Chapter 2 Assemblers

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Source Program Object Code

Assembler

Linker Executable Code Loader

Outline
2.1 Basic Assembler Functions
A simple SIC assembler Assembler tables and logic

2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

Instruction formats and addressing modes Program relocation

2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features 2.4 Assembler Design Options

Two-pass One-pass Multi-pass
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2.1 Basic Assembler Functions

Figure 2.1 shows an assembler language program for SIC.
The line numbers are for reference only. Indexing addressing is indicated by adding the modifier ,X Lines beginning with . contain comments only. Reads records from input device (code F1) Copies them to output device (code 05) At the end of the file, writes EOF on the output device, then RSUB to the operating system

2.1 Basic Assembler Functions

Assembler directives (pseudo-instructions)
START, END, BYTE, WORD, RESB, RESW. These statements are not translated into machine instructions. Instead, they provide instructions to the assembler itself.

2.1 Basic Assembler Functions

Data transfer (RD, WD)
A buffer is used to store record Buffering is necessary for different I/O rates The end of each record is marked with a null character (0016) Buffer length is 4096 Bytes The end of the file is indicated by a zero-length record When the end of file is detected, the program writes EOF on the output device and terminates by RSUB.

Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)

RDREC, WRREC Save link (L) register first before nested jump
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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

Figure 2.2 shows the generated object code for each statement.
Loc gives the machine address in Hex. Assume the program starting at address 1000.

Translation functions
Translate STL to 14. Translate RETADR to 1033. Build the machine instructions in the proper format (,X). Translate EOF to 454F46. Write the object program and assembly listing.

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

A forward reference
10 1000 FIRST STL RETADR 141033 A reference to a label (RETADR) that is defined later in the program Most assemblers make two passes over the source program

Most assemblers make two passes over source program.

Pass 1 scans the source for label definitions and assigns address (Loc). Pass 2 performs most of the actual translation.
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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

Example of Instruction Assemble
Forward reference STCH BUFFER, X 549039

8 opcode

1 x

15 address m

(54)16

1 (001)2

(039)16

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

Forward reference
Reference to a label that is defined later in the program.
Loc 1000 1003 1012 1033 Label FIRST CLOOP RETADR OP Code STL JSUB J RESW Operand RETADR RDREC CLOOP 1

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

The object program (OP) will be loaded into memory for execution. Three types of records
Header: program name, starting address, length. Text: starting address, length, object code. End: address of first executable instruction.

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

The symbol ^ is used to separate fields.
Figure 2.3 1E(H)=30(D)=16(D)+14(D)

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

Assemblers Functions
Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents
STL to 14

Convert symbolic operands (referred label) to their equivalent machine addresses

RETADR to 1033

Build the machine instructions in the proper format Convert the data constants to internal machine representations Write the object program and the assembly listing

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

The functions of the two passes assembler. Pass 1 (define symbol)
Assign addresses to all statements (generate LOC). Check the correctness of Instruction (check with OP table). Save the values (address) assigned to all labels into SYMBOL table for Pass 2. Perform some processing of assembler directives.

Pass 2
Assemble instructions (op code from OP table, address from SYMBOL table). Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD. Perform processing of assembler directives not done during Pass 1. 20 Write the OP (Fig. 2.3) and the assembly listing (Fig. 2.2).

2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic

Our simple assembler uses two internal tables: The OPTAB and SYMTAB.
OPTAB is used to look up mnemonic operation codes and translate them to their machine language equivalents.
LDA00, STL14,

SYMTAB is used to store values (addresses) assigned to labels.

COPY1000, FIRST1000

Location Counter LOCCTR

LOCCTR is a variable for assignment addresses. LOCCTR is initialized to address specified in START. When reach a label, the current value of LOCCTR gives the address to be associated with that label.
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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic

The Operation Code Table (OPTAB)
Contain the mnemonic operation & its machine language equivalents (at least). Contain instruction format & length. Pass 1, OPTAB is used to look up and validate operation codes. Pass 2, OPTAB is used to translate the operation codes to machine language. In SIC/XE, assembler search OPTAB in Pass 1 to find the instruction length for incrementing LOCCTR. Organize as a hash table (static table).

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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic

The Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
Include the name and value (address) for each label. Include flags to indicate error conditions Contain type, length. Pass 1, labels are entered into SYMTAB, along with assigned addresses (from LOCCTR). Pass 2, symbols used as operands are look up in SYMTAB to obtain the addresses. Organize as a hash table (static table). The entries are rarely deleted from table.
COPY FIRST CLOOP ENDFIL EOF THREE ZERO RETADR LENGTH BUFFER RDREC 1000 1000 1003 1015 1024 102D 1030 1033 1036 1039 2039

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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic

Pass 1 usually writes an intermediate file.
Contain source statement together with its assigned address, error indicators. This file is used as input to Pass 2.

Figure 2.4 shows the two passes of assembler.

Format with fields LABEL, OPCODE, and OPERAND. Denote numeric value with the prefix #. #[OPERAND]

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Pass 1

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Pass 2

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else if (found symbol==RSUB|| found symbol== || found symbol==) store 0 as operand address else store 0 as operand address set error flag assemble the object code inst.

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

Indirect addressing
Adding the prefix @ to operand (line 70).

Immediate operands
Adding the prefix # to operand (lines 12, 25, 55, 133).

Base relative addressing

Assembler directive BASE (lines 12 and 13).

Extended format
Adding the prefix + to OP code (lines 15, 35, 65).

The use of register-register instructions.

Faster and dont require another memory reference.
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Figure 2.5: First

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Figure 2.5: RDREC

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Figure 2.5: WRREC

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

SIC/XE
PC-relative/Base-relative addressing op m Indirect addressing op @m Immediate addressing op #c Extended format +op m Index addressing op m, X register-to-register instructions COMPR larger memory multi-programming (program allocation)

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

Register translation
register name (A, X, L, B, S, T, F, PC, SW) and their values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9) preloaded in SYMTAB

Address translation
Most register-memory instructions use program counter relative or base relative addressing Format 3: 12-bit disp (address) field
PC-relative: -2048~2047 Base-relative: 0~4095

Format 4: 20-bit address field (absolute addressing)

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2.2.1 Instruction Formats & Addressing Modes

The START statement
Specifies a beginning address of 0.

Register-register instructions
CLEAR & TIXR, COMPR

Register-memory instructions are using

Program-counter (PC) relative addressing The program counter is advanced after each instruction is fetched and before it is executed. PC will contain the address of the next instruction.
10 0000 FIRST STL RETADR 17202D

TA - (PC) = disp = 30H 3H= 2D

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+OP, e=1 n=1, i=1, OPcode+3, @m, n=1, i=0, OPcode+2, #C, n=0, i=1, OPcode+1, xbpe 2: PC-relative 4: base-relative 8: index (m,X) 1: extended

Extended Simple Indirect Immediate

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2.2.1 Instruction Formats & Addressing Modes

40 0017 J CLOOP 3F2FEC

0006 - 001A = disp = -14 Base (B), LDB #LENGTH, BASE LENGTH
160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003

TA-(B) = 0036 - (B) = disp = 0036-0033 = 0003

Extended instruction
15 0006 CLOOP +JSUB RDREC 4B101036

Immediate instruction
55 133 0020 103C LDA +LDT #3 #4096 010003 75101000

PC relative + indirect addressing (line 70)

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2.2.2 Program Relocation

Absolute program, relocatable program

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2.2.2 Program Relocation

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2.2.2 Program Relocation

Modification record (direct addressing)
1 M 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the beginning of the program. 8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half bytes. M^000007^05

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2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features

Write the value of a constant operand as a part of the instruction that uses it (Fig. 2.9). A literal is identified with the prefix =
45 001A ENDFIL LDA =CEOF 032010

Specifies a 3-byte operand whose value is the character string EOF.

215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05 E32011

Specifies a 1-byte literal with the hexadecimal value 05

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RDREC

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WRREC

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2.3.1 Literals
The difference between literal operands and immediate operands
=, # Immediate addressing, the operand value is assembled as part of the machine instruction, no memory reference. With a literal, the assembler generates the specified value as a constant at some other memory location. The address of this generated constant is used as the TA for the machine instruction, using PC-relative or base-relative addressing with memory reference.

Literal pools
At the end of the program (Fig. 2.10). Assembler directive LTORG, it creates a literal pool that contains all of the literal operands used since the previous
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RDREC

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WRREC

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2.3.1 Literals
When to use LTORG (page 69, 4th paragraph)
The literal operand would be placed too far away from the instruction referencing. Cannot use PC-relative addressing or Base-relative addressing to generate Object Program.

Most assemblers recognize duplicate literals.

By comparison of the character strings defining them. =CEOF and =X454F46

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2.3.1 Literals
Allow literals that refer to the current value of the location counter.
Such literals are sometimes useful for loading base registers. LDB =* ; register B=beginning address of statement=current LOC BASE * ; for base relative addressing

If a literal =* appeared on line 13 or 55

Specify an operand with value 0003 (Loc) or 0020 (Loc).

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2.3.1 Literals
Literal table (LITTAB)
Contains the literal name (=CEOF), the operand value (454F46) and length (3), and the address (002D). Organized as a hash table. Pass 1, the assembler creates or searches LITTAB for the specified literal name. Pass 1 encounters a LTORG statement or the end of the program, the assembler makes a scan of the literal table. Pass 2, the operand address for use in generating OC is obtained by searching LITTAB.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

Allow the programmer to define symbols and specify their values.
Assembler directive EQU. Improved readability in place of numeric values. +LDT #4096 MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER (4096) +LDT #MAXLEN

Use EQU in defining mnemonic names for registers.

Registers A, X, L can be used by numbers 0, 1, 2. RMO 0, 1 RMO A, X
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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

The standard names reflect the usage of the registers.
BASE COUNT INDEX EQU EQU EQU R1 R2 R3

Assembler directive ORG

Use to indirectly assign values to symbols. ORG value The assembler resets its LOCCTR to the specified value. ORG can be useful in label definition.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

The location counter is used to control assignment of storage in the object program
In most cases, altering its value would result in an incorrect assembly.

ORG is used
http://home.educities.edu.tw/wanker742126/index.html SYMBOL is 6-byte, VALUE is 3-byte, and FLAGS is 2-byte.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

STAB SYMBOL VALUE (100 entries) 6 3 LOC 1000 STAB RESB 1100 1000 1006 1009 SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS EQU EQU EQU STAB +0 STAB +6 STAB +9 FLAGS 2

Use LDA VALUE, X to fetch the VALUE field form the table entry indicated by the contents of register X.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

STAB SYMBOL (100 entries) 6 1000 STAB RESB ORG 1000 SYMBOL RESB 1006 VALUE RESW 1009 FLAGS RESB ORG VALUE FLAGS 3 2 1100 STAB 6 1 2 STAB+1100

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

All terms used to specify the value of the new symbol --- must have been defined previously in the program.
... BETA ALPHA ... EQU ALPHA RESW 1

Need 2 passes

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements

All symbols used to specify new location counter value must have been previously defined.
ORG BYTE1 BYTE2 BYTE3 ALPHA ALPHA BETA DELTA ALPHA RESB RESB RESB ORG RESW EQU BETA EQU DELTA RESW 1
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1 1 1 1

Forward reference

Need 3 passes

2.3.3 Expressions
Allow arithmetic expressions formed
Using the operators +, -, , /. Division is usually defined to produce an integer result. Expression may be constants, user-defined symbols, or special terms. 106 1036 BUFEND EQU * Gives BUFEND a value that is the address of the next byte after the buffer area.

Absolute expressions or relative expressions

A relative term or expression represents some value (S+r), S: starting address, r: the relative value.
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2.3.3 Expressions
107 1000 MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER Both BUFEND and BUFFER are relative terms. The expression represents absolute value: the difference between the two addresses. Loc =1000 (Hex) The value that is associated with the symbol that appears in the source statement. BUFEND+BUFFER, 100-BUFFER, 3*BUFFER represent neither absolute values nor locations.

Symbol tables entries

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2.3.4 Program Blocks

The source program logically contained main, subroutines, data areas.
In a single block of object code.

More flexible (Different blocks)

Generate machine instructions (codes) and data in a different order from the corresponding source statements.

Program blocks
Refer to segments of code that are rearranged within a single object program unit.

Control sections
Refer to segments of code that are translated into independent object program units.
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2.3.4 Program Blocks

Three blocks, Figure 2.11
Default (USE), CDATA (USE CDATA), CBLKS (USE CBLKS).

Assembler directive USE

Indicates which portions of the source program blocks. At the beginning of the program, statements are assumed to be part of the default block. Lines 92, 103, 123, 183, 208, 252.

Each program block may contain several separate segments.

The assembler will rearrange these segments to gather together the pieces of each block.
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Main

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RDREC

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WRREC

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2.3.4 Program Blocks

Pass 1, Figure 2.12
The block number is started form 0. A separate location counter for each program block. The location counter for a block is initialized to 0 when the block is first begun. Assign each block a starting address in the object program (location 0). Labels, block name or block number, relative addr. Working table is generated
Block name Block number default 0 CDATA 1 CBLKS 2 Address End 0000 0065 0066 0070 0071 1070 Length 0066 (0~0065) 000B (0~000A) 1000 (0~0FFF)
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2.3.4 Program Blocks

Pass 2, Figure 2.12
The assembler needs the address for each symbol relative to the start of the object program. Loc shows the relative address and block number. Notice that the value of the symbol MAXLEN (line 70) is shown without a block number. 20 0006 0 LDA LENGTH 032060 0003(CDATA) +0066 =0069 =TA using program-counter relative addressing TA - (PC) =0069-0009 =0060 =disp

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2.3.4 Program Blocks

Separation of the program into blocks.
Because the large buffer (CBLKS) is moved to the end of the object program. No longer need extended format, base register, simply a LTORG statement. No need Modification records. Improve program readability.

Figure 2.13
Reflect the starting address of the block as well as the relative location of the code within the block.

Figure 2.14
Loader simply loads the object code from each record at the dictated. CDATA(1) & CBLKS(1) are not actually present in OP.
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2.3.4 Program Blocks

Default 1 Default 2 CDATA 2 Default 3 CDATA 3

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2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking

Control section
Handling of programs that consist of multiple control sections. Each control section is a part of the program. Can be assembled, loaded and relocated independently. Different control sections are most often used for subroutines or other logical subdivisions of a program. The programmer can assemble, load, and manipulate each of these control sections separately. More Flexibility then the previous. Linking control sections together.

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2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking

External references (external symbol references)
Instructions in one control section might need to refer to instructions or data located in another section.

Figure 2.15, multiple control sections.

Three sections, main COPY, RDREC, WRREC. Assembler directive CSECT. Assembler directives EXTDEF and EXTREF for external symbols. The order of symbols is not significant. COPY START 0 EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFEND, LENGTH EXTREF RDREC, WRREC (symbol name)
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2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking

Figure 2.16, the generated object code.
15 160 0003 0017 CLOOP +JSUB RDREC +STCH BUFFER,X 4B100000 57900000

The LOC of all control section is started form 0 RDREC is an external reference. The assembler has no idea where the control section containing RDREC will be loaded, so it cannot assemble the address. The proper address to be inserted at load time. Must use extended format instruction for external reference (M records are needed).
190 0028 MAXLEN WORD BUFEND-BUFFER
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An expression involving two external references.

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2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking

The loader will add to this data area with the address of BUFEND and subtract from it the address of BUFFER. (COPY and RDREC for MAXLEN) Line 190 and 107, in 107, the symbols BUFEND and BUFFER are defined in the same section. The assembler must remember in which control section a symbol is defined. The assembler allows the same symbol to be used in different control sections, lines 107 and 190.

Figure 2.17, two new records.

Defined record for EXTDEF, relative address. Refer record for EXTREF.
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2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking

Modification record
M Starting address of the field to be modified, relative to the beginning of the control section (Hex). Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes. Modification flag (+ or -). External symbol. M^000004^05+RDREC M^000028^06+BUFEND M^000028^06-BUFFER

Use Figure 2.8 for program relocation.

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2.4 Assembler Design Options 2.4.1 Two-Pass Assembler

Most assemblers
Processing the source program into two passes. The internal tables and subroutines that are used only during Pass 1. The SYMTAB, LITTAB, and OPTAB are used by both passes.

The main problems to assemble a program in one pass involves forward references.

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2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers

Eliminate forward references
Data items are defined before they are referenced. But, forward references to labels on instructions cannot be eliminated as easily. Prohibit forward references to labels.

Two types of one-pass assembler. (Fig. 2.18)

One type produces object code directly in memory for immediate execution. The other type produces the usual kind of object program for later execution.

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2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers

Load-and-go one-pass assembler
The assembler avoids the overhead of writing the object program out and reading it back in. The object program is produced in memory, the handling of forward references becomes less difficult. Figure 2.19(a), shows the SYMTAB after scanning line 40 of the program in Figure 2.18. Since RDREC was not yet defined, the instruction was assembled with no value assigned as the operand address (denote by - - - -).

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2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers

Load-and-go one-pass assembler
RDREC was then entered into SYMTAB as an undefined symbol, the address of the operand field of the instruction (2013) was inserted. Figure 2.19(b), when the symbol ENDFIL was defined (line 45), the assembler placed its value in the SYMTAB entry; it then inserted this value into the instruction operand field (201C). At the end of the program, all symbols must be defined without any * in SYMTAB. For a load-and-go assembler, the actual address must be known at assembly time.
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2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers

Another one-pass assembler by generating OP
Generate another Text record with correct operand address. When the program is loaded, this address will be inserted into the instruction by the action of the loader. Figure 2.20, the operand addresses for the instructions on lines 15, 30, and 35 have been generated as 0000. When the definition of ENDFIL is encountered on line 45, the third Text record is generated, the value 2024 is to be loaded at location 201C. The loader completes forward references.

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ENDFIL RDREC EXIT

WRREC

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2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers

In this section, simple one-pass assemblers handled absolute programs (SIC example).

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

Use EQU, any symbol used on the RHS be defined previously in the source.
LOC 1000 1003 1003 1003 LDA ALPHA BETA DELTA #0 EQU EQU RESW Pass1 1000 BETA ???? DELTA ???? 1 1003 2 1000 ???? 1003 1003 3 1000 1003 1003 1003

Need 3 passes!

Figure 2.21, multi-pass assembler

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

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2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

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