Cell Structures and

Their Functions
CHAPTER3
The cell
• the basic living unit of all organisms
• humans are composed of multiple cells
• An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size of the smallest dot you can
make on a sheet of paper with a sharp pencil!
• But despite their extremely small size, cells are complex living
structures
• Cells have many characteristics in common
• most cells are also specialized to perform specific functions
4 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
• Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities
• the synthesis of new molecules
• muscle contraction
• heat production
• which helps maintain body temperature
• 2. Synthesis of molecules
• Synthesis of various types of molecules
• proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
• the structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the
types of molecules they produce
• 3. Communication
• Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow
them to communicate with one another
• Example, nerve cells communicate with one another and with
muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.

4. Reproduction and inheritance

• Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual
• Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic
information to the next generation
3 PARTS OF A CELL
• Organelles
• little organs
• Specialized structures that
perform specific functions
• NUCLEUS
• is an organelle containing
the cell’s genetic material
• cytoplasm
• The living material surrounding
the nucleus
• contains many types of
organelles.
• CELL MEMBRANE, OR PLASMA
MEMBRANE.
• Encloses the cytoplasm
 Cell Membrane
1. forms the outer boundary of the cell
• Determines what enters and leaves the cell.
2. Composed of a double layer of phospholipid molecules in which proteins
float
• The proteins function as:
• membrane channels
• carrier molecules
• receptor molecules
• Enzymes
• structural components of the membrane
• composed of a bilayer of
phospholipids and cholesterol with
proteins “floating” in the
membrane.
• nonpolar hydrophobic region of
each phospholipid molecule is
directed toward the center of the
membrane, and the polar
hydrophilic region is directed
toward the fluid environment either
outside or inside the cell
• Proteins at either surface of the
lipid bilayer stain more readily than
the lipid bilayer does and give the
membrane the appearance of
having three parts:
• two yellow, outer parts
• proteins and the
phospholipid heads
• blue, central part
• phospholipid tails and
cholesterol
Movement Through the Cell Membrane

Diffusion
• the movement of a solute from
an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower
concentration within a solvent.
• At equilibrium, the distribution
of molecules is uniform.
• Lipid-soluble molecules pass
through the cell membrane
readily by dissolving in the lipid
portion of the membrane
• Small molecules and ions can
pass through membrane
channels.
 Osmosis

• is the diffusion of water across a

selectively permeable membrane.
• Osmotic pressure
• is the force required to
prevent movement of water
across a selectively permeable
membrane.
• Hypotonic solution
• cells swell (and can undergo lysis)
• Isotonic solution
• cells neither swell nor shrink
• Hypertonic solution
• cells shrink and undergo crenation.
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
• is the movement of a substance across a membrane by
means of a carrier molecule
• The substances transported tend to be large, water-soluble
molecules or ions.
• Facilitated diffusion
• moves substances from a higher to a lower
concentration and does not require energy in the form
of ATP.
• Active transport
• can move substances from a lower to a higher
concentration and requires ATP.
• Secondary active transport
• uses the energy of one substance moving down its
concentration gradient to move another substance
across the cell membrane.
• In cotransport, both substances move in the same
direction
• in counter transport, they move in opposite directions
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to
molecules, which are then transported into the cell
• Phagocytosis
• is the movement of solid material into cells.
• Pinocytosis
• is similar to phagocytosis, except that the material ingested is much smaller and is
in solution.
• Exocytosis
• is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.
Organelles
• Nucleus
• nuclear envelope
• consists of two separate
membranes that form
nuclear pores at many
points on the surface of
the nucleus.
• DNA and associated
proteins are found inside
the nucleus as chromatin
• DNA is the hereditary
material of the cell and
controls cell activities.
• Nucleoli
• consist of RNA and
proteins and are the
sites of ribosomal
subunit assembly
• nuclei of human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes
• consist of DNA and proteins
• During most of a cell’s life, the
chromosomes are loosely coiled
• called chromatin
• When a cell prepares to divide,
the chromosomes become tightly
coiled and are visible when
viewed with a microscope
• (a) The nuclear envelope
consists of inner and
outer membranes,
which become fused at
the nuclear pores
• The nucleolus is a
condensed region of the
nucleus not bounded by
a membrane and
consisting mostly of RNA
and protein. (b)
Transmission electron
micrograph of the
nucleus. (c) Scanning
electron micrograph
• showing the membranes
of the nuclear envelope
and the nuclear pores.
Ribosomes
• are the organelles
where proteins are
produced
• may be attached to
other organelles,
such as the
endoplasmic
reticulum
• Ribosomes that are
not attached to any
other organelle are
called free
ribosomes.
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• is a series of membranes forming sacs
and tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
• Rough ER
• is ER with ribosomes attached to it
• A large amount of rough ER in a cell
indicates that it is synthesizing large
amounts of protein for export from
the cell
• ER without ribosomes
• smooth ER
• Smooth ER is a site for lipid synthesis
and participates in detoxification of
chemicals within cells
• In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth
ER stores calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus
• also called the Golgi complex
• consists of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs
• collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids
manufactured by the ER
• proteins produced at the ribosomes enter the Golgi apparatus from
the ER
• Golgi apparatus chemically modifies the proteins by attaching
carbohydrate or lipid molecules to them.
• The proteins then are packaged into membrane sacs that pinch off
from the margins of the Golgi apparatus.
• The vesicles formed at the Golgi apparatus have several destinations
• lysosomes, remain in the cytoplasm
• some move to and are incorporated into the cell membrane
• some function as secretory vesicles
• The Golgi apparatus is present in larger numbers and is most highly
developed in cells that secrete protein, such as those of the salivary
glands or the pancreas
 Secretory Vesicles
• Vesicle
• a small, membrane-bound sac that transports or
stores materials within cells
• Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and
move to the cell membrane
• The membrane of a secretory vesicle then fuses with the
cell membrane, and the contents of the vesicle are
released to the exterior of the cell
• In many cells, secretory vesicles accumulate in the
cytoplasm and are released to the exterior when the cell
receives a signal
• nerve cells release substances called
neurotransmitters from secretory vesicles to
communicate with other cells
• secretory vesicles containing hormones remain in the
cytoplasm of endocrine cells until signals stimulate
their release
• insulin remains in the cytoplasm of pancreatic cells
until rising blood glucose levels stimulate its
secretion.
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes
• are membrane-bound
vesicles formed from
the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety
of enzymes that
function as intracellular
digestive systems
• Vesicles formed by
endocytosis may fuse
with lysosomes
• The enzymes within the
lysosomes break down
the materials in the
endocytotic vesicle
• For example, white blood
cells phagocytize bacteria.
• Then enzymes within
lysosomes destroy the
phagocytized bacteria
Peroxisomes
• are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break
down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid
breakdown and can be toxic to a cell
• The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen peroxide to water
and O2
• Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells, have many
peroxisomes
 Mitochondria
• Are small organelles with inner and
outer membranes separated by a space
• The outer membranes have a smooth
contour, but the inner membranes have
numerous folds
• called cristae which project into the
interior of the mitochondria
• are the major sites of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) production within
cells
• Mitochondria carry out aerobic
respiration
• ATP is the main energy source for most
chemical reactions within the cell
• cells with a large energy requirement
have more mitochondria than cells that
require less energy
 • acts as the internal framework of the cell

Cytoskeleton • It consists of protein structures that:

• support the cell
• hold organelles in place
• enable the cell to change shape.
• These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
• Microtubules
• are hollow structures formed from protein subunits
• Helps support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella
• Microfilaments
• are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape
• Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
• Intermediate filaments
• are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments
• They provide mechanical support to the cell
• specific type of intermediate filament is keratin
• protein associated with skin cellsle cells enable the cells to shorten, or contract
Centrioles
• Centrosome
• is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus
where microtubule formation
occurs
• Contains two centrioles
• which are normally
oriented perpendicular to
each other
• small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules
organized into nine triplets
• each triplet consists of
three parallel microtubules
joined together
• Additional microtubules, extending
from the centrosome, play an
important role in cell division
Cilia

• project from the surface of cells

• vary in number from none to
thousands per cell and are
capable of moving
• are cylindrical structures that
extend from the cell
• are numerous on surface cells
that line the respiratory tract
• Their coordinated movement
transports mucus, in which dust
particles are embedded, upward
and away from the lungs.
• This action helps keep the
lungs clear of debris such as
inhaled dust particles.
• Flagella
• have a structure similar to that of
cilia but are much longer
• they usually occur only one per cell.
• Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
which propels the sperm cell.
• Microvilli
• are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by
microfilaments but they do not
actively move as cilia and flagella do.
• are numerous on cells that have
them and they increase the surface
area of those cells.
• abundant on the surface of cells that
line the intestine, kidney, and other
areas in which absorption is an
important function
 MAJOR HYPOTHESES ON AGING

1. Cellular clock
• One hypothesis of aging suggests the existence of a cellular clock that,
after a certain passage of time or a certain number of cell divisions,
results in the death of a given cell line.
• Apoptosis
• programmed cell death
• a normal process by which cell numbers within various tissues are
adjusted and controlled

2. Death genes
• there are “death genes,” which turn on late in life, or sometimes
prematurely, causing cells to deteriorate and die.
3. DNA damage
• through time, DNA is damaged, resulting in cell degeneration
and death.

4. Free radicals.
• DNA is also susceptible to direct damage, resulting in mutations
that may result in cellular dysfunction and, ultimately, cell
death.
• One of the major sources of DNA damage is apparently free
radicals, which are atoms or molecules with an unpaired
electron
5. Mitochondrial damage.
• Mitochondrial DNA may be more sensitive to free-radical damage than is
nuclear DNA.
• Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss of proteins critical to
mitochondrial function
• mitochondria are the primary source of ATP
• loss of mitochondrial function could lead to the loss of energy critical
to cell function and, ultimately, to cell death.
• One proposal suggests that reduced caloric intake may reduce free-radical
damage to mitochondria.