It is also the most often utilised component unit in Nigerian basements. Its

diversified assemblage is composed of several ultrabasic and basic metamorphosed rocks, such

as migmatite, paragneiss, and orthogneisses. The Pan-African reworking partly melted several of

the M.G.C.'s component minerals, causing them to recrystallize. The metamorphism of the

amphibolite facies was modest to greater in most of the rock types. The Pan-African to Eburnean

ages are covered by the M.G.C. 60% of the surface area of the Nigerian basement is made up of

the Migmatite, Gneiss, and Quartzite Complex, or M.G.C. (Rahman and Ocan, 1978). Three

important geological events are documented in these rocks (Rahman and Lancelot, 1984). The

first occurred about 2,500 Ma and marked the start of both crustal expansion via sedimentation

and orogeny, as well as the crust-forming process (e.g., the banded Ibadan grey gneiss of mantle

origin). The Eburnean, which began at 2,000 +/- 200 Ma, was distinguished by granite gneisses

of the Ibadan type. Ages ranging from 900 to 450 Ma, which show the impact of the, are

interestingly followed by the development of the Virginianan of West Africa's craton in

connection to time. Merriman rocks are associated with iron, gold, and manganese mineral

resources. exact geochemical evidence. M.G.C. rocks span the eastern, western, and northern

parts of Nigeria. There are arrears in a few locations in Nigeria: the Obudu Massif regions in the
east; Ile-Ife, Akure, Ibadan, and Ikerre in western Nigeria; and Abuja, Kaduna, Keffi, Akwanga,

Bauchi, Funtua, Kano, Okene, Egbe, and Ajaokuta in northern Nigeria.

2.1.2 Pan African Granitoids, or the Older Granites

Falconer (1911) named the deep-seated, often concordant or semi-concordant tin-bearing

granites of Northern Nigeria "Older Granite" to differentiate them. The older granite is assumed

to represent pre-syn and post-tectonic rocks since it cuts through both the schist belts and the

Migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex. Their ages (750–450) and composition vary greatly. They

are part of a large-scale, intricate magmatic cycle (750–450 Ma) associated with the Pan-African

orogeny. This category of rocks has a variety of compositions and includes tonalities, diorites,

granodiorites, real granites, and syenites. The Charnockites are an important rock group that was

deposited at this period. High-level incursion and anataxis have often been important variables

(Rahman, 1981). The most obvious sign of the Pan-African orogeny is the Older Granites, which

indicate significant material additions to the crust that amount to 70% in certain locations

(Rahman, 1988). In addition to their age, which was unknown at the time they were given that

term, the older granites should be referred to as "pan African granitoids," according to Dada

(2006), as it includes a number of important petrologic groups that were formed at the same time.

The granitoid found with the schist belts in the northwest and southwest of Nigeria includes

charnockites, muscovite granites, biotite, serpentinites, anorthosites, and syenites. Rahman

(1988) did away with the previous subgrouping of the older granite suite according to texture,

relative age of emplacement, and mineralogical composition. Members of the earlier granite suite

were classified as early pegmatites, fine-grained granite, and granite gneiss mostly based on

textural characteristics. Migmatic granite includes vein quartz, homogenous to coarse porphyritic

granite, undeformed pegmatite, and two-mica granite. It also includes moderately deformed
pegmatite aplites. Pan African granite seems to be more common in Northern Nigeria in an

easterly direction, although it only sporadically appears as a single intrusion in some locations

west of Zaria (McCurry, 1973). The late granites are assumed to have been produced by the

widespread mobilisation and reactivation of older basement rock during the Pan-African

orogeny. There is a strong relationship between the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex and the Schist

Belt, into which the earlier granites finally intruded. As a result, older granite rocks may be

found almost anyplace that the Schist Belts or the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex contains rocks.

2.2 Basins with Sediment

Sediments may accumulate to a considerable thickness and be held for extended geological

epochs in sedimentary basins. Furthermore, there are areas where long-term denudation has

resulted in what is known as non-deposition or omission, as well as sites where erosion and

depositional processes essentially balance each other out. Sedimentary basins sometimes have

very uneven borders, although seeming to have a variety of distinct forms, such as approximately

circular or, more often, elongate depressions, troughs, or embayments. Sediment traps may occur

in places like alluvial plains that lack topographic depressions.

The lower, middle, and upper Benue Trough; the Nambra Basin; the Chad Basin; the Sokoto

Basin; the Dahomey Basin; the Mid-Niger (Bida-Nupe) Basin; and the Niger Delta Basin.

2.3. Occurrence of water

Water is necessary for all human activities, including transportation, industry, residential, and

agricultural (Gleick, 2001). Water is necessary for sculpting the surface of the world, controlling

the temperature, and eliminating impurities. In the western United States, 85% of the water used

is for irrigation, and a large portion of this water is wasted.About 23 percent of water is taken out
of rich nations for cleaning, industrial processing, energy production, and waste management.

Domestic and municipal withdrawals make up between 13 and 26 percent of overall withdrawals

in developed nations like the US and Canada (Gleick, 2001).

Water scarcity in developing nations poses significant challenges to national governments and

the international development community on a national, regional, and seasonal level. The

increasing problem of water scarcity is made worse by escalating costs associated with

producing fresh water, wasting already-irrigated land, groundwater depletion, water pollution,

and the effects of land use regulations on human health (Ibrahim, 2011).The quality of

groundwater as it relates to bacteriological content, physical attributes including colour, odour,

taste, turbidity, or chemical component, with special attention to the amount of dangerous

components and salinity overall (Ward, 1967). One of the biggest public health issues during

most disasters is access to safe drinking water. In the majority of situations, the greatest danger

to waterborne health is the spread of foecal infections as a result of inadequate sanitation,

hygiene, and water source protection. Certain catastrophes may provide a serious risk of

radioactive or chemical water contamination, such as those brought on by or involving damage

to nuclear and chemical industrial facilities, transportation leaks, or volcanic activity..

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Data Collection

These are the techniques used in the mapping exercise, which include field mapping and

reconnaissance surveys. During the field exercise, reconnaissance surveys and field mapping

were conducted by observing and gathering data on each area visited for further study.

There were two primary sources of data utilised, which are as follows:

3.1.1 Main Data Source

Raw data and direct witness accounts of data gathering during the field exercise are provided by

the primary source of data collection. An example would be a description of a rock based on its

colour, texture, faults, folds, and other characteristics, as well as sample collections from sites

that have been visited.

3.1.2 Supplementary Data Source

This relates to the gathering of information from many sources, including the internet, books,

papers, journals, and both published and unpublished resources.

3.2 Survey of Reconnaissance

This approach entails gathering all relevant data on the research field. During the visit phase, a

reconnaissance survey was conducted, which entails comparing what is shown on a map with

what is really seen on the ground.

3.3 Geological Mapping in the Field

These mapping techniques go over the many phases and strategies of working in the field to

finish a successful mapping application. Transversely traversing the observed region, the

mapping was done in a methodical manner. Transverses were used to describe both naturally
occurring structures like outcrops and man-made elements like walkways and roadways. Since

the investigation was conducted during the rainy season, most of the outcrops had vegetation

covering them.

Samples were taken from the various outcrop sites, and the relevant data was gathered, including

the lithological description of the outcrops in the research region and the discernible mineral

alignment of various samples.

3.3.1 Approach

Prior to the start of fieldwork, the region was mapped. In addition to taking transverses along

man-made features like highways and rail lines, the transverse approach was used to complete

the mapping.A geological hammer, clinometer, hand lens, GPS (global positioning system) ruler,

masking tape, pen, field note book and measuring tape are among the tools used in the field.

Each outcrop's mineralogy, grain size, colour, and appearance were examined in the field, with a

focus on structural features including folds, joints, and faults among others. The topographical

map showed the outcrops' precise locations, and each one was fully described and sampled for

further analysis.

3.4 Tools The following tools are used: maps: they provide a visual depiction of a region.

Compass: A tool for measuring dip and strike

Position monitoring and location using G.P.S.

Keep a field notebook to record observations made while out in the field.

Pencil and Biro: recording and sketching field notes

Sample bags are used to store samples collected in the field, and cameras are used to capture

pictures there as well.

Labelling samples obtained from the field is done using masking tape.

A measuring tape is used to determine the water level in wells.

Geological hammer: used to fracture newly acquired samples

Waterproof marker: To mark samples

3.5. Methods for water sampling

Five typical samples, each obtained in pairs from various locations inside Gidan Makun, were

brought to the laboratory for pertinent chemical and bacteriological investigation. While the

chemical and microbiological parameters were examined at the Layusa Integrated Services

Limited Minna, Niger State, the physical parameters, such as conductivity, pH, and turbidity,

were measured in the field using conductivity, pH, and turbidity metres, respectively.

3.5.1 Physical parameter determination in water

3.5.1.1 turbidity

First of all, A nephelometer is used to detect turbidity, an optical quality that results from light

being scattered by suspended particles in water (Tyndall effect).

The basic idea behind nephelometric measurement is to compare the light intensity of a sample

dispersed under similar circumstances to the light intensity of a standard reference suspension.

Device: Nephelometer (turbidity metre).

Procedure: A clean, prepared calibration standard cal 800NTU was inserted and read by pushing

the turbidity meter's ON/OFF button. Take them all out and swap them out with cal 200 and

100NTU. After the sample cell was completely filled, it was placed into the sample holder and

the value was read.

3.5.1.2 Calculating the pH of water

Introduction: The pH scale uses the potential of hydrogen (pH) to determine how alkaline or

acidic a thing is. The highest acidic number on the scale is zero, while the most alkaline number

is fourteen. Seven is regarded as the neutral pH. Acidity is indicated by a pH of less than 7, while

basicity is indicated by a pH of more than 7. The pH is expressed as acidic (1.e. pH<) when there

are more free H+ ions and as alkaline (i.e. pH> 7) when there are more OH- ions.

Principle: In an electropH measurement, the activity of hydrogen ions is ascertained by

potentiometric measurement using a reference electrode and a standard hydrogen electrode.

Method of testing: electrometric Technique

Reagent: 10.0 pH buffer, 4.00 pH buffer, and 7.00 pH buffer.

Equipment includes a pH metre, beakers, temperature and pH electrodes, volumetric flasks and

glass rods.

Method: After taking off its protective cover, the pH metre was switched on. The pH metre

electrode was submerged in the pH metre 7 solution for calibration. After calibration, distilled

water was used to clean the pH metre probe in order to avoid contamination. The pH metre was

then immersed in the water sample. After carefully blending the pH metre probe into the water
sample, the pH meter's display was calibrated. Following stabilisation of the reading, the pH

value was noted appropriately.

3.5.1.3 Measurement of Water Conductivity

First of all, The quantity of dissolved solids in the water is determined by conductivity, a proxy

indication of dissolved solids. It alludes to the capacity of water to transport ions and carry an

electric charge. It may thus be used to ascertain the taste and salinity of water ions.

Electrometric testing methodology.

Glass beakers (50 and 250 ml), a conductivity metre, polythene containers and a volumetric flask

(100 ml) are the apparatus and equipment used.

Reagents: 1 litre of distilled water diluted with a 0.01N potassium chloride standard solution.

Method: The conductivity and temperature proofs were inserted into the device. The metre was

used in accordance with the guidelines provided by the equipment manufacturer. The display

was set to read in degrees Celsius and S/cm, respectively, using the MODE keypad. The liquid

being tested was immersed in the probe.

3.5.1.3 TDS measurement in water

First of all, Dissolved solids are solids that have dissolved in a solution. Waters with a high

dissolved solids content are less palatable and may make the transient user experience

unfavourable physiological effects.

Principle: The weight of the solids is subtracted from the weight of suspended solids, both

represented in the same units, to get the total dissolved solids.

Glass fibre filter discs, a membrane filter funnel, a filtering device, a suction flask and pump, a

drying oven, and a Grooch crucible are among the apparatus.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Geology of the Area

Granite, Migmatite, and Granite gneiss make up the plotted region. In many locations, the rocks

are quite exposed, and they may also be found in boulder form. The main distinguishing factor

amongst the rocks—which have comparable compositions—is their somewhat differentiable

textural characteristic. There were many areas where quartz veins pierced the granite..
 Fi

g 4.1 ˸ Geological map of the study area

4.1.1 Field Occurrences of rocks in the Area

4.1.1.1 Granite

Granitehas a mineral composition of feldspar, quartz, biotite, and muscovite. They exhibit a

coarse-grained texture with colors ranging from grey to white and dark shades. Joints and

fractures are present.

Figure 4.2: Granite in Kwanaye, N 09028’10.18” E 006038’11.37”

4.1.1.2Schist

Schist seen here are highly foliateed and have textural characteristics ranging from medium to

fine grain texture rock. Mineral component is marked by quartz, biotite, feldspar, hornblende and

mica. Stuctures such as joint, foliation, lineation and folds were observed.
Figure 4.3: Schist at Porgo, N0 9º30’17.30" E 006º36’25.69"

4.1.1.3Phyllite

Phylitte is another lithology found in the study area. Outcrop’s composition is made up of felsic

minerals such quartz, feldspar, mica and biotite. Structural features include joints, folds and

quartz vein were noticeable on this outcrop.

Figure 4.4: Phyllitein TunganMakun, N0 9º29’13.22" E 006º37’24.32"

4.2Petrographic studies of the Rocks

In order to determine the mineral composition of the rock in the research region, samples of the
rock are gathered from the field and subjected to further petrographic investigation using a
polarised microscope 4.2.1With quartz (38.2%), biotite (18.8%), plagioclase (31.8%), and
sericite (11.2%), the first rock (Sample L27) has a composition that is suggestive of a schist.
Differences in the protolith or varying levels of metamorphism might be the cause of the
discrepancy in percentages. As seen in Fig. 4.5 a below, in cross-polarized light, quartz displays
interference colours, biotite pleochroism, plagioclase polysynthetic twinning, and sericite
interference colours and a mica-like gloss.

The second rock (Sample L28) has a mineralogical composition that deviates from the normal
composition of granite. It contains quartz (34.7%), biotite (42.4%), plagioclase (13.3%), and
muscovite (9.6%). Quartz still shows interference colours in XPL, whereas muscovite shows
interference colours and a pearly lustre, plagioclase shows polysynthetic twinning, and biotite
shows severe pleochroism. In Fig. 4.5b, the variations in mineral percentages point to different
metamorphic paths or changes in the parent rocks..
Figure 4.5a: Photomicrograph of schist, Magnification = X4 (b)Photomicrograph of granite

Magnification = X4

4.3 Economic Geology

If some minerals could be extracted profitably, they may be considered economically viable.

Dimension stone known as "granie" is used for pavement, monuments, buildings, bridges, and

several other outside constructions. Feldspar is a mineral composition found in rocks that is used

in the ceramics and glass industries. Glass-making uses quartz. A broad class of black mica

minerals known as biotite is often found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. the ground mica that

painters utilise as an extender and filler.

Table 4.1:Physio-chemical Parameters.

 SAMPLE
STATION 1 STATION 2 STATION 3 STATION 4 STATION 5 NIS (2015)
S/N PARAMETERS

pH 6.74 6.90 6.82 6.85 6.98 6.5-8.5

EC (µS/cm) 788 360 648 387 77.4 1000

TA (mg/L) 150 142 96 180 36 50-150

TH (mg/L) 260 120 220 168 30 50-150

Calcium (mg/L) 69.80 33.64 53.82 54.66 6.72 NA

Magnesium (mg/L) 20.91 8.78 20.89 7.69 3.22 0.2

TDS (mg/L) 354 179 324 189 36.2 500

Cl (mg/L) 61.19 138.18 39.48 12.83 24.68 250

COD (mg/L) 176 24 192 40 192 NA

SO4(mg/L) 20 15 25 25 30 100

Pb (mg/L) 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.01 0.02 NA

Zn (mg/L) 0.25 0.19 0.17 0.06 0.79 3

Table 4.2: Showing statistics of physio-chemical Parameters

Sample pH EC TA (mg/L) TH (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Mg TDS Cl COD SO4 Pb Zn

Description (mg/L)
(µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Station 1 6.74 788 150 260 69.80 20.91 354 61.19 176 20 0.09 0.05

Station 2 6.90 360 142 120 33.64 8.78 179 138.18 24 15 0.05 0.19

Station 3 6.82 648 96 220 53.82 20.89 324 39.48 192 25 0.06 0.17

Station 4 6.85 387 180 168 54.66 7.69 189 12.83 40 25 0.01 0.06

Station 5 6.98 77.4 36 30 6.72 3.22 36.2 24.68 192 30 0.02 0.79

Mean 6.86 452.08 120.8 159.6 32.74 12.30 216.44 55.27 124.8 23 0.05 0.29

Minimum 6.74 77.4 36 30 6.72 3.22 36.2 12.83 24 15 0.01 0.05

Maximum 6.98 788 180 260 69.80 20.91 354 138.18 192 30 0.09 0.79

NIS 6.5-8.5 1000 50-150 50-150 NA 0.2 500 250 NA 100 NA 3

WHO

4.3 Structural Geology of the area

Joints, folds, veins, fractures, foliation, and banding are the most common features seen in the

field. The understanding of the region's geological past depends on these formations. Their

relevance for engineering, hydrology, and economic geology may also be assessed with their

assistance.

• Fold: As a consequence of plastic (i.e., permanent) deformation, a stack of once flat and plane

surfaces, such as sedimentary layers, becomes curved or bent.

• Fracture: a generic, non-geological word for a discontinuity or a fracture. only be used in

situations when there is no discernible displacement.

• Joint: A joint is a discontinuity in the rock's continuity that doesn't have a noticeable offset.

• Vein: The mineral-filled, tabular- or sheet-shaped section of a rock that fills a fracture or other

break.

• Foliation: the parallel alignment of a rock's structural and textural characteristics.

Fig4.6Rosette diagram

4.4 Chemistry of Water

Five water samples were taken to the Layusa Integrated Services Limited in Niger State, in 2.5L

sampling bottles and tagged with a permanent marker to write the names of the portion from

which it represents inscribed on it, as shown in table 4.3 below.

Table 4.3: Showing water sample Location taken to the Laboratory.

S/N Sample ID Sample TypeLocation Location Elevation Description

Longitude Latitude

1 Sample 1 Well 09º29.54.1ˈ 006º36.51.9ˈ 280m Porgo

2 Sample 2 Well 09º29.58.6ˈ 006º36.52.9ˈ 277m Porgo

3 Sample 3 Well 09º29.5.28ˈ 006º36.58.2ˈ 276m Porgo

4 Sample 4 Borehole 09º29.36.0ˈ 006º37.24.0ˈ 280m TungaMakun

5 Sample 5 Borehole 09º30.40.4ˈ 006º36.01.6ˈ 254m GidanBiri

In order to determine the water samples' quality and suitability for residential, agricultural, and

drinking purposes, their physio-chemical compositions were analysed and compared to the NIS

and WHO standards. Table 4.2 above displays the outcome. Below is a discussion of how the

parameters varied for each sample site.

4.4.1 pH
The average pH of the water, as determined by the five sample locations used for the study, was

6.86, which is within the National Industrial Standard (NIS) range of 6.5 to 8.5. This suggests

that while the water is somewhat acidic, it still meets all legal requirements. This may be the

consequence of disposing of waste water, which has an impact on the receiving body of water.

Being around the middle of the pH scale, the pH is neutral, indicating that aquatic life is not

significantly impacted by the environment. It doesn't seem that any urgent remedial action is

required, but continued monitoring is encouraged..

Fig 4.7: pH variation across points of sampling

4.4.2 Electrical Conductivity

Comparing the five sample stations' mean electrical conductivity (EC) value of 452.08 to the

National Industrial benchmark (NIS) benchmark of 1000, the EC values vary from 77.4 to 788.

The findings point to a range in conductivity values, which may represent variations in ion

concentrations among the investigated areas. Spatial variability in water composition is

suggested by the range, even if the mean value is below the NIS requirement. Lower EC values

indicate lower ion concentrations, which may be related to things like less human effect or a
lower mineral composition. The NIS standard compliance shows that the water's electrical

conductivity is within allowable limits..

Fig 4.8: Ec variation across points of sampling

4.4.3 Total Alkalinity

Comparing the five sample stations' mean electrical conductivity (EC) value of 452.08 to the
National Industrial benchmark (NIS) benchmark of 1000, the EC values vary from 77.4 to 788.
The findings point to a range in conductivity values, which may represent variations in ion
concentrations among the investigated areas. Spatial variability in water composition is
suggested by the range, even if the mean value is below the NIS requirement. Lower EC values
indicate lower ion concentrations, which may be related to things like less human effect or a
lower mineral composition. The NIS standard compliance shows that the water's electrical
conductivity is within allowable limits..
Fig 4.9 TA variation across points of sampling

4.4.4 Total Hardness

In comparison to the National Industrial Standard (NIS) range of 50-150, the total hardness (TH)

study throughout the sample locations produced values ranging from 30 to 260, with a mean

value of 159.6. The findings show that the water hardness levels in the investigated regions

varied. The average value of 159.6 is higher than the NIS recommended maximum limit,

indicating a moderately hard water composition. Increased calcium and magnesium ion

concentrations, maybe impacted by geological processes or human activity, may be indicated by

elevated total hardness levels. Individual samples fall within the wider NIS limits even when the

mean value is higher than the normal range. For a deeper knowledge of the water quality in the

studied regions, greater research into the precise origins of hardness and consideration of local

environmental conditions are advised..

Fig 4.10 TH variation across points of sampling

4.4.5 Magnesium

In comparison to a National Industrial norm (NIS) norm of 0.2, the magnesium (Mg) analysis

throughout the sample locations produced values ranging from 3.22 to 20.91, with an average

value of 12.30. The findings show that there is a considerable variation in magnesium amounts

across the sites that were investigated. The average score of 12.30 is much higher than the NIS

threshold, even if each individual number is noticeably higher. This implies that the quantities of

magnesium in the water samples are much higher than the allowable limit. Elevated magnesium

levels have the potential to impact water hardness and are linked to certain geological features or

human activities such as the discharge of wastewater, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff..
Fig 4.11 Mg variation across points of sampling

4.4.6 Total Dissolve Solid

In comparison to a National Industrial norm (NIS) norm of 500, the Total Dissolved Solids

(TDS) examination throughout the sample locations indicated values ranging from 36.2 to 354,

with a mean value of 216.44. The findings show that the TDS levels in the water samples are

comparatively low, well below the NIS requirement. The water seems to be within the allowable

limit for dissolved solids, based on the mean value of 216.44. Since low TDS values indicate a

lower concentration of dissolved salts and minerals, they are typically favourable for water

quality. Because the water complies with the NIS requirement, it may be used for a variety of

purposes where high TDS levels may be an issue, such drinking and irrigation..
Fig 4.12 TDS variation across points of sampling

4.4.7 Chlorine (Cl)

Comparing the results of the chlorine (Cl) analysis at each sample site to the National Industrial Standard

(NIS) standard of 250, the results ranged from 12.83 to 138.18, with a mean value of 55.27. The findings

show that the water samples' chlorine amounts are far lower than the NIS standard. A relatively low

average chlorine concentration, as shown by the mean value of 55.27, is generally positive for water

quality with respect to human health and environmental effect. Natural water sources or those less

impacted by industry or human activity may have lower chlorine levels..

Fig 4.13 Cl variation across points of sampling

4.4.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand

With a mean value of 124 and a range of 24 to 192 for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

throughout the test stations, the water samples seem to have moderate to high levels of organic

pollution. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of water is a measure of how much oxygen is

needed to oxidise organic and inorganic materials.

The individual numbers show variation in the amounts of organic pollution in each of the

investigated sites, as does the mean value of 124. To determine if the recorded COD levels

satisfy acceptable limits for the intended use of the water, the particular context and any relevant

water quality regulations or recommendations should be taken into account..

Fig 4.14COD variation across points of sampling

4.4.9 Sulphate (SO4)

In comparison to a National Industrial Standard (NIS) of 100, the sulphate (SO4) measurement

throughout the sample locations showed levels ranging from 15 to 30, with a mean value of 23.
The water samples' sulphate levels are much lower than the NIS norm, indicating that the water

is likely well within permitted limits for sulphate content. The average mean value of 23

indicates a moderate sulphate concentration, which is deemed suitable for the majority of water

applications. The amounts of sulphate in water might be caused by human activity, industrial

emissions, or natural sources, and the levels that have been measured seem to be within the usual

range..

Fig 4.15 SO4 variation across points of sampling

4.4.10 Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb) contents range from 0.01 to 0.09 throughout the sample stations, with individual

readings falling below the 0.04 World Health Organisation (WHO) limit. These low lead levels

imply that the water is within internationally recommended limits for human consumption.

However, continuous monitoring is advised to guarantee continued compliance and to spot any

possible sources of lead pollution that would need further research and remediation..
Fig 4.16Pb variation across points of sampling

4.4.11 Zinc (Zn)

Comparing the zinc (Zn) measurement at each sample site to the National Industrial Standard

(NIS) standard of 3, the results show values ranging from 0.05 to 0.79, with a mean value of

0.29. These findings imply that the water is within allowable bounds for zinc content since the

zinc levels in the water samples are much lower than the NIS requirement. The low total zinc

concentration is further supported by the mean value of 0.29..

Fig 4.17 Zn variation across points of sampling

4.4.12 Calcium (Ca)

In comparison to the 200 mg/L World Health Organisation (WHO) standard, the calcium (Ca)

analysis throughout the sample locations shows values ranging from 6.72 to 69.80, with a mean

value of 32.74. The water is well below permissible limits for calcium content, as shown by the

detected amounts of calcium in the water samples, which are far lower than the WHO norm. The

low total calcium concentration is further supported by the mean value of 32.74. Water that has

the right amount of calcium in it might be more nutritious. It's crucial to remember that, even

though calcium is generally good for water, a thorough evaluation should also take other aspects

and particular water quality measures into account. To guarantee continued compliance and to

keep an eye on any possible changes in calcium concentrations over time, regular monitoring is

advised..

Fig 4.18 Ca variation across points of sampling

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, the comprehensive water quality analysis conducted across various parameters

indicates generally positive findings, with most values falling within acceptable ranges according

to regulatory standards. The pH, total alkalinity, sulphate, lead, and zinc levels meet or are

significantly below the relevant National Industrial Standard (NIS) or World Health

Organization (WHO) standards, reflecting a favourable quality for various uses, including

drinking water. However, notable variations in Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), magnesium,

and total hardness suggest the presence of organic pollutants and elevated magnesium levels,

urging further investigation into potential pollution sources. These findings contribute valuable

insights into the current state of water quality, forming a foundation for targeted environmental

management strategies. Continued monitoring and focused research are crucial for maintaining

and enhancing water quality, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources while safeguarding

public health and the environment

5.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings from the comprehensive water quality analysis, it is evident that the

majority of parameters, including pH, total alkalinity, sulphate, lead, and zinc, meet or surpass

established standards, indicating favourable conditions for various water uses. However,

variations in Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and magnesium levels suggest potential sources

of organic pollutants and elevated mineral content, warranting further investigation. Therefore, it

is recommended to implement a robust and continuous monitoring program to track these

variations over time, identify specific pollution sources, and mitigate their impact. Community

engagement and awareness initiatives should be prioritized to ensure local understanding of

water quality importance. Collaboration with environmental authorities is crucial for regulatory

compliance, and the adoption of sustainable practices, along with long-term planning, will

contribute to the overall health and sustainability of the water ecosystem.