energies

Article
On the Convenience of Using Simulation Models to
Optimize the Control Strategy of Molten-Salt Heat
Storage Systems in Solar Thermal Power Plants
Miguel J. Prieto 1, * ID
, Juan Á. Martínez 1 , Rogelio Peón 2 , Lourdes Á. Barcia 3 and
Fernando Nuño 1
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Oviedo, 33203 Gijón, Asturias, Spain;
[email protected] (J.Á.M.); [email protected] (F.N.)
2 Group TSK, 33203 Gijón, Asturias, Spain; [email protected]
3 González Soriano S.A., 33420 Llanera, Asturias, Spain; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-98-518-2567

Received: 5 May 2017; Accepted: 6 July 2017; Published: 13 July 2017

Abstract: Thermal oil has been used as heat transfer fluid in many solar thermal power plants,
which also use molten salts as thermal energy storage system. Since the engineering of these plants
is relatively new, control of the thermal energy storage system is currently achieved in manual or
semiautomatic ways, controlling its variables with proportional-integral-derivative (PID) regulators.
Once the plant is running, it is very difficult to obtain permission to try new control strategies. Hence,
most plants keep running on these simple, sometimes inefficient control algorithms. This paper
explores the results obtained with different control strategies implemented on a complete model of
energy storage systems based on molten salt. The results provided by the model allow the optimum
control strategy to be selected. Comparison of the results obtained by simulation of these control
strategies and actual results obtained from a real plant, confirm the accuracy of the selection made.

Keywords: solar thermal power plant; thermal energy storage; process modeling

1. Introduction
Solar power generation had the highest growth rate in 2015 [1]. Although part of this power
generation comes from photovoltaic installations, solar thermal plants usually generate larger amounts
of energy. Solar thermal plants use mirrors to focus the energy coming from the Sun on a pipe where a
heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated; this is usually referred to as concentrated solar power (CSP) [2–7].
The fluid heated in this way is then used in a thermodynamic cycle (usually a water-steam cycle)
to produce electricity: the heat from this fluid is transferred to the water in order to turn it into steam
that is fed into the turbine of the power plant; a generator attached to the turbine shaft produces the
electricity that is supplied to the grid. Most thermal power stations nowadays use parabolic trough
collector (PTC) technologies [8–15] to heat some kind of synthetic oil (typically a eutectic mixture of
biphenyl and diphenyl oxide [16]), which is referred to as heat transfer fluid or HTF. This is a very
mature technology that is being used, for instance, in the 160-MW power plant that TSK, Acciona
and Sener installed in Ouarzazate, Morocco; the operating temperature of this plant is 393 ◦ C for
the HTF coming out of the solar field and its cycle efficiency (from the thermal energy in the HTF to
the electrical energy provided by the generator) has been measured to be 39.28%, which is a typical
value for this type of plants. Although PTC technology can also be used in other applications such
as industrial process heat, desalination, domestic hot water, space heating, swimming pool heating,
or heat-driven refrigeration and cooling [13,14], this paper focuses on its main and most important
application: concentrated solar power (CSP) plants.

Energies 2017, 10, 990; doi:10.3390/en10070990 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 990 2 of 17

One of the issues with CSP plants is that, since solar energy is only available during certain times
of day, the electric power this solar energy can originate might not match that actually demanded.
There may be occasions when the demand of electrical energy is high but there is not enough solar
energy available (whether due to meteorological conditions or simply because this demand takes
place at night time); inversely, there may other times when solar irradiation is high but the demand
of electrical energy is little. That is why it is important to store thermal energy in an efficient and
economical way so that it can be used when demanded [17]; this is usually referred to as thermal
energy storage (TES).
Several possibilities have been defined to carry out this energy storage [18,19]: kinetic energy
storage using flywheels, although this possibility is still under development for long storage
duration [20]; potential energy storage, by pumping water to a higher deposit during periods of excess
of production [21,22]; compressed air energy storage [23]; chemical energy storage in batteries [24].
However, most plants use an external system based on molten salt [25,26], which has been identified as
the preferred possibility, especially when nitrate salt is used for the storage medium [27]. One important
reason why this possibility is preferred deals with the fact that no energy conversion is required in
order to store the exceeding solar thermal energy, thus avoiding energy losses throughout the process.
All the other methods considered above, although theoretically usable, either exhibit large losses,
or can only provide backup for a short period of time (some minutes), or both.
As with many other industrial systems, it is desirable to optimize the TES process to make
it efficient and economical. This requires that more sophisticated control systems be developed,
which can only be feasible if accurate dynamic models of the process associated to the performance
of TES systems are used. There are several models for molten-salt thermal energy storage systems
included in thermal power plants [2,28,29], but the one developed in [30] has been chosen because it
accurately determines delays in the system that must be taken into account when designing the control
strategy associated to the heat storage system. This is especially important when large heat exchangers
consisting of several trains connected in series are included in the solar thermal power plant.
In most cases, the final goal is optimizing the overall performance of the solar thermal plants as a
whole, thus not paying much attention to certain individual systems they include. This is the case with
thermal energy storage systems, which, traditionally, use very simple control strategies and give rise
to acceptable performance. Hence, it is very often that the control implemented in actual power plants
for such systems is a “semiautomatic” one (requiring the presence of an operator to fix the adequate
set point at any given time) or, in the best case, a PID control. Since these simple strategies provide
acceptable results, the managers of the plant are seldom willing to try new approaches that might
stop production unnecessarily. In consequence, a possible point to increase the plant efficiency and/or
productivity is neglected.
Figure 1 shows the complete block diagram for the control of solar thermal power plant [31].
According to this schematic, the process would begin by using the meteorological forecast determined
by simulation of the Meteo Model. This information would be passed on to the Plant Model,
which would run several simulations with different high-level strategies. Taking into account the
results obtained from these simulations, and the information supplied by the electricity market,
the Strategy Controller would finally determine the optimal global strategy to be used in the solar
thermal power plant: whether the plant should be generating power, whether thermal energy should
be stored, when to discharge the thermal energy storage system, etc. The strategy chosen is passed on
to the Mode Controller, which will establish the adequate mode sequence to carry out that strategy.
Finally, the Distributed Control System (DCS) will be in charge of implementing these modes by means
of a variable-level control.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 3 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 990 3 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 990 3 of 17

Figure 1. Ideal future block diagram for the control of a solar thermal power plant.
Figure 1. Ideal future block diagram for the control of a solar thermal power plant.
This would define a control structure consisting of three levels as shown in Figure 2:
This would define a control structure consisting of three levels as shown in Figure 2:
 This wouldcontrol
Automatic define aofcontrol structure
the variables consisting
involved of process.
in the three levels as shown in Figure 2:
• Automatic control of the variables involved in the process.

• Automatic control of
Automatic of the variables
operation mode. in the process.
Automatic control
control of the
the operationinvolved
mode.

• Automatic
Automatic control of the operation strategy.
Automatic control
control of
of the
the operation
operation mode.
strategy.
 Automatic control of the operation strategy.

Figure 2. Control pyramid for a solar thermal power plant.

Figure 2. Control pyramid for a solar thermal power plant.
Control
As already stated, Figure this is2.the idealpyramid
situation forfor
a solar
the thermal
future; power
currently,plant.the highest levels of the
pyramid in Figure
As already 2 arethis
stated, notisautomated. The strategy
the ideal situation control
for the future;and the modethe
currently, control
highest arelevels
selected
of theby
As already
plant operators stated, this
that2 manually is the ideal situation
run the required for the
simulations future;
and currently,
select the highest levels of the
pyramid in Figure are not automated. The strategy control and the the
modestrategy
control to are
implement
selectedand by
pyramid
the in Figure
different modes 2 are
this not automated.
strategy goes The strategy
through. Only control
the and thecontrol
low-level mode control
is are selected
implemented in by
the
plant operators that manually run the required simulations and select the strategy to implement and
plant operators
DCSdifferent
of the power that manually
plant. run theplants,
required simulations and select theMorocco,
strategy haveto implement and
the modes this Some
strategynewer
goes like
through. the
Only onethein low-level
Ouarzazate, control is implemented succeeded in the in
the different
implementing modes this
the plant.
MeteoSomestrategy
Model goes
and the through.
Plantlike Only
Model the
included low-level control
in Figure 1, is implemented
but the whole in
schematicin theis
DCS of the power newer plants, the one in Ouarzazate, Morocco, have succeeded
DCS
still toofbe
thefulfilled.
power plant. Some newer plants, like the one in Ouarzazate, Morocco, have succeeded in
implementing the Meteo Model and the Plant Model included in Figure 1, but the whole schematic is
implementing goal the Meteo Model is and the the
Plant Model included in Figure 1, but the whole schematicthe is
still toThe of this
be fulfilled. paper to use TES model described in [30] in order to optimize
still to be fulfilled.
charge/discharge
The goal of processthis paperof heat
is tostorage
use the systems (whichdescribed
TES model corresponds to a low-level
in [30] in order variable
to optimize control)
the
and, The
hence, goal of this paper
contribute to is to usethe
improving the TES model
overall efficiency described
of the in [30]
solar in order
thermal to Additionally,
plant. optimize the
charge/discharge process of heat storage systems (which corresponds to a low-level variable control)
charge/discharge
the results obtained process
will ofbeheat storage systems
compared to those (which corresponds
obtained in asolar to plant,
real a low-level variable control)
and, hence, contribute to improving the overall efficiency of the thermal which is something
plant. Additionally,
and, hence,
researchers contribute
rarely have to improving the overall efficiency of the solar thermal plant. Additionally,
the results obtained willthebeopportunity
compared to to do. Byobtained
those comparing in real
a real andplant,
simulated
whichdata, it will be
is something
the results obtained will be the
compared to those obtained in a real plant, which is something researchers
researchers rarely have the opportunity to do. By comparing real and simulated data, itCEOs
possible to determine that results provided by the model can be used to persuade plant will be to
rarely have
make decisions the opportunity
(such that to
as selecting do. By comparing
the provided
most adequate real and simulated data, it will be possible to
possible to determine the results by thecontrol
model strategy
can be used for the thermal energy
to persuade plant CEOs storageto
determine
system) that the
based on results
results provided
provided bybythe model canmodels.
simulation be used to In persuade
this work, plant CEOscontrol
several to make decisions
techniques
make decisions (such as selecting the most adequate control strategy for the thermal energy storage
(such as selectinginthe
were considered mosttoadequate
order determine control
the moststrategy for the thermal energy
appropriate storage system) based
system) based on results provided by simulation models. In strategy.
this work, Simulation results
several control and actual
techniques
measurements
were consideredfor in each
orderoftothese techniques
determine the most were compared,strategy.
appropriate thus determining
Simulationthe accuracy
results of the
and actual
model used for the charge/discharge of the thermal energy storage
measurements for each of these techniques were compared, thus determining the accuracy of the system.
model used for the charge/discharge of the thermal energy storage system.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 4 of 17

on results provided by simulation models. In this work, several control techniques were considered
in order to determine the most appropriate strategy. Simulation results and actual measurements for
each of these techniques were compared, thus determining the accuracy of the model used for the
charge/discharge
Energies 2017, 10, 990 of the thermal energy storage system. 4 of 17

2. Materials
2. Materials and
and Methods
Methods
TES systems
TES systemshave have different
different operation
operation modesmodes that be
that must must be defined
clearly clearly before
defined before
trying trying to
to determine
determine the most adequate control method for the TES process.
the most adequate control method for the TES process. There is not only one type of TES; There is not only one type it of
is
TES; it isto
possible possible to find heat
find sensible sensible heat latent
storage, storage, latent
heat heat storage,
storage, chemicalchemical
storage andstorage and cascaded
cascaded storage
storagealthough
[6,32], [6,32], although
only some only some
of them of them are currently
are currently feasible
feasible [33,34].
[33,34]. Most
Most commercialTES
commercial TES systems
systems
consist
consist of: one cold salt tank, one hot salt tank, an HTF-salt exchanger, pumps
cold salt tank, one hot salt tank, an HTF-salt exchanger, pumps (to move the molten(to move the molten salt
fromfrom
salt one one
tanktank
intointo
the other), pipes
the other), and and
pipes control valves
control [35].[35].
valves ThisThis
is theis type of TES
the type considered
of TES consideredin this
in
paper, although one-tank TES are also very popular in the literature [36–38].
this paper, although one-tank TES are also very popular in the literature [36–38]. It must be noticed It must be noticed that
the use
that the of
useTES is not
of TES limited
is not to solar
limited thermal
to solar plants:
thermal they
plants: cancan
they be integrated
be integrated in other
in othersystems
systemssuchsuchas
oil-fired
as conventional
oil-fired conventional power plants
power [39], [39],
plants nuclear power
nuclear plantsplants
power [40] or[40]
many or other
manyapplications such as
other applications
hot water supply, air conditioning, heat pumps, buildings, cogeneration,
such as hot water supply, air conditioning, heat pumps, buildings, cogeneration, etc. [41]. etc. [41].
Figure 33 shows
Figure shows aa schematic
schematic representation
representation of of the
the disposition
disposition of of the
the TES
TES ininaasolar
solarthermal
thermalplant.
plant.
This type
typeofofrepresentations
representations is is
widely
widely accepted
acceptedin literature [2,28,42]
in literature to represent
[2,28,42] the three
to represent themain
threecircuits
main
in plants of this kind: the solar field (SF), through which the heat transfer
circuits in plants of this kind: the solar field (SF), through which the heat transfer fluid (HTF) fluid (HTF) circulates, the
power block,
circulates, thewhich
powercirculates
block, whichwater and steam,
circulates andand
water thesteam,
TES system.
and the TES system.

Figure 3. Schematic of a solar thermal power plant.

Figure 3. Schematic of a solar thermal power plant.

The performance of a TES system defines three possible operation modes: charge, discharge
Themode.
and idle performance
For theofsake
a TES system defines
of simplicity, three possible
the present operation
work will modes: the
only consider charge, discharge
discharge and
process
idle mode. For the sake of simplicity, the present work will only consider
to illustrate the performance of the different control methods presented; the charge process performsthe discharge process to
illustrate the
similarly. performance
As far as the idleof the different
mode control
is concerned, no methods
control ispresented; the charge
required related process
to the thermal performs
energy
storage. It is true that during this mode the temperature of the molten salt must be observed inenergy
similarly. As far as the idle mode is concerned, no control is required related to the thermal order
storage. It is true that during this mode the temperature of the molten salt must
to guarantee that it is always above its freezing temperature. Should the salt temperature drop below be observed in order to
guarantee
the minimum thatpermissible
it is always value,
above security
its freezing temperature.
measures will beShould
taken: if thetemperature
salt temperature
reachesdrop
260below
°C, a the
set
minimum permissible value, security measures will be taken: if temperature reaches 260 ◦ C, a set of
of heating resistors attached to the tank will be turned on until the temperature is measured to be
heating
265 resistors
°C; rather thanattached to the
a control tank will
strategy, thisbe
is turned
simply on an until
on-off the temperature
security systemiswith
measured to be 265 ◦ C;
hysteresis.
ratherAllthan
thea simulation
control strategy, this is simply
and modelling workan on-off security
presented system
in this paperwith hysteresis.
has been developed using
All the simulation and modelling work presented
MATLAB-Simulink R2012b. This software package has also been used in other in this paper has beenworks
developed using
[43–45], but
MATLAB-Simulink R2012b. This software package has also been
the equations and methodology described could be easily adapted to any other simulationused in other works [43–45], but the
equations and methodology described could be easily adapted to
environment. Figure 4 shows a Simulink block representation of the discharging process. Aany other simulation environment.
Figure 4 shows
description a Simulink
of the signalsblock representation
associated of the discharging
to this block can be found process. A description
in Tables 1–3: inputof the signals
variables,
associated to this
perturbation block affecting
variables can be found in Tablesand
the process 1–3:output
input variables,
variables.perturbation variables
All these variables areaffecting the
associated
to the area labeled TES in Figure 3; output variables and perturbations are involved in the operation
of the heat exchanger, whereas input variables determine the operation of the valves that allow
circulation from one salt tank to the other [30].
Energies 2017, 10, 990 5 of 17

process and output variables. All these variables are associated to the area labeled TES in Figure 3;
output variables and perturbations are involved in the operation of the heat exchanger, whereas
input variables determine the operation of the valves that allow circulation from one salt tank to the
other
Energies[30].
2017, 10, 990 5 of 17

Figure 4. Process block associated to TES discharging.

Figure 4. Process block associated to TES discharging.

Table 1. TES Discharging Input Variables.

Table 1. TES Discharging Input Variables.
Input Variable Description
Input Variable Description
Set Point for the speed defined by the frequency converter of the
SPVHi
SPVHi Set Point for the speed defined by thei-thfrequency
hot-salt pump
converter of the i-th hot-salt pump
SPOC SPOC SetSet Point
Point forfor
thethe opening
opening of the
of the main
main valve
valve in the
in the cold-salt
cold-salt tank
tank
SPOR SPOR SetSet Point
Point forfor
thethe opening
opening of the
of the recirculation
recirculation valve
valve

Table 2.
Table 2. TES
TES Discharging
Discharging Input
Input Perturbations.
Perturbations.

Perturbation Description
Perturbation
THTFC Description
Cold HTF temperature at the input of the heat exchanger
THTFC
TSaltH ColdHot
HTFsalt
temperature at the
temperature input
at the of the
input heat
of the exchanger
heat exchanger
m HTF
TSaltH
.
Hot salt temperature at the input of the heat exchanger
HTF mass flow through the heat exchanger
m HTF HTF mass flow through the heat exchanger

Table 3. TES Discharging Output Variables.

Table 3. TES Discharging Output Variables.
Output Variable Description
Output Variable Hot HTF temperature at the output of the heat exchanger
Description
THTFH
(variable to control)
THTFH Hot HTF temperature at the output of the heat exchanger (variable to control)
T T SaltC
Cold salt temperature at at
Cold salt temperature thethe output
output of of
thethe heat
heat exchanger
exchanger
.SaltC  Salt
m
mSalt Molten
Molten salt
salt mass
mass flow
flow through
through thethe heat
heat exchanger
exchanger

All these variables were adequately included in the model that will be used throughout this
All these variables were adequately included in the model that will be used throughout this paper
paper to test different control strategies. The discharge process is meant to transfer the heat stored in
to test different control strategies. The discharge process is meant to transfer the heat stored in the hot
the hot salt to the HTF in order to make it hot enough to be used in the water-steam cycle. Therefore,
salt to the HTF in order to make it hot enough to be used in the water-steam cycle. Therefore, the goal
the goal during this operation mode is regulating temperature THTFH. This must be achieved by
during this operation mode is regulating temperature THTFH . This must be achieved by conveniently
conveniently determining the set points for the valves in the system, SPOC and SPOR, and the set
determining the set points for the valves in the system, SPOC and SPOR , and the set points for the
points for the frequency converters of the pumps, SPVHi; perturbations must also be taken into
frequency converters of the pumps, SPVHi ; perturbations must also be taken into account, and other
account, and other output variables must also be observed to gain insight into what is actually
output variables must also be observed to gain insight into what is actually happening. This model
happening. This model has already been validated in [30] by considering simple control methods: a
has already been validated in [30] by considering simple control methods: a semiautomatic control
semiautomatic control and a PID regulator. In the present paper more advanced control solutions
and a PID regulator. In the present paper more advanced control solutions will be tested.
will be tested.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 6 of 17

2.1. Control Strategies Considered

Three different alternatives will be considered to control the TES system:

• PID control with feed-forward

• Advanced PID control with feed-forward
• Adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward

Other control strategies might have been analyzed as well. Particularly, the non-adaptive
predictive control has been disregarded because this control strategy does not perform well when the
process is either non-linear or changing, which happens to be the case of the system to be dealt with in
this paper.

2.1.1. PID Control with Feed-Forward

The PID control with feed-forward improves the performance of a simple PID regulator by
correcting the influence of the perturbations of the process. This is done by using the perturbations
themselves to estimate the set point for the control variables of the process. In this paper, such
estimation is done by using equations associated to the steady-state operation of the process. It must
be noted that feed-forward control is only possible if two conditions are met:

1. Perturbations are measurable.

2. The equations relating the perturbations and the control variables of the process to be regulated
are known.

For the case of the discharge process, the first condition is met, since all the three perturbations
.
affecting the process, TSaltH , THTFC and the mass flow of cold HTF in the heat exchanger, m HTFC can
be measured.
The second condition also applies, since application of the first law or thermodynamics to the
heat exchangers results in a steady-state equation that allows the mass flow of salt to be estimated as a
function of enthalpy as indicated in (1). This estimated value contributes to a better definition of the
set point for the salt mass flow, SP, which controls the discharge process:
.
. m × (h − h HTFC ) − P
mSalt_CAL = HTFC ∗ HTFH (1)
h SaltH − hSaltC

where hHTFH is the enthalpy of the hot HTF, hHTFC is the enthalpy of the cold HTF, hSaltH is the enthalpy
of the hot salt, hSaltC is the enthalpy of the cold salt and P represents the thermal losses in the trains of
the heat exchanger. Note that enthalpies are a function of temperature, as indicated in (2); since the
temperature of the hot salt is the output of the process, the value hSaltH in this expression is calculated
by using the set point for the hot salt temperature.

h HTFH = h HTF ( THTFH )

h HTFC = h HTF ( THTFC )
(2)
hSaltC = hSalt ( TSaltC )
∗
h SaltH = hSalt (SPTSaltH )

Figure 5 shows the Simulink block diagram associated to a PID control with feed-forward. Equation (1)
is included in the block labeled “Enthalpic Balance”, which is the only addition to a traditional
PID regulator.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 7 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 990 7 of 17

Figure 5.
Figure 5. PID
PID control with feed-forward
control with feed-forward (discharge
(discharge process).
process).

2.1.2. Advanced PID Control with Feed-Forward

2.1.2. Advanced PID Control with Feed-Forward
This control strategy follows the same idea as the one described in section 2.1.1, with two
This control strategy follows the same idea as the one described in Section 2.1.1, with two
improvements introduced:
improvements introduced:
1. Estimating the temperature reference, i.e., the set point for the hot-HTF temperature, SPTHTFH.
1. Estimating the temperature reference, i.e., the set point for the hot-HTF temperature, SPT .
2. Estimating the temperature of the cold salt, TSaltC_CAL, at the output of the heat exchanger. HTFH
2. Estimating the temperature of the cold salt, TSaltC_CAL , at the output of the heat exchanger.
For the case of the discharge process, estimation of the set point for the hot-HTF temperature
(SPTFor
HTFH)the case
starts byofconsidering
the discharge
the process,
nominal estimation
values of the of temperatures
the set point at forthe
theinput
hot-HTF
and the temperature
output of
(SPT
the heat ) starts by during
HTFHexchanger considering the nominal
the discharge valuesTof
process: the temperatures
HTFH,nom at theand
, THTFC,nom, TSaltH,nom input and the
TSaltC,nom output
. Using theseof
the heat exchanger during the discharge process:
values, the nominal temperature approach duringHTFH,nom T ,
the dischargeT , T
processSaltH,nom
HTFC,nom and T
is calculated:SaltC,nom . Using
these values, the nominal temperature approach during the discharge process is calculated:
TA ,nom  TSaltH ,nom  THTFH ,nom (3)
TA,nom
Next, the approach factor during = TSaltH,nom
discharge − THTFH,nom
is calculated (3)
as the ratio difference between hot salt
temperature and cold HTF temperature to its nominal value:
Next, the approach factor during discharge is calculated as the ratio difference between hot salt
temperature and cold HTF temperature TSaltH  THTFC
FA ,nomto
 its nominal value:
(4)
T T
SaltH ,nom HTFC ,nom
TSaltH − THTFC
This factor is used to calculateFA,nom =
the approach of hot (4)
TSaltH,nom − temperatures,
THTFC,nom TA:
T  F
This factor is used to calculate the Aapproach
A , nomof hot
A , nomT
temperatures, TA : (5)

From here, the reference temperature of the hot salt can be obtained as follows:
TA = FA,nom × TA,nom (5)
SPTHTFH  TSaltH  TA (6)
From here, the reference temperature of the hot salt can be obtained as follows:
The second improvement consists of using a better estimation of the cold salt temperature that
will be used to calculate the mass flow.SPT TheHTFH
PID converter
= TSaltH −withTA feed-forward uses the actual cold salt (6)
temperature, TSaltC, measured at the output of the system, but this value does not necessarily
correspond to theimprovement
The second final value toconsists
be obtained in steady
of using a betterstate. A steady-state
estimation estimation,
of the cold TSaltC_CAL,that
salt temperature can
be obtained
will be usedfor that purpose
to calculate the by
massconsidering
flow. Thethe PIDheat transferwith
converter equation inside theuses
feed-forward heatthe
exchanger:
actual cold
salt temperature, TSaltC , measured at the output of the system, but this value does not necessarily
Energies 2017, 10, 990 8 of 17

correspond to the final value to be obtained in steady state. A steady-state estimation, TSaltC_CAL ,
can be 2017,
Energies obtained
10, 990for that purpose by considering the heat transfer equation inside the heat exchanger:
8 of 17

. . (SPTHTFH − TSaltC_CAL ) − ( TSaltH − THTFC )

Q = Q(SPTHTFH , THTFC , TSaltH , TSaltC_CAL ) = U × SPT
S×
Q  Q SPT HTFH , THTFC , TSaltH , TSaltC _ CAL   U  S 
 HTFH TSaltC

SPT  T−
_ CAL HTFH  THTFC 
TSaltC_CAL
SaltH
(7)
ln
 SPT HTFH TSaltH
TSaltC− 
THTFC (7)
ln   _ CAL

 TSaltH  THTFC 
where U is the global heat transmission coefficient measured for the heat exchanger and S is the
exchange area; and the enthalpy balance resulting from the principle of conservation of energy
where U is the global heat transmission coefficient measured for the heat exchanger and S is the
exchange area; and the enthalpy balance
. . resulting from the principle of conservation of energy
Q = m HTFC × (h∗ HTFH − h HTFC ) (8)

Q  m HTFC  h * HTFH  h HTFC  (8)
where, again, the enthalpies are a function of temperature and hHTFH must be calculated using the set
where, again, the enthalpies are a function of temperature and hHTFH must be calculated using the set
point for the hot HTF temperature.
point for the hot HTF temperature.
hh =h h T ( T 
HTFC HTFHTF )
HTFCHTFC
(9)(9)
HTFC
*∗ HTFH
hh =
HTFH h h SPT
HTF
(SPT 
HTF
HTFH
)
HTFH

.
By iteration of these equations, both QQand
and TSaltC_CALcan
TSaltC_CAL canbe
beobtained.
obtained.
Simulink block
The Simulink block diagram
diagram associated
associated to
to this
this type
type of
of control
control can be seen in Figure 6. The two
improvements described above are included in the the boxes
boxes labeled
labeled “Set
“Set Point”
Point” and
and “Transfer
“Transfer ++Balance”.
Balance”.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Advanced
Advanced PID
PID control
control with
with feed-forward
feed-forward (discharge process).

2.1.3.
2.1.3. Adaptive-Predictive
Adaptive-Predictive Control
Control with
with Feed-Forward
Feed-Forward
In
In this
this control
control method,
method,represented
representedin
inFigure
Figure7,7,the
thePID
PIDblock
blockfor
forthe
themass
massflow
flowis is
replaced byby
replaced a
regulator implementing an adaptive-predictive control.
a regulator implementing an adaptive-predictive control.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 9 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 990 9 of 17

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Adaptive-predictive
Adaptive-predictive control
control with
with feed-forward
feed-forward (discharge).
(discharge).

The adaptive-predictive control used is based on that described in [46–48], which has already
The adaptive-predictive control used is based on that described in [46–48], which has already
been used in other applications such as wastewater treatment plants [49,50], clinker coolers [51] or
been used in other applications such as wastewater treatment plants [49,50], clinker coolers [51] or
electrical grids [52]. However, some modifications have been introduced, namely:
electrical grids [52]. However, some modifications have been introduced, namely:
1. The estimated salt flow, . _ , is now a perturbation signal for the regulator, which allows
1. forThethe
estimated
dynamics salt such m
of flow, a Salt_CAL , is now
perturbation a perturbation
to be considered by signal for the system.
the control regulator, which allows
2. Thefor the dynamics
actual value ofof the
suchcontrol
a perturbation
variable,tombe considered by theand
, is measured control system.
fed back into the regulator.
. SaltC
The allows
2. This actual value of the control variable,
the system to include the dynamics m , is measured and fed back
SaltC of the other PID regulators (valves, into thefrequency
regulator.
This allowsofthe
converters thesystem
pumps). to include the dynamics of the other PID regulators (valves, frequency
converters of the pumps).
A predictive control must generate the input to the process taking into account the value
expected at the output.
A predictive controlThis
must means thatthe
generate theinput
transfer
to thefunction
processoftaking
this regulator
into accountmustthebevalue
the inverse
expectedof
that ofoutput.
at the the process. Therefore,
This means that this control requires
the transfer function thatof this theregulator
process model
must be bethe
expressed
inverse of as that
a transfer
of the
function
process. defined
Therefore, in terms of a setrequires
this control of estimated parameters.
that the process model The problem of this as
be expressed type of control
a transfer is that
function
it cannotinbeterms
defined usedofif athe
setparameters
of estimated ofparameters.
the process The change with of
problem time,
thiswhich
type ofiscontrol
the caseis of theit system
that cannot
considered
be used if thein parameters
this work. of the process change with time, which is the case of the system considered
Adaptive
in this work. control consists in adjusting the regulator parameters as a function of the
performance
Adaptiveofcontrol
the process.
consistsThe inevolution
adjustingof theinputs and outputs
regulator parametersis analyzed in order
as a function to optimize
of the performance the
regulator. This allows the control system to be optimally used with processes
of the process. The evolution of inputs and outputs is analyzed in order to optimize the regulator. that change their
operation
This allowswith time. However,
the control system tothis type of control
be optimally used with doesprocesses
not allow thatanchange
expectedtheirevolution
operationofwith the
outputs to be defined.
time. However, this type of control does not allow an expected evolution of the outputs to be defined.
Aiming to overcome the weaknesses of the two strategies described above, adaptive-predictive
control combines the features of both systems while avoiding their limitations. The The one
one used in this
paper can be considered as a predictive control in which the parameters of the process are estimated
by means of an adaptive control of the type STR (self-tuning regulator) [53]. The block diagram of
such a regulator is shown in Figure 8.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 10 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 990 10 of 17

Figure 8. Adaptive-predictive control implemented.

Formulation of
Formulation of this
this type
type ofof control
control isis somewhat
somewhat lengthy.
lengthy. ItIt must
must be
be noted,
noted, though,
though, that
that the
the goal
goal
of this paper is not actually developing an optimized specific control strategy for
of this paper is not actually developing an optimized specific control strategy for the TES system, the TES system, but
determining the results that can be expected when using different control
but determining the results that can be expected when using different control methods existing in methods existing in
literature and
literature and comparing
comparing themthem to to real
real results
results obtained
obtained from
from aa power
power plant.
plant. The
The adaptive-predictive
adaptive-predictive
regulator tested in this work follows the concept explained
regulator tested in this work follows the concept explained in [54]. in [54].
The driver
The driver block
block in
in Figure
Figure 88 tries
tries to
to make
make the
the desired
desired output,
output, yyd,, match the reference specified,
d match the reference specified,
yysp
sp, while following a known trajectory (typically linear). The transfer function that relates both
, while following a known trajectory (typically linear). The transfer function that relates both
magnitudes is
magnitudes is chosen
chosen to
to be
be aa second-order,
second-order, critically
criticallydamped
dampedone onewith
withunity
unitygain,
gain,which
whichresults
resultsinina
adifference
differenceequation
equationofofthethetype
typeindicated
indicatedinin(10),
(10),where
where yydd has
has been
been replaced
replaced by
by the actual output
the actual output
value, y, for samples previous to the current
value, y, for samples previous to the current one: one:

y d ( k )   1  y ( k  1)   2  y ( k  2 )   1  y sp ( k  1)   2  y sp ( k  2 ) (10)
yd (k) = α1 × y(k − 1) + α2 × y(k − 2) + β 1 × ysp (k − 1) + β 2 × ysp (k − 2) (10)
The Predictive-Model block must produce the input to the process, u, considering the desired
The Predictive-Model block must produce the input to the process, u, considering the desired
output, yd, the actual output value, y, and a set of estimated parameters, θ̂ , provided by the adaptive
output, yd , the actual output value, y, and a set of estimated parameters, θ̂, provided by the adaptive
block. Equation (11) is a possible implementation of this block:
block. Equation (11) is a possible implementation of this block:
y d (k   | k )  i 1 eˆi(  ) (k )  y (k  1  i )  i 2 gˆ i(  ) ( k )  u(k  1  i )
nˆ mˆ

u( k )  uˆ (k | k )  y (k + λ|k) − ∑ n̂ (λ) m̂
i ) + 1 − i ) − ∑i =2 ĝi
(λ) (11)
i =1 êi ( k ) ×  y ((k (k) × u(k + 1 − i )
u(k ) = û(k|k) =
d
i1 1λ (i)
ˆ
g ( k ) (11)
∑i=1 ĝ1 (k)
where k is the current sample considered and λ is the number of future samples to calculate;
where
functionsk is the current
êi and ĝ i sample considered
are provided by theand λ is the
adaptive number
control andofdepend
future on
samples to calculate;
the prediction errorfunctions
found at
êinstant
i and ĝ
k.i are provided by the adaptive control and depend on the prediction error found at instant k.

3. Results
3. Results
3.1. Simulation of the TES-System Control Strategies
3.1. Simulation of the TES-System Control Strategies
All the control strategies presented in this paper were tested with the model described in [30].
All the control
The simulation testsstrategies presented
carried out start by in this paper
adjusting thewere tested with
parameters of thethe model which
process, described in [30].
is done by
using measurements in an actual plant so that the model is as precise as possible. Two types by
The simulation tests carried out start by adjusting the parameters of the process, which is done of
using measurements in an actual plant so that the model is as precise as possible.
measurements are made: measurements for estimation of parameters and measurements to simulate Two types of
measurements are made: measurements for estimation of parameters and measurements
perturbations. First, temperatures, mass flow and other magnitudes that determine the parameters to simulate
perturbations.
associated First,
to the TES temperatures, mass flow
system are measured; and
these othercontribute
values magnitudes thatfinal
to the determine theofparameters
definition the model:
associated to coefficient,
transmission the TES system areinertia.
thermal measured;Afterthese
thesevalues contributehave
measurements to the
beenfinal definition
made, of the
the regulator
model: transmission coefficient, thermal inertia. After these measurements have been
parameters are adjusted so that the results obtained also match accurately the ones measured. Finally, made, the
regulator parameters are adjusted so that the results obtained also match accurately the ones
measured. Finally, the values measured for the perturbations are applied in the simulation and the
Energies 2017, 10, 990 11 of 17

the values
Energies 2017, measured
10, 990 for the perturbations are applied in the simulation and the results obtained 11 ofare
17
analyzed; all the magnitudes designed as perturbation in the model are measured in representative
results
periodsobtained are analyzed;
of the discharge all the
so that they can magnitudes designed
be included in as perturbation
the simulation and check in thethe modelof are
accuracy the
measured in representative periods of the discharge so that they can be included in the simulation
model response).
and check the accuracy
As already of the
indicated, themodel
output response).
to be considered during the discharge of a TES system is the
As already
temperature indicated,
of hot HTF, Tthe
HTFH output to be considered
. Evaluation during the
of the performance of discharge of acontrol
the different TES system is theis
strategies
temperature of hot HTF,
made by considering THTFH. Evaluation
the difference betweenof the
the performance
temperature of the
value different
obtained control
at the outputstrategies
and the setis
made by considering the difference
point for this magnitude, eTHTFH : between the temperature value obtained at the output and the
set point for this magnitude, eTHTFH:
eTHTFH = THTFH − SPTHTFH (12)
eTHTFH  THTFH  SPTHTFH (12)
AAsimulation
simulationwas wasrun
runfor
foreach
eachofofthe
thefive
fivecontrol
control strategies
strategies indicated
indicated in
in the
the figure.
figure. The
Theset
setpoint
point
for the temperature of hot HTF was SPT = 380 ◦ C. Each simulation produced a prediction of
for the temperature of hot HTF was SPTHTFH HTFH= 380°C. Each simulation produced a prediction of the
the evolution of the actual temperature, T
evolution of the actual temperature, THTFH, as a, as
HTFH a function
function of time.
of time. TheThe curves
curves in Figure
in Figure 9 show
9 show a
a representative 3000-second sample of the evolution of the error obtained for each
representative 3000-second sample of the evolution of the error obtained for each control strategy. control strategy.
The closer
The closer these
these curves
curves are
are to
to zero,
zero, the
the better
better the
the performance
performance of of the
the control
control strategy
strategy considered.
considered.

Figure
Figure9.9.Evolution
Evolutionof
ofthe
theerror
errorobtained
obtainedwith
withdifferent
differentcontrol
control strategies.
strategies.

This error was quantified by means of the average deviation, µ, and the standard deviation, σ,
This error was quantified by means of the average deviation, µ, and the standard deviation, σ,
which were calculated as follows:
which were calculated as follows:
t END t END
R
t
tSTART
µ µ =STARTt END − t
eTHTFH
eT HTFH dt dt
(13)(13)
t END  t STARTSTART
v
uR t
u END (eTHTFH − µ)2 dt
t t
σ = tENDSTART eTtEND 2 dt
  µtSTART (14)
HTFH −
σ
tSTART (14)
Table 4 represents the average and standard  tSTART associated to the error in THTFH . The results
t END deviation
in this table are graphically represented in Figure 10.
Table 4 represents the average and standard deviation associated to the error in THTFH. The
results in this table are graphically
Tablerepresented
4. TES Discharging in Figure 10.
Simulation Results.

eTHTFH = THTFH – SPTHTFH

Control Strategy
µ (◦ C) σ (◦ C)
Semiautomatic 0.40 1.17
PID 0.20 0.67
PID with feed-forward 0.02 0.30
Advanced PID with feed-forward 0.01 0.13
Adaptive-predictive with feed-forward 0.00 0.04

Figure 10. Graphic representation of the simulation results.

 t END
 eTHTFH  µ2 dt
σ
tSTART (14)
t END  tSTART

Table 4 represents the average and standard deviation associated to the error in THTFH12
Energies 2017, 10, 990
. The
of 17
results in this table are graphically represented in Figure 10.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Graphic
Graphicrepresentation
representationof
ofthe
thesimulation
simulationresults.
results.

According to these results, the most suitable control strategy would be an adaptive-predictive
control with feed-forward, for it would allow the set point to be followed more accurately. This is
the point where most research works finish because power plant CEOs are seldom willing to try
modifications in running plants. In this work, however, the authors had the opportunity to validate
the model and several control strategies under real working conditions, so that it was possible to
determine whether they match the system under consideration.

3.2. Experimental Results

In this section the simulation results just obtained are compared with actual plant measurements
carried out in two 50-MW PTC thermal plants built by Group TSK in 2010–2011, with a TES capacity
of 7 h: “SAMCA2-La Dehesa” and “La Africana”. The comparison was established by considering the
net energy generated by the thermal plant during the discharge of the TES.
Permission to obtain experimental results in the plants was only granted if actual measurements
were carried out guaranteeing that there would be no interference with energy production. Taking this
into account, the tests were performed according to the following procedure:

• Tests are to be performed on summer sunny days, when there is an excess of solar energy that
cannot be used in the turbine and, therefore, must be stored.
• Each test lasts for a whole day during which the TES system is fully charged and then
fully discharged.
• Since daily conditions may differ from one test to another, all the control strategies are tested
several times so as to reduce the influence of such variable conditions.
• When the discharge begins, the plant counter of energy sold is consulted.
• The TES is fully discharged while the turbine is operating at full power. If at the end of the
discharge the salt level in the hot tank is higher than one meter, the discharge will be considered
to be incomplete and the test will be disregarded.
• At the end of the discharge, the plant counter of energy sold is read again. The difference between
this reading and the one made at the beginning of the discharge will provide the net energy
generated with the control strategy under test. The net energy provided during these discharges
will be used to evaluate the performance of the control strategy implemented.
• For every successful discharge, the most relevant meteorological conditions during the test are
written down for later use in simulations.

It must be noted that the model described in Section 2 to determine the most suitable control
strategy for the thermal energy storage system is only focused on this part of the process and does not,
therefore, provide information of the net energy generated in the power plant. Thus, experimental
Energies 2017, 10, 990 13 of 17

results will be compared to those offered by a commercial plant model that includes the control
strategies to evaluate.
The software used in “SAMCA2-La Dehesa” is called ESEMpro® 1.0 and has been developed by
S2M (Sun To Market Solutions, Madrid, Spain). This software is fed with the same conditions as those
in the real plant test and with different control strategies for the TES system. Table 5 shows how both
results (actual and simulated) compare when used to determine the total net energy produced after
seventeen complete discharges.
The values included in Table 5 show that the best result is obtained when an adaptive-predictive
control with feed-forward is implemented, as anticipated by the simulation results provided by the
TES model considered. The amount of net energy generated from 17 full discharges of the TES system
using this control strategy gives rise to an increase of 3.6% as compared to that obtained with a PID
control (the one actually implemented in the power plant used for the tests).

Table 5. Net Energy Produced After 17 Discharges.

Net Energy (MW·h)

Control Strategy Real Simulated Difference
(EN,Real ) (EN,Sim ) (%)
Semiautomatic 5453 5458 −0.09
PID 5522 5518 0.07
PID with feed-forward 5525 5514 0.20
Advanced PID with feed-forward 5643 5628 0.26
Adaptive-predictive with feed-forward 5721 5705 0.28

Additionally, the last column in this table proves that the ESEMpro® model used for the plant
can be trusted, for it exhibits good accuracy: the simulated results match those measured in the actual
plant with a precision better than 0.3%. It can be noticed that, the more complex the control considered,
the larger the error, but even in that case the error produced is within narrow tolerance.

4. Discussion
Using a model of a thermal energy storage (TES) system for power plants, several control methods
were tested. Five different strategies were compared: the so-called semiautomatic control system,
a simple PID control, a PID control with feed-forward, an advanced PID control with feed-forward
and an adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward. All of these control techniques were evaluated
with the Simulink TES model developed in [30], which evinced that the best results were obtained
when an adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward was implemented.
The opportunity to test the control strategies on a real plant allowed researchers to further verify
that implementing such a control in the thermal energy storage system actually resulted in an increase
of the energy produced when using the heat stored in the molten salts. Thus, the main goal of this
paper could be fulfilled: encouraging plant managers to try different control strategies based on reliable
simulation results, like those used in this paper (TES model presented in [30] or ESEMpro® ).

5. Conclusions
The discussion above aims to clarify that the final contribution of this paper is not introducing
an optimum control strategy for the thermal energy storage system in solar plants, but validating the
results provided by certain simulation models in order to encourage the CEOs of solar thermal power
plants to rely on the information provided by these models to make their decisions.
To achieve this goal, the present work used the model of a TES system already available in the
literature [30] to run several simulations with different control strategies (PID with feed-forward,
advanced PID with feed-forward and adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward). The results
Energies 2017, 10, 990 14 of 17

obtained from these simulations determined which of the control methods considered gave rise to the
minimum error and should, therefore, be implemented.
The results obtained were validated by performing actual tests in two 50-MW PTC thermal plants
built by Group TSK in 2010–2011, with a TES capacity of 7 h: “SAMCA2-La Dehesa” and “La Africana”.
The comparison was established on the grounds of net energy produced during the discharge process,
and the experimental results agreed well with the simulations run previously: the control strategy that
gave rise to the lowest error was also the control strategy providing the highest net energy during
the discharge.
These results contribute to the automation of the plant, since the control strategies identified as
optimal can be implemented in the DCS of the solar thermal power plant, thus avoiding the need for
operators that might make a wrong decision or react too late to certain changes.
As for the future work, the possibility to increase the automation of the whole plant should be
explored, trying to develop algorithms that allow the most adequate global strategy to be selected in
terms of meteorological conditions and also considering the conditions set by the electrical market at
a given time. This global strategy would consist of several operation modes that should be run in a
sequence to be determined by another algorithm still to be developed as well.
It must be said, however, that there must be an afterword to all this. It is true that, as proven in
this work, plant CEOs would do well to rely on simulation results to improve production. It is also
true that, technically speaking, some control strategies may prove more efficient than others; in this
case, it has been demonstrated that using an adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward in the
TES system gives rise to an increase in the energy produced during a discharge. But there are other
non-technical considerations that managers must also take into account.
In this case, for instance, developing an adaptive-predictive regulator ad-hoc in the distributed
control system (DCS) of the plant is not advisable because of its complexity: an external commercial
regulator should be used instead. Using a commercial adaptive-predictive regulator in the DCS
has some advantages (reduction of development and implementation times, externalized code
maintenance, very optimized code, product actualization) but it has some drawbacks too (dependence
on a hardware external to the DCS, dependence on an external software with unknown code).
Also, economic implications must be considered. According to the results provided by the models
used, the net benefit obtained over 25 years if an adaptive-predictive control with feed-forward were
implemented in the TES system, would be around $1,000,000 (as compared to having a PID regulator).
Large as it may seem, this benefit is only 0.1% of the total benefit obtained in the power plant, which
might not justify the increase of the complexity of the algorithm or the reduced controllability of the
whole system (associated to the use of external hardware and software). This risk factor could well
result in selecting the advanced PID regulator with feed-forward as the best solution out of those
analyzed. In addition, this type of controller is cheaper than one implementing adaptive-predictive
control with feed-forward. Considering licenses, initial tests and training of the operators in charge
of controlling the plant, the investment associated to including adaptive-predictive control with
feed-forward in the TES system has been estimated to be around $13,500, whereas that corresponding
to an advanced PID regulator with feed-forward would only be approximately $3500.
This is true for any given high-level strategy used in the plant, i.e., the figures indicated above
represent the benefit associated to using one discharge control or another once the global strategy
controller has decided the actions to take in the power plant. This is why the contribution of the
so-called variable control (see Figure 2) to the overall benefit of the plant is so reduced.

Acknowledgments: Financial support was provided by the Spanish Government through Project
MINECO-17-TEC2016-77738-R and by Principado de Asturias (Spain) through Project FC-15-GRUPIN14-122.
Author Contributions: This paper is part of the PhD Thesis developed by Rogelio Peón Menéndez [55], who has
therefore carried out most of the work presented here. Juan Á. Martínez and Miguel J. Prieto were the supervisors
of this work, whereas Lourdes Á. Barcia and Fernando Nuño respectively assisted Rogelio Peón with Simulink
simulations and regulation topics.
Energies 2017, 10, 990 15 of 17

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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