Database Management Systems

Database Concepts: Database Systems - Data vs Information - Introducing the database -File system -
Problems with file system – Database systems. Data models - Importance - Basic Building Blocks -
Business rules - Evolution of Data models - Degrees of Data Abstraction.

Introduction:
In computerized information system data are the basic resource of the organization. So, proper
organization and management for data is required for organization to run smoothly. Database
management system deals the knowledge of how data stored and managed on a computerized
information system. In any organization, it requires accurate and reliable data for better decision
making, ensuring privacy of data and controlling data efficiently.
The examples include deposit and/or withdrawal from a bank, hotel, airline or railway
reservation,purchase items from supermarkets in all cases, a database is accessed.
Data:
Data are the known facts or figures that have implicit meaning. It can also be defined as it is the
representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formal manner, which is suitable for
understanding and processing. Data can be represented in alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) and
using special characters (+,-.#,$, etc)
e.g: 25, “ajit” etc.
Information:
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based. Information can be
defined as the organized and classified data to provide meaningful values.
Eg: “The age of Ravi is 25”.

Difference between Information and Data

S.NO DATA INFORMATION

Data is defined as unstructured Information refers to processed,

information such as text, observations, organized, and structured data. It gives
images, symbols, and descriptions. In context for the facts and facilitates
other words, data provides no specific decision making. In other words,
function and has no meaning on its information is processed data that makes
Definition own. sense to us.

Data are the variables that help to

Information is meaningful data.
Purpose develop ideas/conclusions.
 S.NO DATA INFORMATION

Information is refined form of actual

Data are text and numerical values.
Nature data.

Dependence Data doesn't rely on Information. While Information relies on Data.

Bits and Bytes are the measuring unit Information is measured in meaningful
Measurement of data. units like time, quantity, etc.

As tabular data, graphs, and data trees Information can also be structured as
Structure can be easily structured. language, ideas, and thoughts.

Decision Data does not directly help in decision Information directly helps in decision
Making making. making.

Data is a collection of facts, which Information puts those facts into

Meaning itself has no meaning. context.

Example of information is average score

Example of data is student test scores.
Example of class that is derived from given data

Introducing the database

Database:
A database is organized collection of related data of an organization stored in formatted way
whichis shared by multiple users. Data in the database may be persistent, integrated and shared.

For example consider the roll no, name, address of a student stored in a student file. It is
collection of related data with an implicit meaning.
• End-user data—raw facts of interest to the end user.
• Metadata, or data about data, through which the end-user data are integrated and managed.
The metadata describe the data characteristics and the set of relationships that links the data
found within the database.
“collection of self-describing data.”

Database Management System (DBMS):

A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create
and maintain databases and control all access to them.
The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient
for users to retrieve and store information.
With the database approach, we can have the traditional banking system. In this bank example, a
DBMS is used by the Personnel Department, the Account Department and the Loan Department
to access the shared corporate database.
Function of DBMS:
1. Defining database schema: it must give facility for defining the database structure also
specifies access rights to authorized users.
2. Manipulation of the database: The dbms must have functions like insertion of record into
database, updation of data, deletion of data, retrieval of data
3. Sharing of database: The DBMS must share data items for multiple users by maintaining
consistency of data.
4. Protection of database: It must protect the database against unauthorized users.
5. Database recovery: If for any reason the system fails DBMS must facilitate data base
recovery.
Role and Advantages of the DBMS:

The DBMS serves as the intermediary between the user and the database. The database structure
itself is stored as a collection of files, and the only way to access the data in those files is through
the DBMS. Figure emphasizes the point that the DBMS presents the end user with a single,
integrated view of the data in the database.

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS:

Controlling Data Redundancy

In non-database systems each application program has its own private files. In this case, the
duplicated copies of the same data is created in many places. In DBMS, all data of an
organization is integrated into a single database file. The data is recorded in only one place in
the database and it is not duplicated.
 Sharing of Data
In DBMS, data can be shared by authorized users of the organization. The database
administrator manages the data and gives rights to users to access the data. Many users can
be authorized to access the same piece of information simultaneously. The remote users can
also share same data. Similarly, the data of same database can be shared between different
application programs.
 Minimized data inconsistency.
Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in different places.
For example, data inconsistency exists when a company’s sales department stores a sales
representative’s name as Bill Brown and the company’s personnel department stores that same
person’s name as William G. Brown, or when the company’s regional sales office shows the
price of a product as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same product’s price as
$43.95.
The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed database.
 Integration of Data
In Database management system, data in database is stored in tables. A single database
contains multiple tables and relationships can be created between tables (or associated data
entities). This makes easy to retrieve and update data.
 Integration Constraints
Integrity constraints or consistency rules can be applied to database so that the correct data can
be entered into database. The constraints may be applied to data item within a single record or
the may be applied to relationships between records.
 Data Security
The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches.
Corporations invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure that corporate
data are used properly. A DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy
and security policies.
Improved decision making.
Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better- quality
information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the information generated
depends on the quality of the underlying data.

 Report Writers
Most of the DBMSs provide the report writer tools used to create reports. The users can create
very easily and quickly. Once a report is created, it can be used may times and it can be
modified very easily. The created reports are also saved along with database and behave like a
software component.
 Control Over Concurrency
In a computer file-based system, if two users are allowed to access data simultaneously, it is
possible that they will interfere with each other. For example, if both users attempt to perform
update operation on the same record, then one may overwrite the values recorded by the other.
Most database management systems have sub-systems to control the concurrency so that
transactions are always recorded with accuracy.
 Backup and Recovery Procedures
In a computer file-based system, the user creates the backup of data regularly to protect the
valuable data from damage due to failures to the computer system or application program. It is
very time consuming method, if amount of data is large. Most of the DBMSs provide the 'backup
and recovery' sub-systems that automatically create the backup of data and restore data if
required.
 Data Independence
The separation of data structure of database from the application program that uses the data is
called data independence. In DBMS, you can easily change the structure of database without
modifying the application program.

Disadvantage of DBMS:
1. DBMS software and hardware (networking installation) cost is high
2. The processing overhead by the dbms for implementation of security, integrity and sharing of
the data.
3. Centralized database control
4. Setup of the database system requires more knowledge, money, skills, and time.
5. The complexity of the database may result in poor performance.

Types of Databases

1. By Number of Users

Type Description
Single-user Supports only one user at a time (e.g., desktop database).
Multiuser Supports multiple users simultaneously.
• Workgroup Fewer than 50 users, supports a specific department.
• Enterprise Supports many users across the organization (hundreds or more).

2. By Location of Data

Type Description
Centralized All data stored at a single physical location.
Distributed Data stored across multiple physical sites.
Cloud Database Hosted and maintained by third-party providers (e.g., AWS, Azure).
Scalable and infrastructure-independent.

3. By Type of Data Stored

Type Description
General-purpose Contains varied data used across disciplines (e.g., census, ProQuest).
Discipline-specific Contains data focused on a subject area (e.g., finance, GIS, medical records).

4. By Intended Use
 Type Description
Operational Database Also called OLTP, transactional, or production database.
Used for real-time, day-to-day operations (sales, payments,
purchases).
Used for decision making, storing historical data, and business
Analytical Database
metrics.
• Data Warehouse Stores historical and external data for decision support.
• OLAP Tools Provide advanced data analysis and reporting capabilities.
Business Intelligence (BI) Uses data warehouses, OLAP, and tools to support strategic decisions.

5. By Degree of Data Structuring

Type Description
Structured Data formatted for direct processing (e.g., rows in a table).
Unstructured Raw data not suitable for direct analysis (e.g., scanned images, emails).
Semistructured Partially processed (e.g., web pages, XML documents).

6. By Technology or Platform

Type Description
XML
Manage semistructured data using XML format.
Databases
NoSQL
Handle high-volume, high-velocity, and varied data (e.g., social media, big data).
Databases
Not based on relational models; ideal for scalability and flexibility.
NoSQL refers to a modern class of database management systems that do not rely on
the traditional relational database model (i.e., tables with rows and columns).

7. Social Media & Big Data Databases

 Social Media Platforms: Generate enormous volumes of data daily (e.g., Facebook,
Twitter).
 Require:
o High performance
o Scalability
o Specialized systems (e.g., NoSQL, distributed file systems)

Evolution of File System Data Processing

1. Manual File Systems

  Era: Pre-digital/computer age
 Description:
o Paper-based, using file folders and cabinets.
o Worked well for small-scale businesses with simple data and reporting needs.
 Problems:
o Difficult to scale as businesses grew.
o Reporting was time-consuming and error-prone.
o No automation or real-time data access.

2. Computerized File Systems

 Era: Early computing era (1960s–1980s)

 Description:
o Paper files were replaced with digital files.
o Files were stored using flat files (e.g., .txt, .dat), often written in COBOL or
similar languages.
o Managed by Data Processing (DP) specialists.
 Advantages:
o Faster than manual systems.
o Could automate some reporting and recordkeeping.
 Problems:
o Data dependence: Data structure tightly coupled with programs.
o Data redundancy: Same data stored in multiple files.
o Data inconsistency: Inaccurate data due to redundancy.
o Poor data security and integrity.
o Limited data sharing: Users couldn’t access data directly—had to go through
DP staff.
o Program-data dependence: Every report or function needed new code.

3. File System Redux: Modern End-User Productivity Tools

 Era: 1990s–present
 Tools: Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, other spreadsheet tools.
 Usage:
o Empowered end-users with direct access to data and basic analysis tools.
o Users can perform sorting, filtering, and basic calculations on their own.
 Advantages:
o Increased productivity and decision-making speed.
o Decreased dependency on IT for small tasks.
 Problems (similar to old file systems):
o Data silos: Each user/team stores their version of truth.
 o Lack of consistency: No centralized control over data format or integrity.
o Not scalable: Not ideal for large datasets or multi-user environments.
o Security issues: Poor access control and auditing.

While newer tools (like spreadsheets) give control back to users, they reintroduce old
problems:

 Redundancy
 Inconsistency
 Poor scalability
 Lack of centralized control

👉 Modern DBMSs were developed to overcome these limitations by providing:

 Centralized control
 Multi-user support
 Data consistency and integrity
 Better scalability and security.

File System vs. Database System

🔍 Issue 📁 File System Database System (DBMS)

Requires complex, procedural Uses nonprocedural languages (e.g., SQL);

1. Development Time
programming for simple tasks much faster development

Ad hoc queries not possible; reports Supports real-time ad hoc queries and
2. Quick Data Access
take days/weeks reporting

3. System Multiple custom programs for each Centralized control with built-in tools for
Administration file; hard to manage management

4. Security & Data Weak or no built-in security; difficult Fine-grained access control, user
Sharing to share data securely permissions, encryption

5. Data Structure Any structural change requires Structural independence—change

Changes modifying all related programs structure without affecting applications

Data dependence—must update Data independence—changes don’t affect

6. Data Type Changes
every program using that data program logic

7. Redundancy Same data stored in multiple Data centralized and normalized to

 🔍 Issue 📁 File System Database System (DBMS)

locations (islands of information) eliminate redundancy

Conflicting versions of the same data Single source of truth ensures consistency
8. Data Inconsistency
in different places and accuracy

Update, insertion, and deletion Normalized design avoids anomalies and

9. Data Anomalies
anomalies are common improves integrity

10. Design Skills & Poor user-designed structures; often Promotes use of data modeling and
Documentation undocumented standardized design techniques

DAADATADatabase Systems Database SystDATASystems

DATABASE SYSTEMS

While the DBMS (Database Management System) plays a central role in:

 Defining data structures

 Managing relationships and access paths
 Controlling access and security
The Database System Environment

📌 Definition:

A database system refers to an organized framework that enables the collection, storage,
management, and use of data. It comprises five major components:

 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 People (users, designers, administrators)
 Procedures

Components of a Database System:

1. Hardware
o Physical devices: computers, storage, network devices, printers, ATMs, ID
readers, etc.
2. Software
o Operating System: Manages hardware (e.g., Windows, Linux).
o DBMS Software: Manages the database (e.g., SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL).
o Application Programs & Utilities: Enable data access, manipulation, and
database management via GUIs and tools.
3. People
o System Administrators: Oversee overall operations.
o Database Administrators (DBAs): Manage DBMS and performance.
o Database Designers: Create data structures and architecture.
o System Analysts & Programmers: Build applications and user interfaces.
o End Users: Use applications for daily operations and decision-making.
4. Procedures
 o Rules and instructions for database design, use, monitoring, and auditing.
o Enforce data standards and operational protocols.
5. Data
o Raw facts stored and organized in the database.
o Data organization and entry are critical for effective information use.

DBMS Functions:

1. Data Dictionary Management

o Manages metadata (data definitions).
o Supports data abstraction and reduces data dependency.
2. Data Storage Management
o Handles physical data storage and performance tuning.
o Supports multiple formats (video, forms, reports, etc.).
3. Data Transformation & Presentation
o Converts data between logical and physical formats (e.g., date formats).
4. Security Management
o Controls access via authentication and authorization.
5. Multiuser Access Control
o Ensures concurrent data access without conflicts.
6. Backup & Recovery
o Enables data recovery and integrity preservation after failures.
7. Data Integrity Management
o Enforces consistency and minimizes redundancy using rules and constraints.
8. Access Languages & APIs
o Offers SQL for queries and APIs for integration with languages like Java, C#, etc.
9. Communication Interfaces
o Supports web and network-based access, report publishing, and third-party
integration.

🔄 Managing the Database System: A Shift in Focus

 Focus shifts from programming to data resource management and DBMS

administration.
 Quality database design is essential to leverage DBMS capabilities.

Disadvantages of Database Systems:

1. High Costs
o Hardware, software, skilled labor, training, licensing, compliance.
2. Management Complexity
o Integration with various systems and technologies; requires strong security
oversight.
3. Maintaining Currency
o Ongoing updates, patches, and training required.
4. Vendor Dependence
o Heavy investments make switching vendors difficult and expensive.
5. Frequent Upgrades
o Regular version updates may demand new hardware and retraining.