ARGUMENTS
Lecture # 05
In Today’s Lecture
Logic:
Logic rules and principles is to distinguish an argument is
valid or invalid.
Examples of Arguments:
You have a intuitive idea about argument. When you are
talking with you friend you give argument.
Sometimes you say to your friend “what are you saying has no
logic” it means you are saying that your argument is not valid.
Lawyer in court during the trail to defend client, give
argument. Judge decision is also based on lawyer argument if
its argument is valid then decision will be in his favor.
Example:
An interesting teacher keeps me awake.
I stay awake in discrete structure class.
Therefore, my discrete structure teacher is interesting.
1st two statements we are declaring(premises ) on this
basis 3rd line is giving conclusion .
The argument presenting is, its valid or not?
ARGUMENT:
An argument is a list of statements called premises (or
assumptions or hypotheses) followed by a statement called the
conclusion.
P1 Premise
P2 Premise
P3 Premise
. . . . .. . . . .
Pn Premise
______________
∴C Conclusion
NOTE :
The symbol ∴ read “therefore,” is normally placed just before the
conclusion.
VALID ARGUMENT
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true when all
the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is valid if conjunction of its
premises imply conclusion.
That is (P1∧ P2 ∧ P3 ∧ . . . ∧ Pn) → C is a tautology.
In that case if argument becomes tautology then we say
the argument is valid.
p implies q is mostly true.
p implies q is false whenever
p is true and q is false
That is
P true, q false then p → q is false
Note:
In argument, if one premise is false then we say
argument is valid. Because premise implies conclusion, the
premise is false implies conclusion is whatever the
implication of argument becomes true.
If all the premise is true then the conjunction of all the
premise is also true. And if the conclusion becomes also
true, then the whole implication becomes true.
Therefore = thus = so that
INVALID ARGUMENT
An argument is invalid if the conclusion is false when all
the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is invalid if conjunction of its
premises does not imply conclusion.
Validity of argument:
When our premises conjunction is false, and conclusion is
whatever true or false, the argument is valid
When our premises conjunction is true, and conclusion is
false, then we say argument is invalid.
Argument Form
If the premises and the conclusion
are statement forms
instead of statements,
then the resulting form is called
argument form.
Ex: If p then q;
p;
q.
9
Checking the validity of an argument form
1) Construct truth table for the premises and the
conclusion;
2) Find the rows in which all the premises are true
(critical rows);
3) a. If in each critical row the conclusion
is true
then the argument form is valid;
b. If there is a row in which conclusion
is false
then the argument form is invalid.
10
EXAMPLE:
Show that the following argument form is valid:
p→q premise
p premise
q conclusion
premises conclusion
p q p→q p q
T T T T T critical row
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
• To validity we will not analyze the whole table.
• We will analyze those rows where in premise we have T
value, and if corresponding conclusion also have T value,
then we say it’s a valid argument.
EXAMPLE OF INVALID ARGUMENT
Show that the following argument form is invalid:
p→q premise
q premise
p conclusion
premises conclusion
p q p→q q p
T T T T T
critical row
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F F
This argument is not valid.
EXERCISE
Use truth table to determine the argument form
p ∨ q premise
p → ~q premise
p→r premise
r conclusion
Is valid or invalid?
premises
conclusion
p q r p∨ p →~q p→r r
q
T T T T F T T
T T F T F F F
T F T T T T T
critical rows
T F F T T F F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T F The argument is not
valid because all
F F T F T T T corresponding values in
F F F F T T F conclusion are not T
WORD PROBLEM
If Tariq is not on team A, then Hameed is on team B.
If Hameed is not on team B, then Tariq is on team A.
Tariq is not on team A or Hameed is not on team B.
SOLUTION:
Let
t = Tariq is on team A
h = Hameed is on team B
Then the argument is
~t→h
~h→t
∴~t∨~h
t h ~t → h ~h → t ~t ∨~h
T T T T F
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F T
Argument is invalid. Because there are three critical rows ( Remember
that the critical rows are those rows where the premises have truth
value T) and in the first critical row conclusion has truth value F. (Also
remember that we say an argument is valid if in all critical rows
conclusion has truth value T)
EXERCISE
If at least one of these two numbers is divisible by 6, then
the product of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
Neither of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
The product of these two numbers is not divisible
by 6.
SOLUTION:
Let p = at least one of these two numbers is divisible by
6.
q =product of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
Then the argument become in these symbols
p→q
~p
∴ ~q
We will made the truth table for premises and conclusion
as given below:
p q p → q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
The Argument is invalid.
EXERCISE
If I got an Eid bonus, I’ll buy a stereo.
If I sell my motorcycle, I’ll buy a stereo.
If I get an Eid bonus or I sell my motorcycle,
then I’ll buy a stereo.
SOLUTION:
Let
e = I got an Eid bonus
s = I’ll buy a stereo
m = I sell my motorcycle
The argument is
e→s
m→s
∴ e∨m→s
e s m e →s m →s e ∨ m e ∨ m →s
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F T T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F T
F F T T F T F
F F F T T F T
The argument is valid. Because there are five critical
rows
REMEMBER:
( Remember that the critical rows are those rows where
the premises have truth value T) and in all critical row
conclusion has truth value T. (Also remember that we say
an argument is valid if in all critical rows conclusion has
truth value T)
EXERCISE
An interesting teacher keeps me awake. I stay awake in
Discrete Mathematics class. Therefore, my Discrete
Mathematics teacher is interesting.
Solution:
t: my teacher is interesting
a: I stay awake
m: I am in Discrete Mathematics class
The argument to be tested is
t → a,
a∧m
Therefore m∧t
t a m t→a a∧m m∧t
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F F F
F T T T T F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F
Argument is not valid.
