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Human Well-Being Research and Policy Making
Series Editors: Richard J. Estes · Joseph Sirgy

el-Sayed el-Aswad

The Quality of Life

and Policy Issues
among the Middle
East and North
African Countries
Human Well-Being Research and Policy Making

Series editors
Richard J. Estes, School of Social Work, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
PA, USA
Joseph Sirgy, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
This series creates a dialogue between well-being scholars and well-being public
policy makers.
Well-being theory, research and practice are essentially interdisciplinary in
nature and embrace contributions from all disciplines within the social sciences.
With the exception of leading economists, the policy relevant contributions of
social scientists are widely scattered and lack the coherence and integration needed
to more effectively inform the actions of policy makers.
Contributions in the series focus on one more of the following four aspects of
well-being and public policy:
– Discussions of the public policy and well-being focused on particular nations
and worldwide regions
– Discussions of the public policy and well-being in specialized sectors of policy
making such as health, education, work, social welfare, housing, transportation,
use of leisure time
– Discussions of public policy and well-being associated with particular popula-
tion groups such as women, children and youth, the aged, persons with dis-
abilities and vulnerable populations
– Special topics in well-being and public policy such as technology and
well-being, terrorism and well-being, infrastructure and well-being.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15692

el-Sayed el-Aswad

The Quality of Life

and Policy Issues
among the Middle East
and North African Countries

123
el-Sayed el-Aswad
Independent Scholar
Bloomfield Hills, MI, USA

ISSN 2522-5367 ISSN 2522-5375 (electronic)

Human Well-Being Research and Policy Making
ISBN 978-3-030-00325-8 ISBN 978-3-030-00326-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00326-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954621

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to the people of the
Middle East and North Africa region, people
living at the grassroots in this region, and to
those in the region who are fighting to
enhance their quality of life, happiness, and
well-being.
Preface

The Middle East and North Africa region, including the Gulf States (hereafter the
MENA region), is made up of countries that have received considerable attention
by scholars and the media, especially since the terrorist events of September 11,
2001 directed at the United States (el-Aswad 2013), the financial crisis of 2008 that
resulted in a sharp downturn in the economies of financially advanced countries, the
Arab Spring of 2011 that impacted the political and social well-being of people
throughout the MENA region (el-Aswad 2016), and the current and ongoing wars
being fought in Syria and Yemen with their profoundly negative impact on the
well-being of people in the predominately Islamic countries of North Africa and
West Asia.
The book, first of the Springer book series of Human Well-Being Research and
Policy Making, is a timely work in that it addresses quality of life in the 21 nations
of the Middle East and North Africa Region by focusing on multiple policy
dimensions of well-being, including economy, health, education, technology, and
social welfare among other objective as well as subjective dimensions of quality of
life and well-being. The study deals with culturally, socioeconomically, demo-
graphically, and politically diverse countries that make up the MENA region. By
broadly addressing the social realities that characterize the MENA countries, the
research reported in this monograph seeks to delineate cross-cultural similarities and
differences by extensively and comparatively focusing on six of the region’s most
influential countries—Egypt, Iran, Israel, Turkey, Tunisia, and the United Arab
Emirates (UAE), selected specifically to highlight the diversity found in the region.
This monograph reflects a holistic approach to the analysis of a wide range of
policy frameworks that currently are in place in the MENA region. The monograph
also identifies the major drivers of governmental and private sector approaches to
well-being policy development that impact directly on the quality of life of the more
than 381 million people living in the region—approximately 6% of the world’s total
population. The approach to policy development analysis adopted in this mono-
graph is intended to both advance our understanding of the nature of well-being
policy development under the conditions of the considerable political turbulence
that exists in the region and, at the same time, suggests with broad brush strokes the

vii
viii Preface

dimensions of a more coherent policy framework designed to enhance the quality of

life of the people that are living in a defined geographic area and are loosely joined
together through a shared faith—in this case, predominately Islam and its teachings
(Estes and Tiliouine 2016; Tiliouine and Estes 2016).
Further, the policy analysis approach adopted in the monograph assigns priority
to the enhanced well-being of people and their development as the central focus of
policy development in the region and its neighbors more broadly. Thus, and as
viewed from the author’s perspective,
At the center of well-being is a deep sense of peace, personal satisfaction, and happiness
within ourselves and in our relationships with others. All four of these states of being—
peace, personal satisfaction, happiness, and well-being—are outcomes achieved through a
combination of personal reflection and interpersonal exchanges. They also are associated
with the often-complex interplay of the social, political, economic, religious, ideological,
and other forces that surround us (Estes 2017: 3).

This monograph demonstrates the special appeal and significance of such interre-
lated topics as quality of life, well-being, and policy issues.

About the Book

The book contains six chapters: Chap. 1, Introduction and Chap. 2, Methodology
present the main approach, which is to address well-being and policy issues from
multiple lenses. Chapter 3, Historical Background, delineates briefly and in broad
terms the successes, challenges, quality of life, and overall human development
experienced by the MENA region from ancient to present times. This chapter
provides a rationale for identifying 21 countries as comprising the MENA region as
well as for focusing on 6 selected countries, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Tunisia, Turkey,
and the UAE, for the purpose of extensive comparative inquiries. In addition, the
chapter provides an account of the region’s core geographic, demographic, and
political features as well as its overall human development achievements, particu-
larly in the domains of economy, health, and education. Other key characteristics
of the MENA region in terms of culture, religion, ideology, minority relationships,
technological developments, and militarization are provided. Within this historical
context, the chapter addresses external and internal factors along with religious and
ideological orientations impacting the quality of life in the MENA region.
Chapter 4, Indicators of Quality Of Life and Well-Being in the MENA Region:
A Comparative Analysis, focuses on the quality of life and well-being issues in the
selected MENA countries (Egypt, Iran, Israel, Tunisia, Turkey, and the UAE). This
chapter applies multiple objective and subjective indicators to assess multiple
dimensions of well-being including health, education, economy, work force,
communication, technology, human rights, happiness, religious freedom, tolerance,
political terror, corruption, and freedom of expression, to mention a few. This
chapter presents a comparative analysis focusing on indicators of equity and
Preface ix

inequality in differing domains of human development and well-being or ill-being.

In addition, the chapter concludes that despite the variations in quality of life across
the MENA region, there is a cross-cultural similarity or a common pattern of
well-being related mainly to the progress made in the multiple dimensions of
people’s lives. In brief, although indicators of freedom of expression, religious
tolerance, and happiness are still low in the MENA countries, they have achieved
remarkable progress in overall human development, particularly in the domains of
health care, education, economy, and technology.
Chapter 5, Key Drivers of Well-being and Policy Issues in the MENA Region,
investigates the staging of drivers of well-being and social–public policies in the
MENA region. The essential thesis or objective of this inquiry is to show to what
extent the drivers, indicators, and outcomes of well-being help the policy makers
generate sociocultural plans and public policies aimed at improving the quality of
life of people living in the MENA region. This study provides an assessment of the
relative role of economic and noneconomic drivers such as health, education,
economy, demography, political stability, security, technology, and culture in
shaping policy priorities and the policy options available to the MENA region. The
chapter addresses the most critical challenging factors hindering social–public
policies from improving the quality of life in the MENA region. This research
underscores that, although the ordinary people in the MENA region work diligently
to improve their standards of living, the major challenges facing them relate mostly
to incapacitated governments and inept political systems. The chapter, however,
proposes that a better understanding of the drivers and determinants of well-being
in the MENA region will provide relevant considerations concerning policy issues
in that region.
Chapter 6, Conclusions, provides the most important findings of the research and
recommendations to authorities and policy makers interested in the promotion of
well-being and quality of life in the MENA countries. Put simply, this chapter
accentuates the fact that well-being research can help policy makers target public
services in effective manners and guide national and regional authorities in imple-
menting social policies adequately and productively toward advancing people’s
lives.

Bloomfield Hills, USA el-Sayed el-Aswad

References

el-Aswad, el-S. (2013). Images of Muslims in Western scholarship and media after 9/11. Digest of
Middle East Studies, 22 (1), 39–56.
el-Aswad, el-S. (2016). State, Nation and Islamism in contemporary Egypt: An anthropological
perspective. Urban Anthropology, 45 (1–2), 63–92.
Estes, R. J. (2017). The search for well-being: From ancient to modern times. In R. J. Estes & M.
J. Sirgy (Eds.), The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History (pp. 3–30).
Dordrecht, NL: Springer.
x Preface

Estes, R. J., & Tiliouine, H. (2016). Social development trends in the Fertile Crescent region:
Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria. In H. Tiliouine & R. J. Estes (Eds.), The state of social
progress of Islamic societies: Social, economic, political, and ideological challenges
(pp. 179–210). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Tiliouine, H., & Estes, R. J. (2016) Social development in North African countries: Achievements
and current challenges. In H. Tiliouine & R. J. Estes (Eds.), The State of social progress of
Islamic societies: Social, economic, political, and ideological challenges (pp. 109–136). Cham,
Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Acknowledgements

Serving tenure at universities in the United States, Egypt, Bahrain, and the United
Arab Emirates has given me the opportunity to advance cross-cultural perspectives
that I used in this study. I hope the reader finds reading this book as enriching an
experience as I have had through investigating patterns of quality of life and
well-being of the people of the Middle East and North Africa.
This book would not have been written without the invitation, endorsement, and
inspiration of Richard J. Estes and M. Joseph Sirgy, editors of the Springer book
series of Human Well-Being Research and Policy Making. The comments and
feedback of Richard J. Estes and M. Joseph Sirgy as well as of anonymous peer
viewers and scholars have enriched and deepened the scholarly discussion of the
book.
I would like to thank David Walker for preparing the graphics and figures to
underscore the complicated and multidimensional data of the research. Many thanks
go to Pamela Fried for providing careful copy editing of the book.
I also thank my family for the great support and unique ways in which they
contributed during the production of this monograph. My wife, Mariam, provided
editorial assistance. My son, Kareem, helped me prepare a portion of the statistics.
My son, Amir, aided in fashioning the map of the MENA region by using Adobe
Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator.
I am grateful to the editorial team at Springer International Publisher with special
thanks to Esther Otten, Eric Schmitt, Thomas Hempfling, Hendrikje Tuerlings,
Almitra Ghosh, and Prashanth Ravichandran for their administrative assistance for
this work.

Bloomfield Hills, Michigan With appreciation,

July 2018 el-Sayed el-Aswad

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 The Middle East and North Africa Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Overall Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5.1 The Quality of Life in the Ancient MENA Region . . . . . . 21
3.5.2 The Quality of Life in the Medieval Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5.3 The Quality of Life in Modern History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6 Well-Being and Challenges Since 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6.1 External Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6.2 Internal Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6.3 Militarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.7 Quality of Life: Religion and Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 Indicators of Quality of Life and Well-Being in the Middle
East and North African Region: A Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Quality of Life in the Middle East and North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1 Quality of Life in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.2 Quality of Life in the Islamic Republic of Iran . . . . . . . . . 53

xiii
xiv Contents

4.2.3 Quality of Life in Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.2.4 Quality of Life in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.5 Quality of Life in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.6 Quality of Life in the United Arab Emirates . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3 Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.1 Happiness and Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3.2 Inequality Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5 Key Drivers of Well-Being and Policy Issues in the Middle
East and North Africa Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Key Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.1 Key Drivers in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.2 Key Drivers in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3.3 Key Drivers in Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3.4 Key Drivers in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3.5 Key Drivers in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3.6 Key Drivers in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) . . . . . . . . 115
5.4 Human Rights and Religious Tolerance: A Comparative
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5 Information Communication Technology in the Middle
East and North Africa Region: A Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . 120
5.6 Social Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1.1 Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1.2 Quality of Life and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.1.3 Social Policy: Governmental and Non-governmental
Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
About the Author

Prof. el-Sayed el-Aswad, Ph.D. received his doctorate in anthropology from the
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He has taught at Wayne State University
(USA), Tanta University (Egypt), Bahrain University, and United Arab Emirates
University (UAEU). He achieved the CHSS-UAEU Award for excellence in sci-
entific research publication for the 2013–2014 academic year. He served as
Chairperson of the Sociology Departments at both the UAEU and Tanta University
as well as the Editor in Chief of the Journal of Horizons in Humanities and Social
Sciences: An International Refereed Journal (UAEU). He has published widely in
both Arabic and English and is the author of Muslim Worldviews and Everyday
Lives (AltaMira Press, 2012), Religion and Folk Cosmology: Scenarios of the
Visible and Invisible in Rural Egypt (Praeger Press, 2002; translated into Arabic in
2005) and The Folk House: An Anthropological Study of Folk Architecture and
Traditional Culture of the Emirates Society (al-Bait al-Sha‘bi) (UAE University
Press, 1996).
He has been awarded fellowships from various institutes including the Fulbright
Program, the Ford Foundation, the Egyptian government, and the United Arab
Emirates University. He is a member of Editorial Advisory Boards of the Digest of
Middle East Studies (DOMES), Muslims in Global Societies Series, Tabsir: Insight
on Islam and the Middle East, and CyberOrient (Online Journal of the Middle). He
is a member of the American Anthropological Association, the Middle Eastern
Studies of North America, the American Academy of Religion, and the
International Advisory Council of the World Congress for Middle Eastern Studies
(WOCMES). He has published eight books, over eighty papers in peer-reviewed
and indexed journals, and over 30 book reviews.

xv
Abbreviations and Acronyms

DIAC Dubai International Academic City

DKV Dubai Knowledge Village
FGH Financing Global Health
FH Freedom House
GCC Gulf Co-operation Council
GDP Gross domestic product
GFP Global Firepower Index
GMI Global Militarization Index
HAAD Health Authority Abu Dhabi
ICT Information and Communications Technology
IHME Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
ILO International Labor Organization
ILS Internet Live Stats
IMF International Monetary Fund
IT Information technology
IWS Internet World Stats
MENA Middle East and North Africa
NGO Non-governmental organization
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
PPP Purchasing Power Parity; Public–Private Partnership
SDGs United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals
SGI Sustainable Governance Indicators
SPI Social Progress Index
UN United Nations
UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

xvii
xviii Abbreviations and Acronyms

UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social

WB World Bank
WDA World Data Atlas
WEF World Economic Forum
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Life expectancy in selected Middle Eastern and North African
countries, 2000–2015 UAE = United Arab Emirates (Data from
United Nations Development Programme 2002, 2016b) . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 3.2 Gross domestic product per capita in the first and the eleventh
centuries (international Geary-Khamis dollars) MENA =
Middle East and North America (Data from Maddison
2003, 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 3.3 Life expectancy at birth (Syria and Libya) (Data from Human
Development Reports [United Nations Development
Programme 2003, 2016a]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 3.4 Militarization in Middle East and North Africa region
UAE = United Arab Emirates (Data from Global Firepower
Index 2017; Bonn International Center for
Conversion—Global Militarization Index—2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 3.5 How Muslims, Christians, and Jews view and rate each other.
(Pew Research Center states that due to an administrative
error, ratings of Christians in the Palestinian territories are not
shown and in predominantly Muslim countries, figures are for
Muslims only) (Data from Pew Research Center 2011) . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 4.1 Human Development Index of Egypt, 1990–2015. (Data from
the Human Development Report [United Nations
Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 4.2 Indicators of health in Egypt, 1990–2015. (Data from the
Human Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2002, 2016b] and World Health Organization
[2016a, 2017]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 4.3 Ranking of happiness in the Middle Eastern and North Africa
region, 2015. (Data from the Human Development Report
2016 [United Nations Development Programme 2016b]) . . . . . . 51

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 4.4 Happiness in selected countries of the Middle East and North
Africa, 2015–2016. (Data from the World Happiness Report
[Helliwell et al. 2016]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 4.5 Human Development Index of Iran, 1990–2015. (Data from
the Human Development Report [United Nations
Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
Fig. 4.6 Health well-being in Iran, 1990–2015. (Data from the Human
Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2016a] and the World Health Organization,
2016a, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Fig. 4.7 Change in happiness between 2015 and 2016 UAE = United
Arab Emirates. (Data from the Human Development Report
2016 [United Nations Development Programme 2016b]) . . . . .. 58
Fig. 4.8 Human Development Index of Israel, 1990–2015.
(Data from the Human Development Report [United
Nations Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 4.9 Health well-being in Israel, 1990–2015. (Data from the Human
Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2016b] and the World Health Organization, 2016c,
2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 4.10 Human Development Index of Tunisia, 1990–2015. (Data
extracted from Human Development Report [United Nations
Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
Fig. 4.11 Health well-being in Tunisia, 1990–2015. (Data from the
Human Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2016a; World Health Organization, 2016c,
2017]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
Fig. 4.12 Human Development Index of Turkey, 1990–2015.
(Data from the Human Development Report [United
Nations Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Fig. 4.13 Health well-being in Turkey, 1990–2015. (Data from the
Human Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2016a; World Health Organization, 2016e,
2017]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Fig. 4.14 Human Development Index of the United Arab Emirates,
1990–2015. (Data from the Human Development Report
[United Nations Development Programme 1992, 2016b]) . . . . .. 69
Fig. 4.15 Health well-being in the United Arab Emirates, 1990–2015.
(Data from the Human Development Report [United Nations
Development Programme 2016a] and the World Health
Organization, 2016f, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 4.16 Happiness and Human Development Index of selected

countries of the Middle East and Northern Africa, 2015,
UAE = United Arab Emirates. (Data from the Human
Development Report 2016 [United Nations Development
Programme 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Fig. 4.17 Happiness and gross domestic product per capita in selected
Middle Countries, 2015 UAE = United Arab Emirates. (Data
from the Human Development Report 2016 [United Nations
Development Programme 2016b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
Fig. 4.18 Gender Development Index in the countries of the Middle East
and North Africa. (Data from the Human Development Report
[United Nations Development Programme 2016a]) . . . . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 4.19 Inequality-adjusted Human Development Indexes for 5
countries. Due to a lack of relevant data, the IHDI has not been
calculated for the United Arab Emirates. (Data from the
Human Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2016a]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Fig. 5.1 Health spending by source in the Middle East and North Africa
Region, 2014–2015 (Data from Financing Global Health 2016;
World Bank 2018a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
Fig. 5.2 Public-government health expenditure (% of GDP) and
annualized rate change in selected MENA countries (Data
extracted from World bank 2018a; Financing Global Health
2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Fig. 5.3 Physician density in selected MENA countries, 1990–2015
(Data extracted from Financing Global Health 2016; World
Bank 2018a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
Fig. 5.4 Drinking water and sanitation in the selected Middle East
and North Africa countries, 1990–2015 (Data from Financing
Global Health 2016; World Bank 2018a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
Fig. 5.5 Public expenditure (percent of gross domestic product) and
average cost per student primary (US$) in selected Middle East
and North Africa countries (Data from Financing Global
Health 2016; World Bank 2018a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 5.6 Classroom size and pupil-teacher ratio in selected Middle East
and North Africa countries (Data from Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development 2015a, b; UNESCO
2018a, b; UNICEF 2016a, b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
Fig. 5.7 Internet access and quality of education in selected Middle
East and North Africa countries (Data from Internet Live Stats
2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
Fig. 5.8 Global Competitiveness Index, ranking of six Middle East and
North Africa countries 2016–2017 UAE = United Arab
Emirates (Data from World Economic Forum 2017) . . . . . . . .. 93
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 5.9 Selected indicators of policy making and governance in the

Middle East and North Africa region, 2015–2016 UAE =
United Arab Emirates (Data from World Economic Forum
2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
Fig. 5.10 Indicator of government debt in the Middle East and North
Africa region, 2015–2016 UAE = United Arab Emirates
(Data from World Economic Forum 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
Fig. 5.11 Religious tolerance and freedom of religion in selected Middle
East and North Africa countries UAE = United Arab Emirates
(Data from Social Progress Index 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
Fig. 5.12 Freedom of expression, political rights, and corruption in
selected Middle East and North Africa countries
UAE = United Arab Emirates (Data from Social Progress
Index 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
Fig. 5.13 Internet users in the Middle East and North Africa region,
2000–2015 (Data from Internet Live Stats 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Indicators of well-being: Minimum and Maximum

(Data from United Nation Development Index 2016). . . . . . . .. 9
Table 2.2 Human development index, countries of the Middle East and
North Africa, 2015 (Data from United Nations Development
Programme 2016). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Table 3.1 Human Development Index of the countries of the Middle
East and North Africa, 2000 (Data from the Human
Development Report [United Nations Development
Programme 2002]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Table 3.2 The modern history of events affecting well-being of selected
countries of the Middle East and North Africa (Central
Intelligence Agency 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
Table 4.1 Ranking of Happiness in the MENA region, 2015 (Data
extracted from World Happiness Report [Helliwell et al.
2016]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Table 4.2 Ranking of Happiness in the MENA region, 2016 (Data from
World Happiness Report [Helliwell et al. 2016]) . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Table 5.1 Health spending by source in the Middle East and North
Africa region, 2014–2015 (Data from World Bank 2018a and
Financing Global Health 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
Table 5.2 Drivers of health in the Middle East and North Africa Region
(Data from the Central Intelligence Agency 2018; UNDP
2016a; World Bank 2018a, b, c, d; World Health Organization
2016, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Table 5.3 Drivers of education and global rank in the Middle East and
North Africa Region (Data from the UNDP 2016a; UNESCO
2018a, b; World Economic Forum 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90

xxiii
xxiv List of Tables

Table 5.4 Networked readiness index of information and

communications technology in the Middle East and North
Africa Region (Global Rank out of 139 Countries), 2015
(Data extracted from the Global Information Technology
Report 2016 [World Economic Forum 2016]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 5.5 Human rights and religious tolerance in selected Middle East
and North Africa Countries (Data from Social Progress Index
2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract This chapter provides a brief review of scholarly literature examining

quality of life and well-being policy, globally and regionally. It also addresses core
objectives and key questions related to well-being and policy issues in the MENA
region.

Keywords Quality of life · Well-being · Social-public policy

Human development

Quality of life indicates “well-being” as well as the entire scale of human experiences,
states, perceptions, and domains of thought concerning standards of “the good life.”
It also involves judgments of the value placed on the experiences of communities
regarding satisfaction with life across typical aspects of daily living such as health,
income, education, work, family, and leisure (Massam 2002; Peter and Machin 2015;
Theofilou 2013). This monograph identifies important indicators and measurements
of progress in people’s economic, health, and educational development as a whole. It
also investigates the systems of social and public policies implemented in the MENA
region impacting economic, health, and educational well-being.
Well-being policy is welfarist in the sense that it presumes that well-being and the
creation of opportunities for the pursuit of happiness should be among the concerns
of policy makers (Haybron and Tiberius 2015; Helliwell et al. 2016). Research on
regional well-being can assist policy makers in directing their efforts toward identi-
fying the most effective policies that reap positive outcomes that lead people toward
better lives. In this context, the concepts of well-being and welfare are used here
interchangeably. Academic researchers as well as policy makers engaged in analyz-
ing and promoting well-being and quality of life in the Middle East and North Africa
(MENA) region are likely to appreciate this work. In addition, this book would be
suitable not only for use in university classrooms (undergraduate and graduate levels)
but also in seminar activities. It is most likely that scholars and teachers of the world
and Middle East studies would choose the book for their courses because it deals
with contemporary MENA countries from cross-cultural perspectives. It is expected
that local, national, and regional authorities in the MENA region can use information

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

el-S. el-Aswad, The Quality of Life and Policy Issues among the Middle East
and North African Countries, Human Well-Being Research and Policy Making,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00326-5_1
2 1 Introduction

regarding the drivers and indicators of well-being from the findings of this study as
an integrating guide to their future plans and actions in the field of public services.
For over four decades the scholarly literature addressing quality of life and well-
being worldwide has been extensive (Brixi et al. 2015; Diener 1984; Diener et al.
2003; Diener et al. 2010; Estes 1993, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2015; Estes and Sirgy 2017;
Estes et al. 2017; Galloway 2006; Glatzer et al. 2015; Huppert and Cooper 2014;
Kwon 2005; Lammy and Tyler 2014; McGillivray and Clarke 2007; Michalos 2004,
2014; Oishi 2010; Roy 2010; Sirgy 1998, 2011; Sirgy et al. 2017). In addition to
the significant contributions to the scholarship of development and well-being in the
MENA region (el-Aswad 2017; Estes and Tiliouine 2014; Jawad 2015; Karshenas
and Moghadam 2006, 2009; Moghadam and Karshenas 2006; Silva et al. 2012;
Tiliouine and Estes 2016; Tiliouine and Meziane 2017), this monograph presents
new grounds for cross-cultural inquiries regarding quality of life and policy issues
among countries of that region.
This book examines the roles of state institutions, international development agen-
cies, religious and sectarian-based community services, non-governmental organi-
zations and private sectors in improving the quality of life in the respective countries
being studied. The research uses indicators and data from economic, health, and edu-
cation among other resources, including the Human Development Index, to capture
both positive and negative states of the quality of life in the MENA region. In other
words, finance, health, and education are considered to be among the most important
aggregate measures in the assessment of well-being. With regard to economic well-
being, the study addresses economic recourses and living standards by comparing the
gross domestic product per capita of different counties (United Nations Development
Programme 2016). Concerning health well-being, the study relies on and compares
key health indicators such as life expectancy at birth, occurrences of diseases, and
incidences of infant and maternal mortality rates among countries. Regarding edu-
cational well-being, the inquiry uses indicators such as expected years of schooling,
adult literacy, and gross enrollment in basic, secondary, and tertiary school levels.
This book provides policy analysts and decision makers with otherwise hard to
obtain data and information concerning a wide array of development experiences
needed to identify policy issues and outcomes at the local, regional, national, and
international levels. The objectives of the monograph can be summarized as follows:
1. To present a critical review of the scope of the changing quality of life in MENA
countries with respect to economic, health, and educational and, where appro-
priate, technological and environmental well-being.
2. To examine the systems of social and public policies implemented in the MENA
countries impacting economic, health, and educational well-being.
3. To analyze the positive and negative aspects of well-being policy enacted in the
MENA region in terms of the three dimensions.
This monograph is critical to understanding the place MENA countries now
occupy in the world. It identifies significant drivers of human well-being of the people
in the MENA region. The book explores the interrelationships among the transition
outcomes (i.e., economic, health, and educational progress) and the many drivers or
1 Introduction 3

factors influencing such outcomes—socioeconomic, cultural, demographic, techno-

logical, institutional, and political factors.
Specifically, this book seeks to answer the following questions:
What is the historical context of the quality of life and policy issues among the MENA
countries?

What are the present circumstances concerning the quality of life and policy issues
within the MENA region?

What are the core indicators of quality of life and well-being in the MENA region?

What are the major drivers of human well-being successes in the MENA countries
being studied?

To what extent do social and public policies improve the quality of life among the
people of the MENA countries?

What are the practical goals and lessons that can be achieved from contemporary
practices of policy issues in the MENA region?

What types of additional policy initiatives are needed to bring peace and harmony to
the region and, thus, open new pathways for attaining progressively higher levels of
well-being for all the countries in the MENA region?

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has proceeded so far that the bottom of the bag is reached, the
warp-strands are turned over completely ; and the twining is now
continued on the opposite side, the ends of the twining which have
been folded up being undone and used for continuing the work. In
all the lower rows the twining is carried back so that it joins the next
higher row of twining ; and in this way the rows of twining are made
into a continuous spiral. This stitch is used for food-mats, covers to
protect the canoe against the sun, covers used in steaming food.
They are used under salmon that are being cut, and very large mats
of this kind are used for the sides of camping-tents. Bags of this kind
are used for holding clam-muscles, fern-roots, and clover-roots. A
similar kind of open matting is made by crossing two adjoining warp-
strands once between two lines of twining (Fig. 78). Bird-Cage
Weaving. - - Spruce-root baskets are made in bird-cage stitch (k'!ilg-
iku) (Fig. 79). Sometimes the spruce-root with which it is tied is
wrapped around twice, as shown in Fig. 79, &; but generally the
wrapping between the warp-strands is single, as Fig- 78 GiSiO-
Details of Twisted Open Mat. Fig- 79) a (si"*)i Spruce-Root Basket
(height, 25 cm.; length, 28 cm.); ), Detail of Weaving. shown in Fig.
79, a. The direction of the wrapping alternates, one line turning to
the left, the next one to the right. In some of the fine baskets of this
kind, a number of lines - - from two to five - - turn to the left, then a
number of lines to the right. At the corners the wrapping is carried
twice 49 — JESUP NORTH PACIFIC EXPED., VOL. V.
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386 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. around the corner-rod, - - once

to the left, and once to the right. At one of these corner-rods the
direction of the wrapping is changed, as just described. In order to
give greater stiffness to the basket, these corner-rods and a
warpstrand near the middle of the long side are made of cedar-
twigs. The spruceroot woof which is tied to the warp runs spirally
around the basket. In order to give added strength to the bottom,
three or more of the middle warp-strands of the short sides are
joined together, and are firmly tied with spruce-root. In some of the
baskets the bottom of which is rather narrow, the bird-cage stitch
continues down to the bottom bar, while in others the spruce-root
warp of the long sides and that of the short sides are interwoven
(Fig. 80). The upper rim of the basket is made by turning over all
the warpstrands along a stout spruce-root, and tying the whole with
spruce-root wrapping. The warp of this basket is called e'k'Iebala-,
the woof, xwem ; the cornerbranches, Lla'LlEXEnutslExsde ; the
bottom stick, g1'lg-aslis k-!i'lx'dE8ma. Carrying-baskets of this type
have sometimes a very fine weave, and are provided all along the
rim with a continuous series of small loops made of cedar-withes,
and used for lacing the top of the basket with cedar-bark rope. The
Kwakiutl put the basket upside down on a stake when weaving (see
Plate xxvm, Fig. 2), while the Koskimo put the basket down on the
ground. The making of a fish-trap by this method of weaving is
described in the following lines (see Fig. 147): — Fig. 80 (W|g7).
Detail of Bottom of SpruceRoot Basket. As soon as all (the spruce-
root and cedar-withes) have been split, she takes the split withes
and puts them down at the place where she is going to weave the
fish-basket that she is going to make ; and also the split root which
is to be the means . of tying them together; that also she puts down
at her place where she is about to weave the fish-basket that she is
going to make. First four thick split roots are taken. She puts them
down this way.1 This has the name of "beginning of the stiff side,"
these four long ones with their Wa, g-lTmese wl/8la la paa'kuxs la'e
axse'dxa paa'kwe tEXE'ma qass g-a'xe g'l'g-alrt la'xes k'li'lg'asLaxes
LEqe'laLe. Wa, he'8miseda k-fi'lg-EmLeda dzEdE'kwe Llo'plEk'a.
He'Em8xat! g-ax g-i'- 5 g'alelEms la'xes k!wae'lasLe qo laL LEqe'laLe.
Wa, he'8me g'il axse'tso8seda mo'ts!aqe LESLEkluge'sa paa'kwe
Llo'plEk'a. Wa, le axsa'l!laqg-a gwa'teg'a.1 Wa, 10 he'Em Le'gadEs
g'a'laedzEm L!a/L!axEn1 Crossing at right angles.
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BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. 587 tips apart. Then she takes a

pliable root and puts the (thin) end on one of the stiff-sided ones ;
and she takes a split root and ties it with a knot to the stiff-sided
one, with the means of tying the stiff-sided ones. And first the ends
of the stiff-sided ones are tied together. As soon as this is done, she
puts on the means of tying the stiff-sided ones, and she ties them
on. She continues to add warpstrands in this way.1 Now she ties
(the woof) around the warp-strands. She only stops adding warp-
strands when she arrives at the widest part in the middle of the fish-
basket. As soon as her tying arrives near the narrow neck, then she
takes warpstrands of the fish-basket out again, one by one, and the
mouth of the fishbasket gradually narrows. As soon as the place
where the kelp-fish are to enter is of the size of one of our flat
hands, it is finished. Then the place where the kelp-fish are to enter
the inside of the fish-basket is of the size of a flat hand. Immediately
she goes into the woods to look for a maple-tree. As soon as she
finds one that grows straight up, she pulls off the bark. Then she
also splits off the bark on the [back] outside, and removes it. But
she keeps the white inner bark. When she has enough, she goes
home to her house. Immediately she splits it into narrow strips, and
she ties the ends of three of them together. wace, yi'xa mo'tslaqe la
wa'x'sbata. Wa, le ax8e'dxa pEqwa' qacs ax8a'LElodes o'ba8yas la'xa
8nE'mts!aqe la'xa L!a'xEnwase. Wa, le axse'dxa 8nE'mtslaqe paa'ku
Llo'plEk'a qa°s qludzEm- 5 k'li'ndes la'xa Lla'xEnwase LE8wa k'li'lx-
dEmasa Lla'xEnwa8e. Wa, he'xoi, g-Jl yaLoVwltso^eda o'basyasa
mo'tslaqe Lla'xEnwa8ya. Wa, g-i'lsmese gwa'texs la'e ax8a'LElotsa 10
K'!I lx*dEmasa L'a xEnwa e qa s Ic'Iilx'sa'LElodales. Wa, le
g1nwa8na'kulaxa q!wa'sgEmasyasg'a gwa'leg'a.1 Wa, Ia6me
k-!i'lx'se8stalasa q!wa'sgEma8e. Wa, le a'tem gwat g'i'nwa8na'kulaxa
15 q!wa'sgEma8yaxs la'e la'g'aa la LEg-o'ya8yasa LEgE'me. Wa, g-
l'l8Emsxaa'wise la'g'ae k'll'lk-asyas la'xa la e'x'afa lax
tlo'gwaanudasyas awa'xstasyasexs la'aexat! k'llqa'- 20 laxa
8na'l8nEmts!aqe lax qlwa'sgEma8yasa LEgE'me qa
wl'tExsta8na'kulisa o'xawa8yasa LEgE'me. Wa, g-flsmese La'xdEn
la'xEns eyasa'qe wa'sgEmasas g-a'poLasasa pEx-- 25 8l'taxs la'e
gwa'ta. Wa, la'8xae La'xdEn la'xEns eyasa'qe wa'dzEgExstaasasa g-
a'poLasasa pEx-8l'te lax o'tsla'wasa Wa, he'x-8ida8mese la a'Leesta
la'xa 30 a'Lle qass le a'lax sa'qlwaEmsa. Wa, gl'Fmese qla'xa
e'k'etElaxs la'e he'x-6ldaEm saq!ux'8l'dEx xo'xuna8yas. Wa, la'8xae
pa'x-8ldEx xEgwe'g-a8yas qa8s lawa'leq. Wa, la'La axe'lax
8mE'ldzowe 35 dEna'ts. Wa, g'i'!8mese he'lale axa'nEmasexs g'a'xae
na'8nakwa la'xes g'o'kwe. Wa, he'x-8idaemese dzEtle'deq qa
ts!e'itslEq!asto'we8s. Wa, he'x'8idasmese mo'makodEx o'basyasa
yu'duxuts!aqe. 40 1 Putting in warps between the foundation of
roots that cross at right angles, and tying on the woof spirally.
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388 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. After she has tied the ends
together, she twists two of them together; and when (the piece) is
eight spans long, she twists the (third) one on to it. Now the twisting
of the thin string is in three strands. As soon as she has finished, she
twists one more of the same thickness and also the same length.
These are to be the suspenders of the fish-basket. As soon as the
rope-making is finished, she takes her fish-basket and pulls the end
of the suspender — for that is the name of the two ropes - - through
at one side of the fish-basket, beginning at the place where it first
bends inward toward the place where the kelp-fish go in. She ties
the end of the suspender there firmly; and she ties also the other
end to the opposite side of the fishbasket. As soon as this is done,
she takes the other (rope) and ties one end to the other side l of the
fish-basket ; and she also ties the other end at the opposite side.
Then they are measured so that the suspenders are equal distances
apart on the sides of the fishbasket, so that it does not tilt over
when it is put into the water at the place where kelp-fish are caught.
As soon as this is done, she takes cedar-bark and splits it into
narrow strips. They are long. As soon as they are in thin strips, she
twists them so that they are a twofold twisted thin rope. When it is
four fathoms long, it is finished. Then she ties (this) float-line to the
suspenders. When it is done, she Wa, g'i'l8mese gwaf
moguxLalabE'ndsqexs la'e mE/lx-sldxa maelts!a'qe. Wa, g'iTmese
mac}guna'hplEnk' la'xEns q!wa'q!wax-ts!ana8yaxs la'e mEle'g'intsa
"nE'mtslaqe laq. Wa, las'm ya'yuduxu- 5 tslagese mEla'8yasa wl'fe
dEnE'ma. Wa, g'iTmese gwa'ta la'e e'tled mE/lx-cldxa 8nE'mts!aqexa
he'masxat! wa'g'ite. Wa, la'xae he'Em8xat wa'sgEme. Wa, laE'm
te'k'lLEsa LEgE'me. 10 Wa, g'lTmese gwa'feda mEla'8yasexs la'e
axse'dxes LEgE'me, wa, le ne'x'sots oba'8yasa te'k'la, - - qaxs
he'8mae Le'gEmasa ma8fts!a'qe mEla'Eyas, - - lax apsa'no8yasa
LEgF/me g'a'g'lLEla lax 15 g'a'le gwa'nag-lLats g-a'poLasasa pEx-
8l'te. Wa, le a'fila mox8waLE'lots o'ba8yaseda te'k'la laq. Wa, le
e'tled mo'xswaLElots a'psbasyas la'xa apsana'8yasa LEgF/me. 20 Wa,
g-lTmese gwa'ia la'e e't.'ed axee'dxa 8nE'mts!aqe qa8s
mo'xswaLElodes o'basyas la'xa apsana'8yasa LEgE'me. Wa, le e'tled
mo'xswaLElots a'psba8yas qa naqa'totas. Wa, Ia8me' 8mEnsl8la'- 25
lakwa qa 8nE'm8mes awa'lagalaasasa te'k'la lax ewana'8yasa
LEgE'me qa k'le'ses tse'tslaxs la'e ax8sta'no la'xa LEg-a'saxa pEx-
8i'te. Wa, g-l'lemese gwa'texs la'e e'tled 30 axse'dxa dEna'sasas
we'lkwe qass dzEx8e'deq tsle'ttslsqlastogwllaq. Wa, le g-flsg'ilsta.
Wa, g'i'Pmese wi'wubrSEXS la'e mE'lx-8ldEq qa ma'maclts!ag'eses
mEla^yas wl'ten dEnp/ma. Wa, 35 g'i'lsmese la mo'plEnk'e
wa'sgEmasas la'e gwa'la. Wa, le ma'x8waLElotsa e'madzEtalaLe la'xa
te'k'la. Wa, g-JTmese 1 Crossing the first rope.
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BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. 389 takes dry cedar-wood and

whittles it with her knife. Its length is one span and four finger-
widths. The lower end is thin, but it has a round knot at the end.
And the top of that float is bottleshaped.1 When it is done, she ties
it to the end of the float-line just over the knot at the end. That is all
about this. gwa'texs la'e ax8e'dxa lE'mxwa k!waxLa/swe qa*s
k'!5'x8wideses k'la'wayuwe laq. Wa, le mo'dEnbala la'xsns
ba'wa'sgEmasas. Wa, la wl'tbaxa \ Laqe bE'nbasyas. Wa, la lo'xsEme
mo'xubacyas ; wa, la po'xbe o'xta'yas, ytxa e'mase.1 Wa, g'i'l8mese
gwa'fcxs la'e mo'x8waLElots o'basyasa e'madzEtalaLe dEnE'm lax
e'k'leLElasa mo'xuba8e. Wa, laE'm gwat la'xeq. Twilled Weaving. -
The finest baskets of the Kwakiutl are made of twilled weaving in
cedar-bark. A variety of methods of twilling are used. In some rather
coarse mats and baskets the stitch shown in Fig. 81 is employed
(ma'waqik11). The specimen here illustrated shows the bottom of a
basket and the adjoining portion of the sides. The bottom is made
by a simple interweaving of broad strips of cedar-bark. After the
bottom is completed, it is twined together with a narrow strip of
cedar-bark, and then each strip is divided with the nail of the thumb
into three parts. The weaving of the woof is done spirally ; and the
particular method of twilling here described consists in weaving two
down and one up. In the present specimen this method originates
through the endeavor to keep the central one of the three strips into
which each wide cedar-strip has been divided over the woof-strand.
Diagonal mats are made in the same manner. This weave is used for
mats for bedding, for pillow-bags, and for sacks in which dry salmon
and herring-roe are kept. Most of the baskets made in this way are
narrow and high. They are used like boxes, but are considered as
more convenient to handle when travelling by canoe. The ordinary
method of diagonal twilling is shown in Fig. 82, a. It will readily be
seen that this method of twilling is practically the same as that used
in making diagonal mats; and the lateral edges 1 e'mas is also the
name for a grave-front pul up for a person whose body has been lost
owing to his death by accident. Fig- 8 1 W?T)- Detail of Twilled
Weaving. Fig. 82, a (TMT), * G1JT). of Twilled Weaving. Details 10
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390 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. and the bottom are also

treated in the same way as those of the ordinary diagonal mats. A
sitting-mat of this kind, when doubled up for use, is 60 cm. wide and
about 180 cm. long. The width of strips in large twilled mats is about
5 mm. In bags the diagonal bottom is often made of wider strips of
bark, which are split on the sides and twilled (Fig. 82, t>).
Ornamented Grass Baskets. - The ornamented grass baskets of the
Makah, which have been described in detail by Professor Mason,1
are not used by the Kwakiutl, altho'ugh a few rough specimens of
this kind are made by the Koskimo. The few baskets of this kind that
I have seen are very small. They have no inner rod, like the lattice-
work of the Makah, but are made by regular twining of grass around
a cedar-bark warp. Ornamentation is made by inserting twilled woofs
of cedar-bark dyed black. A thin strand of white grass is wrapped
around each strand of black cedar-bark, passing always diagonally
over the two warp-strands under which the black cedarbark passes.
Spoon- Baskets. A peculiar kind of stitch is used for the baskets in
which spoons are kept. All of these are made of cedar-bark, with
warp running straight up and down, and horizontal woof (Fig. 83).
The baskets are quite wide and very narrow, with flat sides. One
specimen (jyf-3), for instance, is about 36 cm. wide and quite flat.
The lowest part of the basket is always made in the ordinary up-and-
down weave, while the sides are made in openwork. This is made by
crossing two warp-strands, and then weaving them together, as
before, by two or more woofstrands. A repetition of this device gives
an open-work effect to the whole side of the basket. The rim of the
basket is also Fig. 83 (,ji57). Spoon^Basket. Height, 34 cm.; length,
36 cm.; jn open-WOrk The last WOof width, 1 6 cm. row is regular
twining. Then the warp-strands are twisted, crossed, and woven into
the border presently to be described. Varying effects in this open-
work are brought about by inserting a greater or less number of
solid lines between the twisted open meshes. While the specimen
here illustrated has four rows of solid weaving between the open
meshes, another specimen (;yf-8) has the bottom made of checker-
work, each > Aborginal American Basketry (Report of the U. S.
National Museum for 1902, p. 417).
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BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. 391 strip of which is split into two

parts for the sides. The sides begin with nine rows of solid weaving,
followed by thirteen rows, each consisting of three solid lines
separated by open meshes. The top of the basket is formed by nine
rows of solid checker-work, followed by the regular type of border.
Still another basket of this kind (jff-,) has also wide strips in the
bottom. The sides begin with eight rows of solid weaving, followed
by six lines, each consisting of two rows of solid weaving separated
by very open meshes. The top consists of six lines of solid weaving
followed by the same kind of border. The specimen j^-, has a very
coarse bottom, each strand of which is split into three parts for
forming the sides. These begin again with eight solid lines, followed
by four bands, each consisting of two solid rows and a line of
meshes. The top has six solid lines and the same finish, except that
the twisted warp-lines are not crossed. The specimen ^-Q is quite
similar to the last. It begins again with eight lines, followed by
fifteen solid double lines separated by meshes. The top is finished
off with a solid weaving of eight lines and the same uncrossed
border. Somewhat exceptional is a square basket from the Koskimo
(jy^), in which the sides give an irregular appearance owing to the
fact that the twisted strands are sometimes turned in the wrong
direction, which has the effect of making the last woof-strand seem
to be enclosed in the open meshes. The general plan of the side of
this basket consists of a beginning with four solid rows, followed by
six solid rows of three each, divided by lines of open meshes. The
basket is finished off on top with three rows of solid work and
untwisted border. A large wedge-basket of the Koskimo (j-j-§-7) is
quite similar to those heretofore described. The bottom is narrow,
and made of broad strips of cedar-bark, which are split into three
parts on the sides. The sides begin with nine lines of solid work,
followed by nine rows of solid weaving, consisting of two lines each,
and divided by open meshes. The top is finished off by five rows of
solid weaving ; and the border is as usual, with crossing warp-
strands. It appears from these examples that the general design of
the spoonbasket consists of a rather wide beginning, followed by a
regular alternation of open meshes and solid work, and generally
finished off by a broader strip of solid work ; while the meshes on
top are formed by the twisted warp, which is either crossed or
uncrossed. It is worth noticing that exactly the same number of
stitches occurs in a number of these baskets, which shows clearly
that the type of decoration is handed down by a strict tradition.
Borders. - The border of these baskets is made by a simple kind of
wrapping (Fig. 84). The warp-strand is twisted for some distance,
and a rope consisting of a number of untwisted strands of cedar-
bark in five or six layers is laid against these strands on the inner
side of the basket. The strands
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392 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. are held by a wrapping (a), by

means of which the warp-strand is tied firmly from the outside
against the rope. Then it is turned over to the left over the
wrapping. The wrapping is carried over the rope, and catches the
next warpstrand, which is then laid over to the left in the same
manner. In this way a peculiar braided effect is obtained on the
outside, while on the inside a simple wrapping appears. In some
cases where the cedar-bark is rather thick, only a part of the twisted
warp-strands is braided into the border, while part is cut off. The
effect of the border differs considerably, according to the width of
the binding that is employed. Double Basket. There is one double
square basket in the collection (Fig. 85) which was obtained at
Knight Inlet. It is made in the following manner. The b°ttOm °f the
tWO basketS h*S °een woven in one piece. In the middle, where the
two baskets join, a set of additional cedar-bark strips of about the
same length as the bottom-strands have been laid on, and are
woven in two rows, so that the warp of the bottom at this point is
double. After the bottom Fig. 84 Detail of Border of Basket. Fi6- 85
G}JT)- Double Basket. Knight Inlet. Height, 14 cm. ; length of
bottom, 340111. was completed, these warp-strands were turned
up, and in this way warp material was supplied for finishing each
basket separately all around in the same way as an ordinary square
basket. The sides of these baskets are
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BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. 393 ordinary checker-work. The top

is finished off with a twining of spruce-root, over which the warp-
ends are strongly twisted, and braided over a rope, as described
before. The effect of this braiding is a little different from the usual
style, on account of the appearance of the spruce-root which was
used for the wrapping. Rain-Coat. — The ordinary method of square-
mat weaving is also used for the manufacture of the rain-coat. This
is ordinarily made in the style of a long double mat (see Plate xxxm),
the upper part of the mat being cut out in the middle so as to form
the two shoulder-pieces of the garment, the lower portion of which
forms a large square sheet, which is worn on the back. Decoration of
Basketry. — Designs made by twilling are arranged in such a way
that on part of the surface the twilling runs in vertical lines, while on
adjoining parts the twilling runs in horizontal lines (Fig. 86). Fields of
this kind are fitted together in various ways. In one mat broad
zigzag bands (Fig. 87, a) are produced by this method; another one
is decorated with an alternation of squares (Fig. 87, K]\ while in a
basket the series of squares are arranged diagonally (Fig. 87, c).
Since the contrast of these fields appears only in reflected light, the
grouping of squares gives just as much the impression of groups of
right-angled triangles meeting at the right angles. A small pouch of
this kind (Fig. 87, d] is decorated •jji T F'g- 86 («4!rr)- Details of
Twilling, showing with a broad vertical band in the middle. In
Method of producing Designs, the finest old baskets made by the
employment of these methods, the width of the cedar-bark strip is
sometimes less than 2 mm. The occurrence of these patterns is
interesting in view of the theories relating to the origin of patterns
that have recently been propounded. There is a certain similarity
between the surface-ornaments brought about by adzing, which
were referred to before (p. 330), and those made by twilling. The
distinction of the adzed surfaces is also seen, in reflected .light only ;
and the difference between adjoining surfaces lies in the fact that
the lines of adzing are at right angles to each other, - - one set
running with the grain, the other across the grain. Although the
carpenter-work is done by men, the basketry-work by women, it
may be that these two styles of surface-decoration are related. It is
certainly just as conceivable that they have exerted a mutual
influence as that pottery-decoration depends upon basketry-
decoration, as has so often been claimed. In joining the vertical and
horizontal rows of twilling, the square patterns divided by diagonals
appear which have been so fully discussed by Max Schmidt.1 It
seems to me obvious that the occurrence i Indianerstudien in
Zentralbrasilien, pp. 3JO et seq. 50 — JESUP NORTH PACIFIC
EXPED., VOL V.
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394 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. of these patterns in cedar-bark

basketry and in adzing shows clearly that their origin is not
necessarily given by the technique of palm-leaf weaving, — although
their origin in South America may have been facilitated by it, --but
that they easily develop in all kinds of twilling. The use of the motive
also shows that Schmidt's square is - - at least among the Kwakiutl -
- not at all felt as a decorative unit. I have not seen any mats of
square weave among the Kwakiutl that are decorated, while mats of
diagonal weave sometimes show geometrical designs. Fig. 87
Designs in Twilled Matting and Basketry, a, b (n^), Designs on mats;
Designs on Baskets. These are made in cedar-bark which is dyed
black in mud (see p. 404). An additional decoration is sometimes
made with cedar-bark which is dyed red. Almost the only kind of
decoration used by the Kwakiutl consists in designs made by
weaving in black strips alternating with undyed strips. In this manner
black checkers are produced on the surface, which stand in rows
(Fig. 88). By intercrossing designs of this type, diagonal squares are
produced. I have also seen a few mats with chevron designs made
in the same way. On baskets
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BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. 395 made in square weaving,

designs are sometimes formed in a similar manner. In one twilled
basket made by carrying a woof-strand over two warp-strands and
under one, a design is made by an alternation of three undyed
strands and two blackened strands, thirteen such double rows of
blackened strands occurring on the side of the basket. The
decoration of mats of this kind made by the Nootka is much more
elaborate. Some square mats are found the edges of which are :. ; :
v/y*"* :>: •' • finished off in the same way as the baskets, and
^^§':--;»*^X^;:Vt***tv-:.-: which are surrounded by one broad
strip of cedarbark, followed by three black lines made by weaving
^«*Rcxx»c
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396 BOAS, THE KWAKIUTL. bark is twined around the

cedar-bark about 5 mm. under the top thread. Each bundle that is
enclosed in the twining is about one finger in width. The bundles are
twisted a little, to make it easier to separate them. The successive
lines of twining are about a finger-width apart. Every two fine
threads are followed by one coarse thread. When working the
blanket, it is gradually rolled up over the batten. In order to make
the curvature at the lower part of the blanket, the twining-threads
are placed farther apart in the middle, and a sufficient number of
additional ones are added there. Finally a strip of skin - - often mink-
skin - - is sewed to the upper edge. The lower border is called "the
wood edge." Sometimes it is made of wool. The lower edge consists
generally of four lines of twining, which are close together. At each
lower corner a woollen tassel is attached, which hangs down to the
level of the lowest part in the middle of the blanket. Finally a leather
strip is sewed to each upper corner for tying the blanket together.
From an examination of the specimens in the Museum, some
additions to this description may be given. The lateral borders of all
the cedar-bark blankets are woven of thread made either entirely of
mountain-goat wool or of an inner body of cedar-bark covered over
with mountain-goat wool. The border consists of a number of warp-
strands which are hung in the same way as the body of the whole
blanket. The method of weaving is illustrated in Fig. 89, and
corresponds exactly to the method of weaving the border ol the
Chilkat blanket described by G. T. Emmons,1 the only difference
being that there is no border-string passing through the terminal
loops, which appear in the general view of the blanket like a
finishing cord. The texture of the borderstrip differs considerably in
various specimens. In some the border is very coarse, and consists
of a few warpstrands only, eight being the smallest number that I
have counted ; while in the more elaborate specimens I have
counted thirty and more. It is only in these elaborate specimens that
the edge is set off distinctly in the form of a rope. In some cases this
edge is further ornamented by running down one line of weaving,
skipping two strands ; while others are run down, skipping one F'g-
89, yWO- Detail of Border of Cedar-Bark Blanket. 1 Emmons, The
Chilkat Blanket (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural
History, Vol. III. Part IV, p. 341).
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