FERMENTATION, TYPES OF FERMENTERS, DESIGN & USES OF FERMENTERS

AND OPTIMZATION OF FERMENTATION PROCESS.

1. INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATION SYSTEM

1. 1. Introduction Concept:
Fermentation comes from the latin verb “fevere”, which means to boil. Ironically, fermentation is possible
without heat. It’s originated from the fact that early at the start of wine fermentation gas bubbles are released
continuously to the surface giving the impression of boiling. It has 3 different meaning which might be
confusing.
A. Usage of the word in Microbial Physiology; Fermentation is defined as the type of metabolism of a carbon
source in which energy is generated by substrate level phosphorylation (one of the 3 mechanism of
phosphorylation atom to generate ATP from ADP) such as:
- Substrate Level
-Oxidative
-and Photophosphorylation.
And in which organic molecules function as the final electron acceptor generated during catabolism.
Note: If inorganic compound such as: (Sulphate or nitrate, and oxygen) is the final acceptor is called
Respiration. Respiration is referred to as aerobic if the final acceptor is oxygen. And anaerobic when it is
some other inorganic compound outside oxygen e.g sulphate or nitrate.
*Final electron acceptor or (as acceptors of the reducing equivalents).

Microorganisms generate ATP using respirations. Also they use carbohydrates (sugar) for energy and a fuel
organic chemical like (ATP) adenosine triphosphate delivers that energy to every part of a cell when needed.

Fermentation is similar to anaerobic respiration; the kind that takes place when there is not enough oxygen
present.
Depending upon environmental conditions, individual cells and microbes have the ability to switch between
the two different modes to energy production.

B. The second usage of the word is in Industrial microbiology which defines fermentation as any process
in which micro-organisms are grown on a large scales, even if the final electron acceptor is not an organic
compound (i.e if the growth is carried out under aerobic conditions) e.g yeast cells (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration even when oxygen is abundant.

C. The third usage concerns Food microbiology defines fermentation as any metabolic process in which
micro-organism’s activity creates a desirable change in food and beverages, whether it’s increasing flavor,
preserving food stuffs, providing health benefit or more.

Here micro-organisms determine the nature and general character of the food, but micro-organisms form
only a small portion of the finished product by weight. Food such as vinegar, cheese, bread and yoghurt,
are fermented foods.

1.2. Three (3) Distinct Types of Fermentation

i. Lactic Acid Fermentation: yeast strains and bacteria convert starches or sugars into lactic acids, requiring
no heat in preparation. These anaerobic chemical reactions pyruvic acid uses nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide + hydrogen (NADH) to form lactic acid and NAD+. The method makes, pickles, yogurt
and sourdough bread.
ii. Ethanol / Alcohol Fermentation: yeasts breaks pyruvate molecules further down into alcohol and carbon
dioxide molecules to produce wine and beer.
NOTE: Pyruvate molecules from end product of glycolysis or output of the metabolism of glucose
(C6H12O6). iii. Acetic Acid Fermentation: starches and sugars from grains and fruit ferment into sour tasting
vinegar and condiments. e.g apple cider vinegar and Kombucha.

1.3 Fermentation Process Stages -

Primary fermentation.
- Secondary fermentation
Depending upon what you are fermenting, the process can have several stages.
- Primary fermentation: in this brief phase, microbes begin rapidly working on raw ingredients such
as fruit, vegetables or dairy. E.g Yeasts or other microbes convert carbohydrates (sugars) into other
substances such as alcohols and acids.
The microbes present or in the surrounding liquid (such as brine for fermented vegetables) prevent
putrefying bacteria from colonizing the food instead.
- Secondary fermentation: In this longer stage of fermentation, which last several days or even weeks,
alcohol levels rise and yeasts and microbes die off and their available food source (the carbohydrates)
becomes scarcer. Wine makers and brewers use secondary fermentation to create their alcoholic
beverages.
The pH of the ferment can differ significantly from when it started out, which affects the chemical
reactions taking place between the microbes and their environment. Once alcohol is between 12-15% it
kills the yeast, preventing further fermentation, distillation is needed to remove water, condensing
alcohol content to create a higher percentage of alcohol.

1.4. INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATION SYSTEM

Industrial fermentation process comprises of biological chemical & physical aspect of fermentation.
It begins with suitable microorganisms, requirement of sterility, cellular reaction and specified conditions.
• Screening for suitable microorganisms
• Development of seeding inoculum for multiplication and support (Good growth for microorganisms)
• Development of production medium which is almost & always complex to maximize yields of the
metabolite.
• Appropriate measures to ensure contamination control.
• Determination of physical condition such as pH, temperature, time.
• Determination of industrial metabolites (isolation and purification of the metabolite after termination of
fermentation) which are very costly and expensive.

1.4.1 Types of Microbial fermentation processes

Microbial culture process can be carried out in different ways. Such as:
1. Batch fermentation
2. Fed-batch fermentation

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 3. Continuous fermentation

-Batch fermentation:
Batch fermentation, is a closed system in which a large volume of nutrient medium is inoculated to proceed
for the harvest and recovery of the product. This ends the batch fermentation as the vessel is cleaned and
resterilized for the subsequent batches. This is a close system in which all the nutrients are initially added
to the vessel and inoculated.
Subsequent treatments include maintaining adequate aeration by providing stirrers and pH control by the
addition of an acid or alkali. In aerated stems, antifoam agents such as palm oil or soybean oil are added.
Large scale growth of microorganisms tends to generate heat in the system. Temperature control is
maintained by providing water circulation system around the vessel for heat exchange.
In batch fermentation, the growth of microorganisms follows the characteristics growth curve with a lag
phase followed by a log phase, finally reaching the stationary phase due to limitation of nutrients and other
factors. A diauxy growth curve can be observed when complex nutrient solutions are used, two lag phases
frequently occurs separated by a second log phase, this is due to one of the substrates utilized preferentially.
The presence of one substrates represses the breakdown of other substrate.
In summary, microorganisms goes through all the stages of growth (Lag phase, transient acceleration phase,
exponential phase, deceleration, stationary phase), prior to the collection of product.

-Fed-Batch Fermentation:
In Fed-batch, substrate is added in increments as the fermentation progresses (small concentrations and small
doses) because during the formation of many secondary metabolites is subject to catabolite repression by
high concentration of glucose, other carbohydrates, or nitrogen compounds. Because critical elements of the
nutrient solution are added in small concentration in the beginning of the fermentation and these substances
(substrates) continue to be added in small doses during the production phase.
It is difficult to measure the substrate concentration directly and continuously during the fermentation.
Indirect parameters, which are correlated with the metabolism of the critical substrates, have to be measured
in order to control the feeding process. For example, in the process of organic acids, the pH is to be used to
determine the rate of glucose feeding. Sometimes, dissolved O 2 or the CO2 content in the exhaust air are
monitored. Here microorganism is maintained at a peak rate of growth (exponential phase).

-Continuous Fermentation:
During continuous fermentation, some part of the components (include media and inoculums) of upstream
process are withdrawn intermittently and replacement of the withdrawn substances are made by adding the
fresh medium or nutrients.
The withdrawn part from the fermenter is used for recovery of the products. During continuous fermentation,
the equipment is always in use and secondly inoculum is not required in subsequent addition of the nutrients.

This industrial fermentation is being carried out in bioreactors, which include:

1. Fermentors or Reactors or Bioreactors.
2. Other vessels like test tubes, flask and petridishes

1.5 Fermenters (Bioreactors)

A fermenter is an enclosed and sterilized vessel that maintains optimal conditions for the growth of a
microorganism. The microorganisms undergo fermentation to produce large quantities of a desired

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metabolite (products) for commercial use. This product can be collected from a fermenter after a fixed
amount of time (batch cultivation) or ongoing (continuous cultivation).
Fermenters also called Bioreactor are special vessels equipped with control devices for broth mixing,
aeration and control of recation (culture) condition. Eg. Heat exchanger for temperature control.
A bioreactors can be as small 1 -20 litres in laboratory scale, but 100,000 – 500,000 liters for production in
a fermentors
Fermenter size is measured by the total volume only about 75% of the volume is usually utilized for actual
fermentation, the rest being left for foam and exhaust gasses.

1.6 Main function of a Fermenter (Bioreactor)

1. To provide a conducive and controlled environment for the biological agent (microorganisms) such as
pH, temperature and pressure.
2. To serve as a defined mixture of microorganism before adequate mixing for nutrient and product transfer.
3. Adequate sparging for aeration and degassing of generated gasses.
4. To obtain a desired product after fermentation.
5. To obtain a homogenous culture with mineral power input.
6. To enable to maintain optimal conditions for cell growth and product formation.
7. A vessel that is robust, strong enough to withstand the various treatments required high heat, pressure
sterilization.
8. Inoculation point for aseptic transfer in inoculums and sampling valve for withdrawing a sample for
different tests.

1.7 Components of Bioreactor

1. Probes and sensors (pH, O2, heat, temp, cell mass, pressure, antifoam probes). Control devices to also
check the levels of key nutrients and product concentration.
2. External water jacket
3. Head plate
4. Sampling port / product outlet
5. Exhaust outlet
6. Acid / base inlet
7. Nutrient inlet
8. Shaft
9. Motor
10. String paddles
11. Impeller
12. Air sparger / aeration system
13. Baffles
14. Sealing

A flow chart of major component of a bioreactor are shown and listed below in figure 1.

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 Here is flow chart that show major parts of fermenter.

Figure 1: Flow chart that show major part of a fermenter.

1.8 Major parts of the fermenter:

-Probes and sensors: Are used to monitor the condition within the fermenter in order to maintain optimal
level of microbial growth example:
(1) Antifoam probes to prevent contamination in fermentation process.
(2) Acid / base probes a flow to add acid and bases during fermentation process.
-External water jacket: It can be used to absorb excess heat and maintain a constant viable86 temperature.
-Head plate: To cover the top of the vessel of bioreactors.
-Sampling pot: A valve to get the sample of the fermentation
-Exhaust outlets / nutrient inlet: Allow for the introduction of sugar of the removal of the metabolic wastes.
-Acid/base inlet: Allows for the regulation of pH level within the chamber (formation of product may alter
the pH).
-Shaft: Not allow medium to escape or microorganisms to enter the edges.
-Motorized string paddles: Function to distribute heat and materials evenly within the reaction chamber. -
Impeller: To diminish the size of air bubbles to give a bigger interfacial area for O2 transplant and to decrease
diffusion paths. This also maintain uniform environment throughout the vessel content.
-Air sparger: To ensure better dispersal of air for microorganisms in the fermenter example; porous sparger,
orifice sparger and nozzle sparger.
-Baffles: To prevent a vortex and improve aeration efficiency. Also to prevent a whirl pool effect that could
impede proper mixing per mixing.
-An aerator: Can be used to introduce compress air into the chamber while a defoamer can hindered the
formation of foam.
-Sealing: Between top plate & vessel to maintain airtight condition, aseptic and containment.
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1.9. Construction of Fermentors:

Industrial fermentors can be divided into two major classes, anaerobic and aerobic. Anaerobic fermentors
require little special equipment except for removal of heat generated during the fermentation process,
whereas aerobic fermentors require much more elaborate equipment to ensure that mixing and adequate
aeration are achieved.
1. Cooling Jacket:

Large-scale industrial fermentors are almost always constructed of stainless steel. A fermentor is a large
cylinder closed at the top and the bottom and various pipes and valves are fitted into it. The fermentor is
fitted externally with a cooling jacket through which steam (for sterilization) or cooling water (for cooling)
is run (Gueguim et al ., 2005).

Cooling jacket is necessary because sterilization of the nutrient medium and removal of the heat generated
are obligatory for successful completion of the fermentation in the fermentor. For very large fermentors,
insufficient heat transfer takes place through the jacket and therefore, internal coils are provided through
which either steam or cooling water is run.

Since most industrial fermentation process are aerobic, the construction of a typical aerobic
fermentor (Fig. 2) are show below:

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Figure 2: A Typical Aerobic fermenter
Source: (Gueguim et al ., 2005)

2. Aeration System:

Aeration system is one of the most critical part of a fermentor. In a fermentor with a high microbial
population density, there is a tremendous oxygen demand by the culture, but oxygen being poorly soluble
in water hardly transfers rapidly throughout the growth medium.

It is necessary, therefore, that elaborate precautions are taken using a good aeration system to ensure proper
aeration an oxygen availability throughout the culture. However, two separate aeration devices are used to
ensure proper aeration in fermentor. These devices are sparger and impeller.

The sparger is typically just a series of holes in a metal ring or a nozzle through which filter-sterilized air
(or oxygen-enriched air) passes into the fermentor under high pressure. The air enters the fermentor as a
series of tiny bubbles from which the oxygen passes by diffusion into the liquid culture medium.

The impeller (also called agitator) is an agitating device necessary for stirring of the fermenter (Gueguimet
al ., 2005).

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The stirring accomplishes two things:

(i) It mixes the gas bubbles through the liquid culture medium and

(ii) It mixes the microbial cells through the liquid culture medium. In this way, the stirring ensures uniform
access of microbial cells to the nutrients.

The size and position of the impeller in the fermentor depends upon the size of the fermentor. In tall
fermentors, more than one impeller is needed if adequate aeration and agitation is to be obtained. Ideally,
the impeller should be 1/3 of the fermentors diameter fitted above the base of the fermentor. The number of
impeller may vary from size to size to the fermentor (Gueguim et al ., 2005).
3. Baffles:

The baffles are normally incorporated into fermentors of all sizes to prevent a vortex and to improve aeration
efficiency. They are metal strips roughly one-tenth of the fermentors diameter and attached radially to the
walls (Gueguim et al ., 2005).

4.Controlling Devices for Environmental Factors:In any microbial fermentation, it is necessary not only to
measure growth and product formation but also to control the process by altering environmental parameters
as the process proceeds. For this purpose, various devices are used in a fermentor. Environmental factors
that are frequently controlled includes temperature, oxygen concentration, pH, cells mass, levels of key
nutrients, and product concentration (Gueguimet al ., 2005).
1.10Types of Fermentors

There are various types of fermentors that are described below-

1. Stirred Tank (Continuous) Bioreactor (Used for making antibiotics).

2. Airlift Bioreactor (Yeast production)
3. Packed tower (Bed) Bioreactor (in vinegar production)
4. Fluidized Bed Bioreactor (for enzymes production)
5. Photobioreactor (Spirulina production)
6. Membrane Bioreactor
7. Bubble Column Bioreactor
8. Nathan fermentor (used in brewing industry)
9. Pulsed column bioreactor

-Continuous Stirred Tank Bioreactor

The continuous stirred-tank bioreactor consists of a vessel, pipes, valves, pumps, agitator, shaft, impeller
and a motor. Which is shown in figure 3. Below.
Sparger is mostly used to add air to the culture medium under pressure and the impellers serve as a gas
distributor throughout the fermentor and also break down the larger bubbles for a uniform distribution.
The motor power the bioreactor which helps in mixing cultures and also there are sensors that can detect
temperature, PH, dissolved oxygen, glucose, lactic acid, ammonia, ammonium ion, and other parameters
in the culture medium.

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 The main target of desired products enlists the cells or primary metabolite which mostly acquire
microorganisms like yeast or bacteria.

Figure 3: A Continuous Stirred Fermentor.

Advantages of continuous stirred tank reactor

• It is a continuous operation
• It has a good capture over temperature
• It provides a homogeneous environment for cell growth and proliferation
• Easily adapts to two-phase runs
• It is quite cost-efficient in both investment and operation
Disadvantages of continuous stirred tank reactor
• Their mechanic agitation produces shear stress which may harm the cultured cells. but this can be
overcome by changing the shape and diameter of the impeller blade or adding bovine serum albumin or
dextran
• Foaming can also cause a problem but again can be solved by antifoaming agents.

-Airlift Bioreactor
The medium of the vessel consists of a baffle or a draft tube through which air is pumped. This might
create a bubble in the medium which ultimately helps in rising up through the baffle tube and drags the
surrounding fluid as well. The diagram is shown in figure 4. Below.
This, in the process, stirs up the contents by air.
There are two types of airlift bioreactors;
Internal loop type, External
loop type
• Internal-loop airlift bioreactor has a single container with a draft carrying out the fermentation process.
• External loop airlift bioreactor has an external loop to separate samples or liquids in different channels
carrying out fermentation.
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Figure 4: Airlift Bioreactor

Airlift Bioreactor Advantages

• It produces very little shear stress, less friction
• It requires fewer efforts to construct the bioreactor.
• It is cost-efficient
• Less energy is required
Airlift Bioreactor Disadvantages
• High Pressure is required in this system
• No shaft is present which helps as a foam breaker which creates a major drawback.

-Packed Bed Bioreactor

Packed-bed bioreactors are tubular reactors which are stuffed with an immobilized enzyme or
microbial cells as biocatalysts as immobilization enhances the stability of the enzyme and these
enzymes can be utilized multiple times. The diagram is shown in figure 5.below.
The substrate is then allowed to flow through the packed-bed bioreactor and it is generally operated in a
single pass.

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Figure 5: A packed Bed Bioreactor

Advantages of Packed Bed Bioreactor

• It’s quite easy to operate It provides better quality
• The products can be controlled.
Disadvantages of Packed Bed Bioreactor
• As the substrate and product molecules are carried out both in and out of the carrier matrix during the
reaction there is a problem of external mass transfer resistance.
Fluidized Bed Bioreactor
A fluidized bed bioreactor is an immobilized cell reactor which is a combination of stirred tank and
packed bed continuous flow reactors.
It can be explained as beds of regular molecules that are suspended in a flowing liquid stream. Below is
the diagram of Fluidized Bed Bioreactor in figure 6.
This can be used for particles such as immobilized enzymes, immobilized cells, and microbial flocs.
Immobilized-cell particles are retained in the bed by gravity
critical parameter here is the settling velocity
It involves cell as biocatalysts including 3 phases; gas-liquid-solid.

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Figure 6: Fluidized Bed Bioreactor

Advantages of Fluidized Bed Bioreactor

• It is used for wastewater treatment and hydrogen production.

Disadvantages of Fluidized-Bed Bioreactor

• It requires more energy in order to achieve fluidization in the bioreactor.

-Photobioreactor
• These are carried out either by exposing to sunlight or artificial illumination.
• These are majorly used for the cultivation of algae. The diagram of Photobioreactor is shown below in
figure 7.
• The temperature range used is between 25-400C Photobioreactor Advantages
• Contamination is lower.
• It can be space-saving as it can be placed vertically, horizontally or at an angle, indoors or outdoors.
Photobioreactor Disadvantages
• The control of PH and temperature is quite difficult It is somewhere susceptible to
contamination.

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Figure 7: A Photobioreactor

-Membrane Bioreactor
It consists of a biological reactor with suspended biomass and solids removal by ultra- and microfiltration
membranes.
It is used for alcoholic fermentation, solvents, organic acid production, wastewater treatment.
It involves high-quality effluent through the membranes and eliminates the sedimentation and filtration
processes. Below is the Diagram of Membrane Bioreactor shown in figure 8.
The membrane materials mostly used are polysulfonte, polyamide and cellulose acetate.

Figure 8: Membrane Bioreactor

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Advantages of Membrane Bioreactor
• The loss of the enzyme is minimized.
• Effluent quality is high
• The effluent is properly disinfected from all the pathogenic microbes
Disadvantages of Membrane Bioreactor
• Quite costly and energy-consuming
• The aeration is limited
• Membrane pollution is also a drawback

-Bubble Column Bioreactors

The bioreactor involves agitation by density-driven fluid motions and sparger is used to provide air into
the continuous liquid phase at the bottom of the reactors. Below is the diagram of Bubble Column
Bioreactors shown in figure 9.
The fluid mixed intensively at high gas flow rates when convective flows become turbulent.

Figure 9: Bubble Column Bioreactors

Advantages of Bubble Column Bioreactors

• It acquires good heat and mass transfer
• Easy to operate
• Low maintenance
Disadvantages of Bubble Column Bioreactors
• Back mixing is a major drawback which adversely affects product conversion.

The type used extensively in industries are:

• The stirred tank fermentor
• Airlift fermentor
• Bubble column fermentor

The most widely used bioreactors is the continuous stirred type while the most commonly used bioreactor is
aerated stirred tank batch fermentor because most industrial fermentation process are aerobic.

Several types of fermenter are further grouped base on different concept of function and designs:
1. Shape or configuration
2. Liquid (submerged) or solid state (surface)
3. Aerated or aerobic.
4. Batch or continuous production

Based on configuration (mixing devices) mechanically and non-mechanically (pneumatically) agitated

bioreactors.
Mechanically agitated bioreactors (impellers propeller). They are very popular and most studied.
Non mechanically (pneumatically); these are bioreactor which are mixed without mechanical agitators
either by air bubbling or pneumatically.
-Bubble coiumn
-Airlift bioreactors: split airlift, Airlift with interneral draft tube, external loop airlift.
They have a lot of advantages than mechanical.
1. Cheaper, simpler and easier to construct. 2.
The energy required for mixing is lower.
3. The hydrodynamic stress is usually very low.

1.11 Designs and construction of Bioreactors

There are two types of materials which can be used in construction a fermenter:
(i) Stainless steel; according to American iron and Steel Institute (AISI), if a steel contains 4%
chromium, it is called stainless. The long and continuous use of stainless steel sometimes shows
pitting it is also important to consider the material used for aseptic seal.
(ii) Glass; It can be made between glass and glass and metal, or using metal for joints between a vessel
and detachable top or base plate (glass)
On pilot scale, any material to be used will have to be assessed in their ability to withstand pressure,
sterilization, corrosion and their potential toxicity and cost.

1.12 Major Requirement for Bioreactor Construction

1. The construction materials 0.4% chromium stainless steel or glass
2. The Agitator (Impeller): The size and position of the impeller in the vessel depends upon the size
of the fermenter. In all vessels, more than one impeller is needed if adequate aeration-agitation is
to be obtained. Ideally, the impeller should be 1/3/ or 1/2 of the vessel diameter (D) above the
base of the vessel. The number of impeller may vary size to size of the vessel.
There are four classes namely: Disc turbine, Vaned disc, open turbin of variable pitch and marine
impeller.
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 3. Stirrer Gland and Bearing: Four basic types assembly have been used: the packed gland seal, the
simple bush seal, the mechanical seal and the magnetic drive.
4. Baffles: There are metal strips used for checking or preventing the vortex formation around the
walls of the vessel which results to foaming. The baffles are normally incorporated into agitated
vessel of all sizes to prevent a vortex and to improve aeration efficiency. They are attached
radically to the walls for every roughly one-tenth (1/10th )of the vessel diameter. The gap between
wall& baffle facilicites the scouring action around the vessel. This movement also minimized
growth on baffles and fermentation walls.
5. Sparger: A sparger may be defined as a device for introducing air into the liquid in a fermenter. It
is important to know whether sparger is to be used on its own or with mechanical agitation as it
can influence initial bubbles size. The efficiency of sparging is a function of the sparging rate and
the extent of gas distribution/dispersion by spargers ie (number of pores, the diameter of the pores
and the distribution of the pores in the sparger). The types of gas used for sparging depends on
the aim.
e.g *Air, oxygen or mixture of two is used for anerobic process where aeration is the main
objective of sparging.
*Inert gasses such as nitrogen are often used for anerobic processes where mixing and de-gassing
are the main objectives.
*A mixture of air and carbon dioxide are used in some plant & animal cells and also
photobioreactor.
Three basic types of sparger have been used and may be described as the porous sparger, the
orifice sparger and the nozzle sparger. They also have one called sparger agitator.
Addition of O2 to the culture (aeration) to remove unwanted gasses from the culture (de-gas) or to
keep the cells in suspension the method is called sparging.
6. Sealing: Sealing between top plate and vessel is an important criteria to maintain airtight condition,
aseptic and containment. There are 3 types of sealing. a. Gasket.
b. Lipseal.
c. “O” ring: It has simple sealing and double sealing.
Note: 2 way sealing in “O” ring with steam between two seals.
Sealing have to be done between 3 types of surfaces viz; -
Glass- glass.
- Glass-metal
- Metal – metal.
Using materials such as fabric-nitryl or butyl rubbers.

Others are:
• Dissolved oxygen / carbon dioxide concentrations
• Temperature control
• pH control
• Pressure control
• Foam control

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1.13 Designs
Some of the bioreactors were designed for specific processes while others are more robust and can be used
for various processes.
Since the optima conditions for cell growth and product formation varies depending on the cell strain and
the desired product, it must be decided if the bioreactor will be used for a specific cell / product or whether
it will be used for a variety of cells / products before designing a bioreactors.
The basic points of consideration while designing a fermenter includes:
- Productivity and yielding.
- Fermenter operability and reliability and contamination free.
- Product purification.
- Waste management.
- Waste treatment.
- Energy requirements.
- Material for construction either glass or stainless steel 4% chromium.
The aim or objectives of bioreactor designs:
- When the bioreactor size is increased, to be able to maintain optima conditions for cell growth and
product formation.
- To construct a bioreactor which is cheap and simple to operate and maintain.
- To be able to change one process parameter while the other parameters are held constant.
- To obtain a homogeneous culture with mineral power input.
- To maintain they hydrodynamic stress as low as possible.

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