INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

I. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
 Etymology: Philos (love) + Sophia (Wisdom) = Philosophy (love for wisdom)
 Definition: It is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and
existence (Oxford Dictionary, n.d.).
 It asks big questions like:
 “What is real?”
 “What is right?”
 “What is the goal of living?”
II. ITS HISTORY
A. Eastern Philosophy
 Began in Asia, particularly, India & China, during 6 th century BCE (Oliver
Leaman, 2000).
 Key features:
 Siddharta Gautama (c. 563 – 483 BCE); aka the Buddha
 Mahavira (599 – 527 BCE); spiritual leader of Jainism
 Confucious (551 – 479 BCE); founder of Confucianism
 Laozi (6th Century BCE); founder of Taoism
B. Western Philosophy
 Originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th Century BCE (Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, n.d.)
 Key features:
 Socrates (470 – 399 BCE); introduced the Socratic Method
 Plato (4th Century BCE); known for his work like “The Republic”
 Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE); contributed to logic metaphysics, ethics, and
natural science.
III. PURPOSE
 To know reality better, acquire knowledge, and strength moral values.
 To enhance critical thinking, problem-solving, and ethical awareness (James
Madison University, n.d.).
IV. PARTIAL AND HOLISTIC THINKING
A. Partial Thinking
1. Definition:
 Partial thinking focuses on specific aspects of a situation (Scribd, n.d.).
 Involves analyzing limited elements to understand or solve a problem
(Scribd, n.d.).

2. Characteristics:
  Focus: Specific aspects of a situation
 Approach: Analytical & detail-oriented
 Perspective: Narrowed scope of perspective
 Usefulness: Fast decision -making & detailed analysis
3. Pros:
 Practical for solving specific problems
 Helpful for understanding specific parts of a situation
4. Cons:
 Narrowed perspective and can be biased
5. Application:
 Best to use in scientific analysis, troubleshooting, & situations requiring
quick, logical decisions.
B. Holistic Thinking
1. Definition:
 A thinking style that focuses on understanding the whole context of a situation
and the relationship between its elements (Open Leaming, n.d.).
 “Looking through the bigger picture.”
2. Characteristics:
 Focus: Viewing the entire aspects of a situation as a whole
 Approach: Exploratory & integrative
 Perspective: Multiple angles of perception
 Usefulness: Comprehensive analysis & adaptive decision-making
3. Pros:
 Comprehensive understanding of a situation.
 Enhanced problem-solving, decision-making, creativity, and innovation
4. Cons:
 Overgeneralization and ambiguity
5. Application:
 Best to use in fostering self-awareness, resolving conflict, education, personal
development, business management, environmental sustainability, and health
care.

FALLACY
I. WHAT IS A FALLACY?
 A Fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.
II. HISTORY OF FALLACIES
 Sophists – the first ones to use these 'trick arguments'.
 Aristotle – first to systematize logical errors and identified 13 fallacies in his
work 'Sophistical Refutations'.
 Later scholars – figures like Francis Bacon, John Locke, and many further
contributed to the understanding of fallacies.
III. TYPES OF FALLACIES
1. Formal Fallacies
Flaws in the structure of an argument that make it invalid, regardless of the truth of
the premises.
Example: If it’s raining, the ground is wet. The ground is wet. Therefore, it is raining.
2. Informal Fallacies
Errors in reasoning from the content and context of the argument.
 Ad Hominem – attacking the characteristics of the person instead of the
argument.
Example: “My opponent’s plan is terrible because he is a liar.”
 Appeal to Force – involves threatening someone to accept a conclusion.
Example: “Agree with the political views or you’ll suffer the consequences.”
 Appeal to Emotion – tries to manipulate emotions instead of presenting
logical reasons.
Examples: “Donate to our charity, think about all the suffering children who
will benefit from your generosity.” “Buy this product, it will make you feel
great.”
 Appeal to the Popular – assumes something is true or right because many
people believe it.
Examples: “Everyone is buying this phone, it must be the best one.” “Millions
believe in astrology; it must be true.”
 Appeal to Tradition – justifies something based on past practices.
Example: “Marriage has always been between a man and a woman, so it
should stay that way.”
 Begging the Question – occurs when the conclusion is assumed in the
premise.
Examples: “The school’s policy is fair because it is the school’s policy.” “God
exist because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God
 Fallacy of Composition – assumes that what is true of the parts is also true
of the whole.
 Examples: “Each player is a great athlete. Therefore, the basketball team is a
great team.” “Each component of this machine is lightweight. Therefore, this
entire machine is lightweight.
 Fallacy of Division – the reverse of composition; assumes what is true of the
whole is true of the parts.
Examples: “The United States is a rich country. Therefore, every individual in
the United States is wealthy.” “Our company is the most successful in the
industry. Therefore, every employee must be highly skilled and successful.”
 Confusing Correlation with Causation – mistakes correlation with causality.
Example: “Since ice cream sales and sunburn increase together, eating ice
cream must also cause sunburn.”
IV. WHEN IS A FALLACY NOT A FALLACY?
One has to be careful with fallacies. Sometimes, something that looks like a fallacy
might actually be a valid argument. Thus, critical thinking and context are important
when evaluating arguments.

V. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FALLACIES IN PHILOSOPHY