Ecological Principles and Process in

Agroecosystems
•Concepts, structure, function, biotic and
abiotic components of agroecosystesms and
their linkages
•Energy flow, ecological pyramids, food chains
and food webs, trophic level.
•Biogeochemical cycles
Three Big Ideas
•Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the
sun through the biosphere, the cycling of
nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity.
•Some organisms produce the nutrients they need,
some survive by consuming other organisms, and
others recycle nutrients back to producers.
•Human activities are altering the flow of energy
through food chains and webs, and the cycling of
nutrients within ecosystems and the biosphere.
 Ecosystems
A place in which matter and energy are moved, transformed, or stored
 Ecosystems components
 Abiotic
• Landscape
• Geology
• Climate
• Microclimate?
 Biotic
• Producers
• Consumers
• Trophic interactions
 Energy Flows
 Nutrient Cycles
1.Concepts of Ecosystem and Agroecosystems
The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by
A. G. Tansley (1935).
According to Odum, ecosystems generally
include four categories of basic structural
components:
• Abiotic components(physical factors)
• Producers, mainly green plants
• Consumers, almost exclusively animals
• Decomposers, mainly bacteria and fungi
 Abiotic components
• Ecological relationships are manifested in physico-chemical
environment.
• Abiotic component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic
elements and compounds, such as soil, water, calcium,
oxygen, carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds (by-product of organic activity or death).
• It also includes such physical factors and gradients as
moisture, wind currents and solar radiation.
• Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source
for any ecosystem.
• The amount of non-living components, such as phosphorus,
nitrogen etc. that are present at any given time, is known as
standing state or standing quantity
 Symbiosis
• A close and permanent association between organisms
of different species
– Commensalism – a relationship in which one organism benefits and
the other is not affected
• Example: Barnacles(a type of crustacean) on a whale, epiphytic
orchids(humidity, light), tree frogs
– Mutualism – a relationship in which both organisms benefit from
each other
• Example: Birds eating pest off a rhino’s back, lichens(
fungi+algae), root nodules, mycorhiza
– Parasitism – A relationship in which one organism benefits and the
other is harmed
• Example: Ticks on a dog
• Competition: both harmed
• Antibiosis: one is harmed other neither benefited nor harmed.
Example: Allelopathy
• aggregation: survival significance e.g. may fly, mosquito swarm for
mating
Functions of Ecosystems
• The principal steps in the operation of
ecosystem are as follows:
– Reception of radiant energy of the sun.
– Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic
ones by producers.
– Consumption of producers by consumers and
further elaboration of consumed materials.
– After the death of producers and consumers,
complex organic compounds are degraded and
finally converted by decomposers and converters
into such forms as are suitable for reutilization by
producers.
Three Factors Sustain the Earth’s Life
•One-way flow of high-quality energy from the
sun and back into space
•The cycling of nutrients through the biosphere
•Gravity – holds in the atmosphere, assists in
the cycling of nutrients, and prevents us from
flying off into space!
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
– Plants are called producers because they make
carbohydrates during
photosynthesis.
CO2 + H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 + O2

– Consumers get their energy by feeding on

producers or other consumers.
- Decomposers break-down wastes &
dead organisms, through the process of
biodegradation.
 Sunlight
• Solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface is
in, or near, the visible light wavelengths.
– Drive photosynthesis.
• More than half of the incoming sunlight may
be reflected or absorbed by atmospheric
clouds, dust, or gases.
– Short wavelengths are filtered out by gases in the
upper atmosphere.

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 •Photosynthesis
•Chemical reaction where green plants use
water & carbon dioxide to store the sun’s
energy in glucose
•ENERGY is stored in glucose
•Glucose is stored as starch in plants

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6O2 + C6H12O6 --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy

CELLULAR
RESPIRATION is
the chemical
reaction that
releases the
energy in glucose.
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 Producers
• A groups of organisms that can use the energy
in sunlight to convert water and carbon
dioxide into a sugar called Glucose (food)
• Energy for all ecological systems begin with
producers.
• Ex. Plants and Algae
Autotrophs
 Niche of a Producer
• Captures energy and transforms
it into organic, stored energy for
the use of living organisms.
• May be photoautotrophs using
light energy (e.g. plants)
• May be chemoautotrophs using
chemical energy (e.g.
cyanobacteria)
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Habitat of Photoautotrophs
• On Land
–Plants
• In The Sea
–Algae
• Tidal Flats & Salt Marshes
–Cyanobacteria

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 Chemoautotrophs
• Capture energy from
the bonds of inorganic
molecules such as
Hydrogen Sulfide
• Process is called
Chemosynthesis
• Often occurs in deep
sea vents or gut of
animals Called a Black smoker
(thermal vent)
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Tube Worms living in Black Smoker

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 Photoautotroph
Producer That Captures Energy
from the sun by:
–Photosynthesis
• Adds Oxygen to the
atmosphere
• Removes Carbon Dioxide from
the Atmosphere

Algae
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Heterotrophs
 Trophic Levels
• An organism’s feeding position in an ecosystem is
called as trophic level.
• Organisms can also be identified by the kinds of food
they consume:
– Herbivores – cows eat plants.
– Carnivores – lion eat animals.
– Omnivores - man eat plants and animals.
– Detritivores – ants & beetles eat detritus ( litters)
– Decomposers - bacteria and fungi breakdown
complex organic matter into simpler compounds.
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 Trophic Levels

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 Herbivores
• Consumers
– 2. Herbivores – eat ONLY plants
• Ex. – Cows, Elephants, Giraffes
 Carnivores
• Consumers
– 3. Carnivores – eat ONLY meat
• Ex. – Lions, Tigers, Sharks
 Omnivores
• Consumers
– 4. Omnivores – eat BOTH plants and animals
• Ex. – Bears and Humans
 Scavengers
• Consumers
– 1. Scavengers – feed on the tissue of dead organisms
(both plants and animals)
• Ex. – Vultures, Crows, and Shrimp
 Decomposers
• Consumers
– 5. Decomposers – absorb any dead material and break it
down into simple nutrients or fertilizers
• Ex. – Bacteria and Mushrooms
 Energy Exchange

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 Feeding Relationships
 Energy flow through an ecosystem in one direction, from the
sun or inorganic compounds to autotrophs (producers) and
then to various heterotrophs (consumers).

 Food Chains are a series of steps in which organisms transfer

energy by eating or being eaten.

 Food webs show the complex interactions within an

ecosystem.

 Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic level.

Producers make up the first step, consumers make up the
higher levels.
Energy Flow & Energy Loss in Ecosystems

• Methods to represent energy moving through ecosystems.

– Food chains: show the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
– Food webs: represent interconnected food chains.
They model the feeding relationships in an ecosystem
– Food pyramids: show the changes in available energy
from one trophic level to another in a food chain.
They’re also called ecological pyramids
 The transfer of energy from
the sun to producer to primary
consumer then to higher order
consumers can be shown in a
FOOD CHAIN.

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 Food Chains
• A food chain is simple and direct
• It involves one organism at each trophic level
– Primary Consumers – eat autotrophs (producers)
– Secondary Consumers – eat the primary consumers
– Tertiary Consumers – eat the secondary consumers
– Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break down dead
organisms and recycle the material back into the
environment
Food Chain
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More Food Chains

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 Food Webs
• Most organisms are part of
many food chains.
– Arrows in a food web
represent the flow of energy
and nutrients.
– Following the arrows leads
to the top carnivore(s).

This food web represents a terrestrial

ecosystem that could be found in
British Columbia.
Food Web

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 Ecological Pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the
relationship amounts of energy or matter contained
within each trophic level in a food web or food chain.

• Energy Pyramid only 10% of the energy available within

one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next
trophic level.
• Food chains and food webs do not give any information
about the numbers of organisms involved.

• This information can be shown through ecological

pyramids.
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Ecological Pyramid
 Ecological Pyramid

• Which level has the most energy?

• Which level has the most organisms?
• Which level has the least organisms?
• Which level has the least energy?
 PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
• Shows the number of organisms at each
trophic level per unit area of an ecosystem.
 Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of numbers displays the number of individuals
at each level.
Bacteria and fungi
Hyper parasites
1 owl
Lice and bugs
Parasites

25 voles Fruit eating

Birds Herbivores

Tree

2000 Producer
grass plants
Grassland ecosystem Forest/ agroecosytem
 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
 The total amount of matter present in
organisms of an ecosystem at each trophic
level is biomass.
 Biomass is preferred to the use of numbers of
organisms because individual organisms can
vary in size. It is the total mass not the size
that is important.
 Pyramid of biomass records the total dry
organic matter of organisms at each trophic
level in a given area of an ecosystem.
 Biomass Pyramids
Displays the biomass at each trophic level.

Hawk
Grassland ecosystem

Snakes
lizard
Rabbit, mice,
insect

Grasses
 Bigger fishes

Smaller fishes,
water beetles

Rotifers

Phytopla
nkton,
algae

Pyramid of biomass in pond ecosystem

 PYRAMID OF ENERGY
Shows the amount of energy input to each
trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem
over an extended period.
1. Why will this type of pyramid never be
inverted?
 Energy Pyramid
In nature, ecological
efficiency varies from
5% to 20% energy
available between
successive trophic
levels (95% to 80%
loss). About 10%
efficiency is a general
rule.

Fig. 4–19
 Another Energy Pyramid
Annual pyramid of energy flow (in kilocalories per square
meter per year) for an aquatic ecosystem in Silver Springs, FL.

Note: More individuals can be

supported at lower trophic
levels. Less energy is lost.
 Models of Energy Flow in a Community
Model # 1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model:

• This model depicts a community boundary and, in addition to light and heat
flows, it also includes import, export and storage of organic matter.
 Model # 2. Y-Shaped/two Channel Energy Flow Model:

• In this type of model, the grazing and detritus food chains are shown as separate flows.
 Model # 3. Universal Model:

• This is applicable to any living component, which may be plant, animal,

microorganism, individual, population or trophic group.
 Hydrologic Cycle

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 Carbon Cycle

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 Nitrogen Cycle

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 Phosphorus Cycle

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 Sulfur Cycle

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 Biomass
• The total mass of the organic matter at each trophic
level is called biomass

• Biomass is just another term for potential energy –

energy that is to be eaten and used.

• The transfer of energy from one level to another is

very inefficient (10% Law)
• Productivity concept
The energy accumulated by producers is called
'production' or more especially 'primary production’.
There are three fundamental concepts of productivity:
• Standing crop. Measurements of standing crop reveal
the concentration of individuals in the various
populations of the ecosystem.

• The materials removed. It includes the yield to man,

organisms removed from the ecosystem by migration,
and the material withdrawn as organic deposit.

• The production rate.. The amount of material formed

by each link in the food chain per unit of time unit area
or volume is "the production rate".
• Plant indicators
Indicators of agriculture: Forests and grasslands
Indicators of soil type: sandy loam, deeply rooted
and taller species .
Indicators of soil erosion and soil formation: Choris
spinarum and Capparis spiaria are indicators of
soil erosion where on Ziziphus rotundifolia is an
indicator of soil formation.
Indicators of soil water: Several plants like
Enicostum littorale indicate well-drained soil.
Indicators of minerals: Viola calamine grows in soils
rich in zinc, Stellaria setacea in mercury rich soil,
Equisetum plebejum in soil containing gold
• Indicators of pollution: Certain aquatic plants such as
Utricularia, Chara and Wolffia indicate polluted water.
• Indicators of bogs and swamps: Typha, Phragmites,
Juncus, Carex and some species of Polygonum indicate
bogs and swamps.
• Indicators of saline and alkali soils: Rhizonphora,
Sonneratia, Avceenia, Ceriops and Hevitiera indicate
saline waterlogged soils. Plants like Salyrla foetida,
Salicornia and Suaeda fruticosa are indicators of saline
and alkali soils. Such soils are not fit for agriculture till
the accumulated salts are not removed. Even then,
only salt-tolerant plants like sugarbeet, rice, patsan and
wild indigo should be cultivated in the beginning.
Thank you……..