'

Fun and fast lessons that dramatically improve

grammar skills
• Tons of practice exercises to conquer even the
toughest grammatical challenges
Tips that build confidence for all types of writing
and speaking
Prroof of improvement with before-and-after tests
Grammar
 This book has been reviewed and
updated by the LearningExpress Team
in 2023.
 Contents

INTRODUCTION vii
CHAPTER 1 Pretest 1
CHAPTER 2 Capitalization and Punctuation—First Things First 15
CHAPTER 3 Spelling—Spell Well . . . with a Few Exceptions 51
CHAPTER 4 Verbs—The Movers and Shakers of Language 69
CHAPTER 5 Adjectives and Adverbs—The 5 Ws and 4 Hs
of Good Writing 89
CHAPTER 6 Agreement—A Matter of Compatibility 107
CHAPTER 7 Modifiers—Does It Dangle or Squint or Split? 127
CHAPTER 8 Sentence Structure—From the Simple to the
Complex 143
CHAPTER 9 Paragraphs—As Easy as Announce-Build-Close! 157
CHAPTER 10 Tricky Words—Bee a Wear of Why Lee Words! 171
CHAPTER 11 Posttest 187
GLOSSARY 201
Blank Page
 Introduction

O ur earliest ancestors invented language out of

necessity and the need to improve their quality of life. It could not
have taken long for early humans to come to detest the endless aggravation
of not being able to get their points across to others around them. The
adage Necessity is the mother of invention held true then, as it does even
today, as the complexity of our world increases. Our language constantly
evolves in order to adapt to our needs and to maintain and improve our qual-
ity of life. It doesn’t happen overnight, though, and it didn’t back then either,
but the evolution of language is like clockwork—its change is unswerving.
English is complex, but luckily, it comes with a user’s manual—grammar
and usage—a voluminous set of rules and guidelines that helps you make
sense of the many intricate and dynamic parts of our language. And while
you may be studying grammar right now in school, figuring out the inner
workings of sentence structure and writing can be fun and challenging. The
benefits of your efforts will especially be rewarded in your writing.
You write more often than you think. Essays, notes, e-mail, lists—all
require writing, just in different formats. Sometimes, what you write requires
you to be more formal, and you have to follow certain guidelines for eti-
quette. At other times, your writing may resemble some kind of code or lan-
guage that your friends understand perfectly well, but that an English
teacher would have nightmares about. That’s okay. Really. Flexibility is the
key, and knowing when and where to use proper English is important. No
viii Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

one expects you to be a walking grammar book, but having a grounded

understanding of the whys and hows of English will impact your spoken and
written communication skills forever. If you make a concerted and consis-
tent effort to apply some of the skills you have learned in this book, you will
create good habits—habits that will stay with you when you write term
papers, a letter of introduction to a prospective employer, and perhaps even
an acceptance speech for a prestigious award. All of these scenarios hinge
on someone understanding and appreciating what you say and how you say
it, whether written or spoken.
This book will equip you with the basic tools you will need to build an
essay that is clear and logical and that you can be proud of. It also includes
the following helpful hints and exercises to help you further develop your
writing skills.

Fuel for Thought: critical information and definitions that can help you
learn more about a par

Inside Track: tips for reducing your study and practice time—without
sacrificing accur

Practice Lap: quick practice exercises and activities to let you test your
knowledge

The chapters, which include lessons, along with examples and practice
questions, are meant to be read in order, so the lessons build upon themselves
as you read. Here’s a brief description of each chapter, so that you get an idea
of the flow.

CHAPTER 1: PRETEST
Take this test to see where you need to focus before you start the book. Any
surprises? This will give you a good idea about your strengths and where you
need to improve. Read through each lesson, do the practice questions along
the way, and you’re bound to strengthen your writing skills.
 Introduction ix

CHAPTER 2: CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION—FIRST

THINGS FIRST
There’s more to capitalization than just capitalizing the first word of every
sentence. Learn about the basic dos and don’ts of proper capitalization. As
the “pulse” of the sentence, punctuation leads the reader through a sentence
just as road signs lead a driver. Learn the ins and outs of punctuation, from
apostrophes to dashes to quotations to semicolons.

CHAPTER 3: SPELLING—SPELL WELL . . . WITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS

Learn basic spelling rules (and their exceptions), and learn how prefixes and
suffixes play an important role in our language.

CHAPTER 4: VERBS—THE MOVERS AND SHAKERS OF LANGUAGE

The “movers and shakers” of language, verbs come in many shapes and varieties
and present many vivid pictures. Learn how verbs make a sentence come alive.

CHAPTER 5: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS—THE 5 Ws AND 4 Hs OF

GOOD WRITING
Like the colors on an artist’s palette, these modifiers brighten and enliven
language to help paint pictures in a reader’s mind. Learn how useful and pow-
erful these words can be.

CHAPTER 6: AGREEMENT—A MATTER OF COMPATIBILITY

Agreement between a sentence’s verbs and nouns is paramount. Learn how
to decide whether to make a verb plural or singular, and how to make your
pronouns compatible with your antecedents. Your what? Find out here!

CHAPTER 7: MODIFIERS—DOES IT DANGLE OR SQUINT OR SPLIT?

Care to know whether your modifiers dangle, squint, or split? Learn about
phrases and clauses and their uncanny ability to throw a curveball or two
when you least expect it.
x Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 8: SENTENCE STRUCTURE—FROM THE SIMPLE TO THE

COMPLEX
Proper sentence structure can make or break your message. Learn how
phrases and clauses improve your sentence structure and how to avoid run-
ons and fragments.

CHAPTER 9: PARAGRAPHS—AS EASY AS ANNOUNCE-BUILD-CLOSE

Identify paragraph components and their proper organization, and then
apply that knowledge to create a sound five-paragraph essay.

CHAPTER 10: TRICKY WORDS—BEE A WEAR OF WHY LEE WORDS!

English is filled with words that sound alike but are spelled differently
(homonyms) and words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently
(homographs). Then there are words that just, well, trick us—better word
choice is just a chapter away.

CHAPTER 11: POSTTEST

Now that you’ve finished the book, how much have you improved? This
posttest will give you a chance to see how much you’ve learned and how far
you’ve come since you took the pretest. Do you still need any improve-
ment? Go back to the relevant chapters and review.

GLOSSARY
This chapter contains an extensive list of important words you may already
know, or you may have learned throughout this book. Refer to it as often as
you need to.

Ready? Let’s get started!

1
T
Pretest

his pretest contains 70 questions and is designed to

test your knowledge of various topics that are covered in the book.
By taking this test and then checking your answers against the answer key
that follows, you’ll be able to determine what you already know and what you
need to learn. For each question you answer incorrectly, be sure to read the
explanation that accompanies the correct answer in the answer key. Also, the
answer key contains chapter references, so that you know which lesson deals
with that question’s topic. It should take you no more than one hour to com-
plete the pretest. Good luck!

CAPITALIZATION
Correct the words that require proper capitalization.

1. dean asked, “may i borrow your markers when you’re finished?”

2. my teacher asked me to write an essay titled “if i could live forever.”

3. when hailey saw the latest issue of vogue, she eagerly bought it.

4. brielle said, “there’s a lost cat sitting outside the door.”

2 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

5. my dentist, dr. benjamin feldman, always gives me a free toothbrush.

6. tammy enjoys taking walks in the park.

7. have you read the biography of queen elizabeth i?

8. the warm carribbean breeze blew gently across the island.

9. i traveled to myanmar, a country northwest of thailand.

10. I see mrs. alessi on thursdays only.

PUNCTUATION
Insert proper punctuation into the following sentences.

11. The playful puppy pushed the little girl

12. Should Polly play outside with her friends or practice her piano

13. The hungry penguin sat on the ice waiting for its mother

14. Wow How did you do that

15. its time to go home

16. Rebeccas long blond hair blew in the breeze

17. The cat chased the mouse into the barn and returned later with a smile
on its face

18. The lost hiker tired and hungry searched through his bag for food

19. As Ashley flew to London she thought of her friends and family back
home
 Pretest 3

20. Butch a bully popped all of Chelseas balloons and made her cry

21. The caterpillar crawled over the leaf along the branch and down the
trunk of the tree

22. After a long talk they decided to go home cook dinner watch TV and
chill

23. Sara was born on March 17 2002 she will be 18 years old this year

24. The midnight sky was still except for one tiny sparkle of a star

25. You must know how to catch throw hit and slide

26. They finally reached the far side of the island however help was nowhere
in sight

27. Amanda placed Martins Encyclopedia Book H in her book bag

28. Elliott wants to study genetics in college he hopes to become a doctor

29. That was a good one remarked Tony Do it again

30. Im hungry Do we have anything to eat whined Brandon

MODIFIERS
Adjectives
In each sentence, circle the adjective(s).

31. The car got a flat tire.

32. Tom’s cotton shirt was wrinkled.

33. The loud music hurts my ears.

4 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

34. Southern peaches are exceptionally delicious and juicy.

Adverbs
In each sentence, circle the adverb(s).

35. The orange ball glowed and sank slowly on the horizon.

36. Linda completely misunderstood the directions the teacher gave.

37. Nikki quickly decided to turn right at the corner.

38. Westerns can be very exciting.

39. Her fourth-quarter grades had improved slightly.

40. Twenty minutes too late, she removed the burned tuna casserole from
the oven.

Prepositional Phrases
In each sentence, circle the prepositional phrase(s).

41. The grandfather clock in the hallway chimed each hour.

42. The shed in the backyard was covered with English ivy.

43. Steven cut the grass in the front yard yesterday.

Tricky Words
In each sentence, circle the tricky word(s).

44. Will ewe please take three dollars and by sum milk?

45. Joe tries to due his assignments early.

46. Nell kneads two go two bed.

 Pretest 5

47. Hour daughter, Meghan, had the flew.

48. As we drove down from the peek of the mountain, I put on the breaks.

49. The plain arrived with the pear of twins a bored.

50. Weight here! Aisle get sum stationary for you.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. Underline the
subject once and underline the predicate twice.

51. The judges watched the dancers closely and gave prizes to the highest
scorers.

52. Karen’s sandwich store serves subs, soups, and salads.

53. Zachary slept well after washing cars for the fund-raiser all day.

54. Mrs. Milling recorded the test grades, and her student teacher passed
them back to the students.

55. The nurse gently held the newborn baby, who was crying.

56. Presidential conventions occur every four years during the summer.

57. Ivy was afraid to watch horror movies, but she enjoyed comedies.

58. The bakery, which was built next to the grocery store, was always busy.

59. Although he was a good student, sometimes Matthew forgot to do his

homework.

60. The teacher, who taught health and gym, quickly made his way to the
meeting.
6 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

COMBINING SENTENCES
Choppy sentences in a paragraph are unappealing. Combine the following
sentences, rewriting them when necessary, to create an informative, inter-
esting sentence. Although there are many possible combinations, a sample
sentence of each question is provided for you at the end of the pretest.

61. My worst trip was not, in fact, the actual vacation.

My worst trip was the plane ride to the vacation spot.

62. This wasn’t just one of those two-hour trips to Florida.

This was a 16-hour direct flight.
It was a flight across the Atlantic over the North Pole.

63. I was boarding the plane.

I was anxiously waiting to see how the leg room and the food would be.
I was anxiously waiting to see who would be seated around me.

64. Naturally, I did not have high expectations on a flight as long as this.
I considered how they can’t expect you to be too comfortable.
I considered how they can’t expect you to not be bored.
 Pretest 7

65. Of course, I was not surprised.

I think more things went wrong than right on this flight.

66. As I was sitting down, the first thing I noticed was two babies.
I noticed the babies seated within three rows of me.
I thought that wasn’t a good sign.

67. The babies weren’t the only things I became aware of as I took my seat.
I realized how close the back of the seat in front of me was to my knees.

68. By then, I was already telling my sister she could have the window seat.
I was supposed to have the window seat.
I knew I would need the aisle for extra leg room.

69. I settled in.

Eventually, I started dozing off.
I would be interrupted by the flight attendants.
They were kicking my feet, which were in the aisle.
I can’t complain, though, because they weren’t supposed to be there
anyway.
8 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

70. The food was actually quite good.

The tray holder that comes out of the back of the seat in front of you was
not.
It was like trying to balance your meal on the head of a needle.
I ended up spilling my soda and dinner all over my lap.

ANSWERS
Capitalization
We capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first word of a
direct quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using the word
I, (4) proper nouns, (5) proper adjectives, and (6) the first word and all key
words in titles. (To better understand capitalization, please see Chapter 2.)
1. Dean asked, “May I borrow your markers when you’re finished?”
2. My teacher asked me to write an essay titled “If I Could Live Forever.”
3. When Hailey saw the latest issue of Vogue, she eagerly bought it.
4. Brielle said, “There’s a lost cat sitting outside the door.”
5. My dentist, Dr. Benjamin Feldman, always gives me a free toothbrush.
6. Tammy enjoys taking walks in the park.
7. Have you read the biography of Queen Elizabeth I ?
8. The warm Caribbean breeze blew gently across the island.
9. I traveled to Myanmar , a country northwest of Thailand.
10. I see Mrs. Alessi on Thursdays only.

Punctuation
(1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sentences; (2)
question marks are used after a question; and (3) exclamations signify
strong feelings or emotion. (To better understand punctuation, please see
Chapter 2.)
11. The playful puppy pushed the little girl.
12. Should Polly play outside with her friends or practice her piano?
13. The hungry penguin sat on the ice waiting for its mother.
 Pretest 9

14. Wow! How did you do that?

15. It’s time to go home.
16. Rebecca’s long, blond hair blew in the breeze.
17. The cat chased the mouse into the barn and returned later with a smile
on its face.

Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items or phrases in a sen-
tence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, (3) before and after a word
or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that precedes it (an
appositive), and (4) in dates and addresses.
18. The lost hiker, tired and hungry, searched through his bag for food.
19. As Ashley flew to London, she thought of her friends and family back
home.
20. Butch, a bully, popped all of Chelsea’s balloons and made her cry.
21. The caterpillar crawled over the leaf, along the branch, and down the
trunk of the tree.
22. After a long talk, they decided to go home, cook dinner, watch TV,
and chill.
23. Sara was born on March 17, 2002. She will be 18 years old this year.
24. The midnight sky was still, except for one tiny sparkle of a star.

Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a movie or
book, (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time. Use a semi-
colon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two complete
sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
25. You must know how to do all of the following: catch, throw, hit, and slide.
26. They finally reached the far side of the island; however, help was
nowhere in sight.
27. Amanda placed Martin’s Encyclopedia: Book H in her book bag.
28. Elliott wants to study genetics in college; he hopes to become a doctor.

Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quotation marks.
29. “That was a good one,” remarked Tony. “Do it again.”
30. “I’m hungry. Do we have anything to eat?” whined Brandon.
10 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Modifers
Adjectives (1) modify only nouns; (2) answer What kind? Which one? and How
many? about the nouns they are modifying; (3) imply something belongs to
someone; and (4) are sometimes proper nouns that behave like adjectives.
(To better understand adjectives, please see Chapter 5.)
31. The car got a flat tire.
32. Tom’s cotton shirt was wrinkled.
33. The loud music hurts my ears.
34. Southern peaches are exceptionally delicious and juicy.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer Where?
When? How? How much? How often? and How long? (To better understand
adverbs, please see Chapter 5.)
35. The orange ball glowed and sank slowly on the horizon.
36. Linda completely misunderstood the directions the teacher gave.
37. Nikki quickly decided to turn right at the corner.
38. Westerns can be very exciting.
39. Her fourth-quarter grades had improved slightly.
40. Twenty minutes too late, she removed the burned tuna casserole from
the oven.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and

ends with a noun or pronoun. (To better understand prepositional phrases,
please see Chapters 6 and 7.)
41. The grandfather clock in the hallway chimed each hour.
42. The shed in the backyard was covered with English ivy.
43. Steven cut the grass in the front yard yesterday.

Words that are spelled differently and have dissimilar meanings, but are pro-
nounced exactly the same, are called homonyms. (To better understand
tricky words, please see Chapter 10.)
44. Will you please take three dollars and buy some milk?
45. Joe tries to do his assignments early.
46. Nell needs to go to bed.
47. Our daughter, Meghan, had the flu.
48. As we drove down from the peak of the mountain, I put on the brakes.
 Pretest 11

49. The plane arrived with the pair of twins aboard.

50. Wait here! I’ll get some stationery for you.

Sentence Structure
(1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and a simple
predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete sentences
joined by a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is made up of at least one
independent clause and one subordinate (dependent) clause. (For more help
with sentence structure, please see Chapter 8.)
51. The judges watched the dancers closely and gave prizes to the highest
scorers.
compound
52. Karen’s sandwich store serves subs, soups, and salads.
simple
53. Zachary slept well after washing cars for the fund-raiser all day.
simple
54. Mrs. Milling recorded the test grades, and her student teacher passed
them back to the students.
compound
55. The nurse gently held the newborn baby, who was crying.
complex
56. Presidential conventions occur every four years during the summer.
simple
57. Ivy was afraid to watch horror movies, but she enjoyed comedies.
compound
58. The bakery, which was built next to the grocery store, was always busy.
complex
59. Although he was a good student, sometimes Matthew forgot to do his
homework.
complex
60. The teacher, who taught health and gym, quickly made his way to the
meeting.
complex
12 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Combining Sentences
(For more help with combining sentences, please see Chapters 8 and 9.)
61. My worst trip was not, in fact, the actual vacation, but the plane ride to
the vacation spot.
The choppiness of these sentences is obvious because the subjects
are repeated. Combine the subjects to make one sentence.
62. This wasn’t just one of those two-hour trips to Florida but a 16-hour
direct flight across the Atlantic over the North Pole.
Again, the choppiness is evident with the repetition of the words
this and flight. Combine for fluidity.
63. As I was boarding the plane, I anxiously waited to see how the leg
room and the food would be, and to see who would be seated around me.
The subject, I, is written three times, which means the sentences
can be combined. Also, notice the word anxiously being used twice.
Avoid repetition.
64. Naturally, I did not have high expectations on a flight as long as this; I
considered how they can’t expect you to be too comfortable and to not
be bored.
The sentence topics are directly related, so they can be joined using
a semicolon. The last two sentences need combining for fluidity.
65. Not to my surprise, I think more things went wrong than right on this
flight.
Just a little rewording brings the two sentences together.
66. As I was sitting down, the first thing I noticed was two babies within
three rows of me, and I immediately thought that wasn’t a good sign.
Notice some of the repetition avoided with combining and a little
rewording.
67. The babies weren’t the only things I became aware of as I took my seat;
I realized how close the back of the seat in front of me was to my knees.
The semicolon joins the sentences, as they complement each other.
68. By then, I was already telling my sister she could have the window seat,
even though I was supposed to. I knew I would need the aisle for extra
leg room.
Combining the first two sentences makes sense. Leave the last one
alone for the added emphasis.
 Pretest 13

69. I settled in and eventually started dozing off, only to be interrupted by

the flight attendants kicking my feet, which were in the aisle. I can’t
complain, though; they weren’t supposed to be there anyway.
Notice the same subject, I, in the first three choppy sentences.
They need combining with a bit of rewording. Leave the last sen-
tence alone for emphasis.
70. The food was actually quite good, but the tray holder that comes out of
the back of the seat in front of you was not. It was like trying to balance
your meal on the head of a pin, and I ended up spilling my soda and din-
ner all over my lap.
The first two sentences contrast each other nicely, and combining
them with the conjunction but works well. The last two sentences
can be made into a compound sentence using the conjunction and.
Blank Page
2
W
Capitalization and
Punctuation
First Things First

hat if no one had to follow the same rules or conventions

of punctuation and capitalization for written English? It is cer-
tain that whatever message the writer means to get across will fall short, if
not get lost altogether. Take a look.

when i—go to thanksgiving Dinner at. grandmas house my cousin

nathan and I, watch football on my uncles? big screen tv and Cheer
on our . . . favorite teams, later on the Entire family young; and old
gathers in the living room, and plays bingo a time! honored tradition
started “when grandma was a little girl growing” up in st louis mo?

Without the use of standard punctuation and capitalization, you would

find that reading the preceding passage is tedious and requires too much time
and trouble. If it is rewritten appropriately, however, reading and under-
standing it becomes effortless.

When I go to Thanksgiving dinner at Grandma’s house, my cousin

Nathan and I watch football on my uncle’s big-screen TV and cheer on
our favorite teams. Later on, the entire family, young and old, gathers
in the living room and plays bingo, a time-honored tradition started
when Grandma was a little girl growing up in St. Louis, MO.

What a difference!
16 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PART 1: CAPITALIZATION—FIRST THINGS FIRST

Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

Take the dog for a walk, please.

Fifty-two weeks make up one year.

Capitalization signifies the beginning of a sentence. It provides visual sep-

aration clues for readers as to when a new sentence begins, which is help-
ful when several sentences follow one another in a paragraph, as you
observed in the preceding passage.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF THE FIRST word of a sentence is a number, it should be written

out as a word.

When a sentence includes a person’s exact words, capitalize the first

word of the direct quotation . . .

Looking wide-eyed at the list of ice cream choices, Anthony said,

“There are so many flavors.”
“I’m so hungry, I could eat them all!” exclaimed Anthony’s friend,
Jason.

. . . however, do not capitalize the first word of a partial quotation.

“We can have a feast,” Alex replied with resolve, “if we order the
seven-scoop Kitchen Sink Sundae!”

Capitalize the pronoun I and all contractions made using the word I (I’m,
I’ve, I’ll, I’d).
 Capitalization and Punctuation 17

“I’m sure I’ve never borrowed Alicia’s sequined green-and-pink

sweater,” said Rhonda. “I’ll look in my closet, but I think I’d remember
wearing something that outlandish.”

Capitalize proper nouns.

Unlike common, garden-variety nouns, which are general names for people,
places, and things (woman, city, holiday, etc.), proper nouns are specific (Jane
Brown, New York City, Thanksgiving, etc.) and require capitalization to
acknowledge their importance.
Keep in mind that when you write the names of specific people, you may
need to use capitalization in several ways. For example, take a look at this
name: Sarah E. O’Neill, M.D. In addition to her first and last names, Sarah’s
middle initial (E.) and professional abbreviation (M.D.) need capital
letters. It’s also necessary to capitalize titles that appear before a person’s
name, such as Ms., Mr., Mrs., Dr., and Rev.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME NOUNS MAY act as both a common and proper noun,

depending on how they are used in a sentence. For instance, when
used alone, the word governor is a common noun.

The governor took a much-needed vacation after the arduous pri-

maries this fall.

When used before a person’s name, however, governor should be

capitalized.

When asked where he was headed, Governor Braxton commented that

he was looking forward to his two-week reprieve in upstate New York.

This rule also applies to family relationships when a specifc person

is referred to except when it follows a possessive noun or posses-
sive pronoun.

I made my grandmother a scarf for her birthday; Aunt Nancy

commented on how colorful it was.
18 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

INSIDE TRACK
THE CARDINAL DIRECTIONS(north, south, east, and west) are
not capitalized; however, when you’re referring to a specifc section
of the country, like the Southwest, you capitalize the word.
The seasons (spring, summer, fall, and winter) are not capitalized
unless they are being used in the title of something, like Spring Fling.
Words for family members (mom, dad, aunt, uncle, etc.) are
not capitalized unless they’re used as names. It’s correct to say, “I
visited Mom and Aunt Sherry yesterday,” because you’re using Mom
and Aunt as names. But if you use these words as common nouns,
they should be lowercase: “I visited my mom and my aunt yesterday.”

PRACTICE LAP
Identify and correct improperly capitalized words in the following dialogue.
Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. “all right,” jack conceded, “you win this time.”

2. “it’s getting late and i have homework to do,” jack sighed.

3. “can we play one more time,” asked julie. “please?”

4. jack smiled and remarked, “only if i can go first!”

5. “deal!” julie replied with a sly smile, tossing the ball to jack. “good luck!”

Capitalize proper adjectives.

Adjectives modify, or enhance, nouns to tell you more information about

the person, place, or thing being described. Sometimes, a proper noun acts
like an adjective—for example, April showers, Chinese yo-yo, and English muf-
fin. When proper adjectives refer to a nationality, the suffix -n or -ian is gen-
erally added, such as with Victorian era, American flag, and Mexican food.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 19

Capitalize the first word and all key words in titles of books, movies, songs,
short stories, works of art, etc. Articles (a, an, the) and the conjunctions so,
for, and, but, nor, or, yet are not capitalized, unless they are the first word of
the title. Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, they, them, we, us, etc.) and verbs
are always capitalized.

Titling Written Works

Book The Catcher in the Rye

Short Story “The Lawyer and the Ghost”
Website Buzzfeed
Movie The Godfather
Painting Starry Night
Song “Sunshine on My Shoulders”
Magazine Popular Science

PRACTICE LAP
Identify and correct any proper adjectives or titles that should be capitalized in
the following sentences. Then, check your answers on the next page.

6. Have you read Mark Twain’s the adventures of huckleberry finn?

7. Thomas Jefferson’s declaration of independence of the united states of

america is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

8. Kauai, a hawaiian island, is among one of the most exotic places in the
world.

9. One of Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s famous paintings is called lady at the

piano.

10. march winds blow, before april showers show, which make may
flowers grow.
20 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ANSWERS
Reminder: Capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first word
of a direct quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using the
word I, and (4) proper nouns.
1. “All right,” Jack conceded, “you win this time.”
2. “It’s getting late and I have homework to do,” Jack sighed.
3. “Can we play one more time?” asked Julie. “Please?”
4. Jack smiled and remarked, “Only if I can go first!”
5. “Deal!” Julie replied with a sly smile, tossing the ball to Jack.
“Good luck!”

Reminder: Capitalize (1) proper adjectives and (2) the first word and all key
words in titles.
6. Have you read Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn?
7. Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence of the United States of
America is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
8. Kauai, a Hawaiian island, is among one of the most exotic places in the
world.
9. One of Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s famous paintings is called Lady at the
Piano.
10. March winds blow, before April showers show, which make May flow-
ers grow.

PART 2: PUNCTUATION—THE PULSE OF THE SENTENCE

Periods
Periods signify the end of a declarative sentence (a statement of fact) or an
imperative sentence (a command or request is stated). For example:

Declarative: There is a test on the Westward Expansion on Tuesday.

Imperative: Study hard if you want to do well.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 21

Periods should follow most standard abbreviations, such as Mr., Ms., Jan.
(for January), Pres. (for president), p. (for page), no. (for number), and so on,
as well as within certain acronyms, such as A.M. and P.M. The rules for using
periods within other acronyms are complicated, but there is an easy rule of
thumb: If the acronym is spoken as a word, such as NASA (pronounced
nassah), do not use periods. If the acronym is spoken as individual letters, it’s
up to you whether you want to use periods or not. Just make sure you’re
consistent within the document you’re writing. There are many examples of
these types of acronyms, including U.S.A. (we actually say “U, S, A,” not
yousah), F.B.I. (we say “F, B, I,” not fibby), C.I.A., U.F.O., H.I.V., etc.
Remember, also, to use periods when writing initials in a person’s name,
such as John F. Kennedy and T.S. Eliot.

INSIDE TRACK

WHEN A SENTENCE ends with an abbreviation that has a period,

do NOT add another period at the end. Instead, leave the abbrevia-
tion’s period as the endmark. If the sentence is an exclamatory sen-
tence or question, you MUST place the exclamation mark or question
mark at the end, after the abbreviation’s period.

Correct: I was supposed to meet you at 4 P.M.!

Was I supposed to meet you at 4 P.M.?
Incorrect: I will meet you at 4 P.M..

Question Marks—Go Ahead and Ask

Question marks are used after a question (an interrogatory sentence).

This is a difficult rule, isn’t it?

Don’t get indirect questions mixed up with questions. Sometimes a sen-

tence sounds like it has a question in it, but it’s really just a statement
reporting a question:

I was wondering if Lucas, Sean, and I could get together to study

tonight at my house.
I asked whether I could get together with my friends to study.

The statements I was wondering and I asked are just that—statements.

Hence, they end with periods.
22 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Exclamation Marks—Turn Up the Volume

Exclamations signify strong feelings or emotion. When a sentence is exclam-
atory, use an exclamation mark to end it; this includes an imperative sen-
tence, which gives an authoritative or earnest command.

Exclamatory Sentences: Hey! This is pretty simple! I can’t

believe it!
Look at the size of that dog! I’m glad I
don’t feed it!
Imperative Sentences: Stop! I mean it!
Be quiet now! This is important!

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

BE CAREFUL NOT to overuse the exclamation mark in your writing.

For emphasis, people tend to end their sentences with not only one,
but sometimes two, three, or more. Yikes!!!!!!!

PRACTICE LAP
Place the correct punctuation at the end of each sentence. Check your
answers at the end of this chapter.

1. The sun was shining in my window when I woke up

2. Did you see the tightrope walker at the circus

3. The honest stranger found a wallet and returned it to its owner

4. Ouch That hurt

5. Excellent work class, I am very proud of you

 Capitalization and Punctuation 23

Commas—A Common Sense Approach

Of all the punctuation marks, commas are used more frequently than any
other, and tend to cause writers the most headaches. Their usage is really a
matter of personal style, which leaves some writers dropping them into sen-
tences all over the place, and others placing them so sparingly, you’d think
they were being charged for each one. All kidding aside, just how do you
know when to use one and when not to? Here are some suggestions to help
you avoid confusion yet not cramp your style.

When you have a series of three or more items in a sentence, use a

comma to separate them. The items may be words or phrases.

Words in a Series: Yellow, blue, red, and green are my

favorite colors.
Phrases in a Series: The cardinal flew around the house, above
the tree, and under the power line.

When you have two or more adjectives describing a noun or pro-

noun, use a comma to separate them.

The young cat had gray, matted fur due to lack of care by its owner.

If you have a series of items where the words or, and, or nor are
connecting them, a comma is not necessary.

Cats and dogs and hamsters are popular pets. I like more exotic pets
like guinea pigs or parakeets or iguanas. However, I like neither
snakes nor mice nor spiders as pets.
24 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

INSIDE TRACK

COMMON SENSE MUST prevail when using commas. Read your

sentence to make certain that the meaning is not misconstrued with
too many or too few commas. Consider the following:

Robert danced with Barbara, Anne, Cassidy, and Katie Lee at

the prom.

Robert had a very busy evening at the prom and probably went
home exhausted.

Robert danced with Barbara Anne Cassidy and Katie Lee at

the prom.

While Robert did dance with two girls, Barbara Anne, whose last
name is Cassidy, and Katie, whose last name is Lee, it’s unlikely he
went home worn out.

If a sentence begins with an introductory word or phrase, it is, in

most cases, generally followed by a comma. The use of a comma
after introductory sentence parts helps the reader from carrying the
meaning of the introduction into the main part of the sentence,
which can lead to misinterpretation. For example:

Confusing: After eating the three little pigs and the big bad wolf
played a round of golf to catch up on old times.
(My, someone was very hungry!)
Less Confusing: After eating, the three little pigs and the big bad
wolf played a round of golf to catch up on old times.
(Friendly bunch, aren’t they?)

Confusing: Bugged Bob went to the manager to complain about his

cold dinner.
(What a strange name, Bugged Bob. Does he have a sister Irked
Irene, or perhaps Mad Margaret?)
 Capitalization and Punctuation 25

Less Confusing: Bugged, Bob went to the manager to complain

about his cold dinner.

When a word or phrase immediately follows a noun, it should be

set off by commas. The word or phrase is meant to rename or
enhance the noun’s meaning by providing the reader with more
information. This sentence interrupter is called an appositive.

Brian, a varsity soccer player, trains daily at the gym to stay in shape.

The phrase a varsity soccer player renames Brian and adds to our under-
standing about who he is. This phrase, however, can be removed and the sentence
will remain complete—Brian trains daily at the gym to stay in shape.

Let’s look at another:

My teacher, Mr. Moyer, is also a football coach at the high school.

Again, if we remove the appositive Mr. Moyer, the meaning of the sentence
remains complete—My teacher is also a football coach at the high school.

One more:

The pies, pumpkin and chocolate cream, were the perfect ending to our
dinner.

We know exactly what kinds of pies were the perfect ending to dinner
because of the appositive provided. If we remove the phrase, does the
sentence meaning remain intact? Yes.
Besides enhancing a noun, appositives typically have two other func-
tions in a sentence. They name a person being addressed in the sentence:

See, Danielle, I told you the principal saw you running in the hall.
Look, Courtney, I found my earring under my dresser.
26 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

And they set off expressions of opinions, conclusions, etc.:

George Washington, in fact, is known as the father of our country.

Abraham Lincoln, on the other hand, was the most revolutionary
president in American history.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

OTHER EXPRESSIONS YOU may encounter are yes, no, well,
indeed, nevertheless, however, I believe, of course, for once, obvi-
ously, in my opinion, to tell the truth, and on the contrary.

PRACTICE LAP
Place all missing commas in the following sentences. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

6. Sal’s uncle Joe is a mail carrier in Mississippi.

7. Believe it or not Joe walks about five miles a day on his route.

8. Last month he was chased by a neighborhood dog Rex while working

on his route.

9. Fortunately he was able to run jump a fence and hop into his truck
for safety.

10. Joe’s customer Mr. Henderson was careful to keep Rex inside from
then on.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 27

Use commas in dates, addresses, salutations (friendly letters

only!), and closings of letters

D
Place a comma after the day of the week (if it’s mentioned), the da
of the month, and the y
Michael Jordan was born on Sunday, February 17, 1963, in Brooklyn,
New York.

INSIDE TRACK

NO COMMA IS necessary if you’re writing only the day and month

or the month and year in a sentence:

Lebron James was born on December 30.

Lebron James was born on December 1984.

Addr
In friendly and business letters, and in sentences, there ar
addresses y

Sentence/T
Please pay online or send a check or money order to Lamp Lighters Co.,
54321 Main St., Roxbury, NJ 07876.

As you can see, commas need to be placed between the business or per-
son’s name and the start of the street address, then after the street address,
and then between the city and state. No commas are necessary between the
state and the zip code.
28 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

INSIDE TRACK

WHEN MENTIONING A city and state in a sentence (without a zip

code), a comma must also follow the state.

Last week, my dad traveled to Chicago, Illinois, on business.

The same rule holds true if you mention a country name:

He sometimes travels to Paris, France, in the spring.

Letter/Envelope Form:
Lamp Lighters Co.
54321 Main St.
Roxbury, NJ 07876

Only a comma between the city and state is necessary in this format.

Salutations and Closings

When greeting someone in a friendly letter, use a comma after his or
her name and after your closing:

Dear Aunt Josie,

Love,

Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that are followed

by an independent clause (a sentence). Coordinating conjunc-
tions are and, but, for, nor, or, yet, and so.

I am 14 years old, and my brother, Jonathan, is 15.

He is older than I am, yet I’m taller than he is, so people think I’m older.

These can all be written as separate sentences:

I am 14 years old. My brother, Jonathan, is 15. He is older than I am.

I’m taller than he is. People think I’m older.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 29

It is better, though, to combine them to avoid choppiness.

Commas are used in direct quotations (the exact words that a per-
son says).
Direct Quotation Identifying the Speaker F

Kevin said, “There’s a big rip in the back of your pants!”

These are the exact words of Kevin.

Direct Quotation with an Interr

“There’s a big rip,” Kevin said, “in the back of your pants!”

Notice that the first part of Kevin’s sentence ends with a comma (after rip),
and again after the interrupting words Kevin said.

Indir

Kevin said that there is a big rip in the back of your pants.

This is someone conveying what Kevin said. No commas are needed.

Use commas with titles and degrees only when they follow a per-
son’s name

Commas: In an emergency, call Jackson Foster, MD.

Lorraine Devonshire, PhD, has become president
of our state college.

No Commas: Call Dr. Foster in an emergency.

Dr. Lorraine Devonshire has become president of
our state college.

Use commas when writing long numbers.

When writing numbers, especially long ones, your teachers expect you
to place commas in them to help readers understand the number more
easily. For instance, if you had the number 6307200 or 378432000, it
would take quite a bit of thought to decipher the numbers; what with
30 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

counting how many numbers there are and then mentally grouping
them into threes to divide them into their billions, millions, hundred
thousands, thousands, hundreds, and so on. With the help of commas,
numbers are easily interpreted:

The average student spends 6,307,200 minutes, or 378,432,000

seconds, in school from first grade through high school graduation!

INSIDE TRACK

TO PLACE COMMAS properly in long numbers, begin at the far

right of the number and place a comma after every three digits:

The 2020 population of New Jersey, an area of 8,729 square miles,

was 8,944,469.

Numbers from 1 to 999 don’t require a comma. Nor do phone

numbers, page numbers, zip codes, years, serial numbers, and house
numbers. However, when you are writing a series of numbers, com-
mas should be placed in between each number:

Study pages 112, 113, and 114 in your textbook to prepare for
tomorrow’s quiz on commas.

Red Bank, New Jersey, has four zip codes: 07701, 07702, 07703,
and 07704.

PRACTICE LAP
Add periods and commas where necessary in the following sentences. Then,
check your answers at the end of the chapter.

11. Mr Eatmore S Pinach president of the Ban Brussels Sprouts Association

(BBSA) is heading a worldwide protest against the sale and consump-
tion of the so-called wild cabbage.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 31

12. It seems its popularity has soared to new heights since the latest cam-
paign The Brussels Sprout Tout has gone on tour throughout Europe
Asia and North America.

13. The operation has prompted many widespread international anti-

sprout movements among dark leafy greens lovers led by China’s Bok
Choy Switzerland’s Swiss Chard and North America’s renowned Dan
D Lyon Green.

14. Donations to support the cause are greatly appreciated so please feel free
to give your time or money generously.

15. Send all correspondence and contributions to BBSA 481 Bountiful

Blvd Verdant Valley CA 98765.

Colons and Semicolons—The Introducers and Connectors of

Punctuation
Colons are used to introduce a particular bit of information. Unlike commas,
which seem to have a million and one rules to follow, a colon simply intro-
duces anything: a word, a sentence, a list, a quotation, a phrase. It says “here
is an example” or “an example is going to follow” to the reader (figuratively,
of course). Now, that’s not to say you can simply throw colons into your writ-
ing. There is some simple, yet important, colon etiquette to follow:

Use a colon to introduce a list.

Please bring the following items to school on the first day: pencils,
a pen, notebook paper, and a binder. A more detailed list of needed
items will be given in class.

While colons usually signify a list to follow, the colons themselves may
NOT follow a verb or preposition:

Incorrect: On the first day of school, please bring: pencils, a

pen, notebook paper, and a binder.
32 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Incorrect: On the first day of school, please bring pencils, a pen,

notebook paper, and a binder to: Mr. Stewart, Mrs.
Hodges, or Ms. Louise.

TIP: To play it safe, use a phrase like as follows or the following before the
colon (for example, the list is as follows: OR bring the following:).

Use a colon to introduce an excerpt or long quotation.

In his first inaugural address to the United States of America, Pres-

ident John F. Kennedy said: . . . In your hands, my fellow citizens,
more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course.
Since this country was founded, each generation of Americans has
been summoned to give testimony to its national loyalty . . . And
so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your country.

Use a colon to introduce the subtitle of a movie or book.

Ethan’s favorite movie is Star Wars: Rogue One.

Scott read Crispin: At the Edge of the World two times already this
summer.

Use a colon to separate hours from minutes when writing the time.

It’s now 4:43 P.M.

The school record for the one-mile relay is 5:32:47.

Use a colon in the salutation of a formal or business letter.

Dear Sir:
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Mr. President:

The Semicolon—The Super Comma

The semicolon, a.k.a. the “super comma,” connects two related sentences to
emphasize their relationship to a reader. Typically, the second sentence
that follows makes a comment of some sort about the first or offers further
information about it—hence the relationship.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 33

Use a semicolon to separate two sentences (independent clauses)

that are related in topic and meaning.

Sentence 1: Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly fin-

ished his report.
Sentence 2: He made many careless mistakes.
Sentence 3: Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly fin-
ished his report; he made many careless mistakes.

Jamon made careless mistakes because he hurried to do his report. This

cause/effect is emphasized even more by being in the same sentence.

Use a semicolon between two complete sentences that are separated

by some transitional words or phrases, or conjunctive adverbs

Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly finished his report;
consequently, he made many careless mistakes.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME common conjunctive adverbs:

afterward accordingly besides

consequently furthermore hence
however indeed instead
likewise moreover nevertheless
nonetheless otherwise similarly
so still then
therefore thus
34 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
Add colons and semicolons where necessary in the following sentences.
Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

16. Mom’s list included the following milk, eggs, butter, toothpaste, and soap.

17. I was supposed to be home at 1130 A.M., but I got home at 130 P.M.
instead.

18. I had three cats growing up a tabby, a Siamese, and a Manx.

19. The weather on Sunday was spectacular however we had to stay home
to paint.

20. His new baby sister was precious her blue eyes were riveting.

Quotation Marks—It Must Be the Real Deal

Quotation marks, a.k.a. quotes, are used in writing to show the exact words
someone said—exactly. This exact account is called a direct quotation.

Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quota-

tion marks.

Direct Quotation: “Mark always thinks he’s right,” said his lit-
tle sister, Cheryl.
Indirect Quotation: Mark’s little sister, Cheryl, says Mark,
always thinks he’s right.

Here, the same message is conveyed, but the reader is able to distinguish
that the sentence with quotes are the exact wording from the speaker. The
indirect quotation, called hearsay, means just that—someone saying what
he or she heard someone else say . . . make sense?
 Capitalization and Punctuation 35

Don’t place quotes around someone’s thoughts (his or her ideas

that are not spoken aloud).

Correct: These math problems are pretty difficult—will I pass

this test? Elisabeth thought.
Incorrect: “These math problems are pretty difficult—will I pass
this test?” Elisabeth thought.

Use quotes to convey uncertainty or misgivings.

You know, Tracy, I don’t know how you can call this a “friendship”
when all you do is avoid me every chance you get. We have been so-
called “friends,” well, “forever,” and I can’t believe you would do
“this” to me!

Sometimes, like in the sample you just read, people can get carried away
with using quotes to show emphasis, so just be cautious.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME helpful guidelines about quotations to guide you:

Capitalize the frst letter to begin a quotation:

“I feel like eating peppermint ice cream; do you?” asked Alexa.
Periods, question marks, and exclamation marks usually go
inside the closing quotes. Colons and semicolons do NOT:
Mrs. Kirby, the librarian, told me about the “rule of thumb”:
Read the frst page and hold up one fnger for each word I
don’t know. If I get to my thumb, the book is too hard.
Use a comma before the opening quotes when words that
identify the speaker come right before the quote:
Sandy chided, “Your dog is staring at me and it’s giving me
the creeps.”
When there is an interrupter to identify the speaker in the mid-
dle of the quote, each part of the quotation is enclosed in quo-
tation marks. The first part of the quote ends with a comma
36 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

enclosed in the end quotes. The interrupting words are

followed by a comma before the opening quotes:

“Soon I’ll be 14,” bragged Frank, “so I can get a part-time job!”

Notice also that so is not capitalized. That is because it is not start-

ing a new sentence, but is a continuation of Frank’s frst sentence.

If a speaker is saying two separate sentences, each sentence

begins with a capital letter within the opening quotes. As well,
a period, not a comma, is used to punctuate the interrupter:

“You’re lucky, Frank,” remarked Lauren. “Fourteen doesn’t

come for me until next October.”

PRACTICE LAP
Identify any words or sentences that require quotation marks, and properly
place commas and endmarks in the following sentences. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

21. Remember, class, said Mr. McDermott, tomorrow is Spirit Day, so wear
green!

22. I don’t think I have anything green, thought Julie. I wonder if Kevin will
let me borrow his football jersey.

23. This will be the third thing you’ve borrowed from me this week! Kevin
said to Julie. Including the jersey, you have to make sure you return my
headphones and my yearbook.

24. Smiling, Julie replied, I’ll go get your yearbook and headphones right
now. I wanted to show Carol a picture of Mike Wiley, a boy she likes.

25. Uh, that’s more information than I needed to know, Jules. Just go get my
stuff, jibed Kevin, on his way out the door.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 37

The Apostrophe—It’s Not Just a Matter of Possession

Plurals, possessives, contractions . . . the apostrophe plays many important,
and highly misused, roles in English grammar. Why, just down the road, a
local business owner proudly displays several flashing neon signs advertis-
ing his tasty wares:

Taco’s, Salad’s, and Soup’s to Go!

This, unfortunately, is an all-too-common appearance in stores from coast to

coast. Do you know what’s wrong with this sign? None of the words in the sign
needs an apostrophe because each item is a regular plural (plural means more
than one). Only on rare occasions do you need to add an apostrophe to create a
plural, which we’ll talk about later in the lesson. Let’s talk about contractions first.

Contractions—The Long and the Short of It

In informal writing, like a letter to your friend or your Aunt Josephine, you
can use shortened versions of words, called contractions. Contract means
“to squeeze together or shorten,” and contractions are two words that have
been shortened or squeezed together to make one. For instance, instead of
writing cannot, you write the contraction form of the word: can’t. So what
happens to the n and the o? The apostrophe stands in for them (cannot =
can’t). What is the contraction for I am? Right! I’m is the answer.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME more contractions:

AM WILL HAVE/HAS HAD/WOULD

I I’m I’ll I’ve I’d
YOU you’re you’ll you’ve you’d
HE he’s he’ll he’s he’d
SHE she’s she’ll she’s he’d
IT it’s it’ll it’s it’d
THEY they’re they’ll they’ve they’d
WE we’re we’ll we’ve we’d
38 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Here are the helping verbs in negative form:

IS + not = isn’t
ARE + not = aren’t
WAS + not = wasn’t
WERE + not = weren’t
HAVE + not = haven’t
HAS + not = hasn’t
HAD + not = hadn’t
CAN + not = can’t
DO + not = don’t
DID + not = didn’t
SHOULD + not = shouldn’t
WOULD + not = wouldn’t
COULD + not = couldn’t

INSIDE TRACK

REMEMBER THAT ONLY in informal writing is it acceptable to use

contractions. Your teachers will likely discourage you from using
contractions in schoolwork, such as reports and essays.

Possessives—Whose Is It, Anyway?

Possessives are nouns that show ownership—that something belongs to
something else. Be careful, because these can be tricky. First, before adding
an apostrophe, you need to make certain that the word you’re using actually
implies possession. Take the word story, for example:

Singular: The ghost story had a scary plot.

Plural: The ghost stories had a scary plot.

Neither of these sentences uses the word story or stories in a possessive way.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 39

To make a singular noun possessive, add an ’s.

Singular Possessive: The ghost story’s plot was scary.

Here, the sentence implies that the plot belonging to the one ghost story
was scary. The story possesses the plot, thus making it the story’s plot. Let’s
try another one:

My younger brothers name is Christian.

Where does the apostrophe need to be placed? What word is implying pos-
session of something? Right, brother’s—the name, Christian, belongs to my
younger brother. The word brother needs an ’s.

To make a plural noun ending in ’s possessive, add an apostrophe

AFTER the final ’s.

Plural Possessive: The ghost stories’ plots were scary.

Here, the sentence implies that the plots belonging to more than one ghost
story were scary. The stories possess the plots, thus making them the stories’
plots. Let’s try another one:

The boys soccer trophies were placed on the table in rows.

Again, where does the apostrophe need to be placed? What word is imply-
ing possession of something? Right, boys’—the trophies belong to the boys.
The word boys needs an apostrophe AFTER the ’s in boys.
Do all plural nouns end in s? Most do, but not all. There are some nouns
that take on a completely different spelling when they turn plural, like chil-
dren, for example. Or women. Can you think of others? How about geese,
mice, people, feet, men, teeth. . .? There are many more. In any of these cases,
these words are treated like the singular nouns, and ’s is added to them to
form a possessive.

The geese’s V formation in the sky was impressive as they flew

overhead.
40 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

To make a singular noun ending in s possessive, you can add an ’s

OR add an apostrophe after the s.
To some, it may seem odd to add an ’s after another s somehow, but
that’s one correct way to do it!

Marty Reynolds’s jacket was left on the school bus yesterday.

You may also write the sentence like this:

Marty Reynolds’ jacket was left on the school bus yesterday.

It is best to follow the way your teacher wishes to avoid problems.

PRACTICE LAP
See if you can find all of the apostrophe mistakes in these sentences. You can
check your answers at the end of the chapter.

26. I do’nt believe Iv’e ever seen a five-toed cat before, have you?

27. Miss Marples’ detective skills are as clever as Sherlock Holmes’s flair for
solving crimes.

28. These childrens picture book’s have become too easy for you. Lets
choose a more challenging book to read this time.

29. Werent you at my sister Tracys’ birthday party two week’s ago?

30. Ms. Klink’s sons’ hobbies’ are woodworking and skeet’shooting.

Hyphens and Dashes—So Alike, Yet So Different

Aside from their similar looks—hyphens getting the short end of the bargain,
so to say—hyphens and dashes each perform completely different jobs
in our writing. Hyphens, for instance, divide words at the ends of lines,
hyphenate numbers and compound words, and help out some prefixes and
suffixes to avoid confusion.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 41

Use a hyphen with the prefixes great-, half-, ex-, and self- and the suffix -elect.

great-grandfather great-grandmother
half-hearted half-truth
ex-girlfriend ex-president
self-control self-reliant
mayor-elect governor-elect

Use a hyphen to join capital letters to form a new word:

X-ray T-square T-shirt R-rated

or at the syllable breaks in a word:

Jan-u-ary ten-nis ad-o-les-cent but-ter-fly

Use a hyphen to write numbers 21–99 in word form and to write fractions
as words:

Twenty-nine forty-six one-third eight-tenths

or write numbers as a score or a date:

The final score of the Force vs. Sonics play-off game was 16-18.
The newspaper dated 3-17-20 contains the detailed article.

The date may also be written using slashes instead: 3/17/20.

Use a hyphen to clarify some words where re- means to

redo something or where the spelling of two words put together
would be awkward:
Michael tried to recollect how he planned to re-collect the books he
mistakenly deposited in the library bin.
42 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Michael is trying to remember how he planned to get the books back that
he gave to the library by mistake.

The shell-like glass dish was badly chipped.

Without the hyphen, shell-like would have been written shelllike, which
is an awkward combination of three l’s together.

Use a dash to emphasize a “by-the-way” or incidental thought in

your writing:

Her father brought two dozen roses—beautiful pink and white

ones wrapped in tulle—to her graduation party!

Use a dash to set off a short series or list in a sentence:

Acceptable: At the zoo, we saw many exotic animals like

bongos, capybaras, echidnas, kinkajous, and an
okapi.

Better Choice: At the zoo, we saw many exotic animals—bongos,

capybaras, echidnas, kinkajous, and an okapi.

INSIDE TRACK

A DASH CAN be used much like a colon. It gives your writing a less
formal tone, where colons are more formal.

Parentheses and Brackets—By the Way

Between the two punctuation marks, you are bound to see many more paren-
theses than brackets in writing simply because they are more “functional.”
 Capitalization and Punctuation 43

When you want to provide your reader with extra information in

the middle, or even the end, of your sentence, you can place that
information inside parentheses (this is called a parenthetical
comment).

Margie (who is one of the best dancers on the team) took a spill
on stage last night and twisted her ankle.

Important: You can take the information in the parentheses out of the
sentence, and the sentence still will make sense to the reader.

Dates and page numbers are commonly placed inside

parentheses.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), one of the world’s most

famous composers, continued to write musical masterpieces even
though he went deaf in his thirties. More information about
Beethoven can be found in Chapter 22 (pages 97–113).

Parentheses can be used to enclose numbers or letters meant to

itemize information.

To make your bed, choose your favorite sheets and (a) place the fit-
ted sheet snuggly around the mattress; (b) drape the flat sheet on
top (preferably straight and even) and tuck the bottom of the sheet
between the mattress and box spring; (c) place your pillow inside
the pillowcase and put it at the head of the bed; and (d) cover the
bed with a quilt or blanket to stay toasty-warm. All that’s left is to
hop in and snooze!

Note: (a), (b), (c), and (d) may be replaced with (1), (2), (3), and (4).

When you want to insert an editorial (your own comments)

within quoted material, use brackets.

Bill said, “It [the Super Bowl] was great! They [the Colts] played
like champions today!”
44 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Use brackets to alter the capitalization of a wor

order to make it fit in your sentence or paragraph scheme. F

The directions specifically say to “[t]urn off the power before try-
ing to charge the snowblower.”

The directions would have originally read Turn off the power . . . in the source
this quote came from.

Italics and Underlining—The Attention Getters

Before modern technology, writing was done mostly by hand. The option of
italicizing words was all but impossible, so underlining was used to emphasize
words. Today, we use both interchangeably, with just the touch of a button.

Italicize or underline the titles of long works, such as books, maga-

zines, newspapers, movies, TV shows, albums, plays, long poems
musicals
Season 7 of Game of Thrones Season 7 of Game of Thrones

Chicago Sun-Times newspaper Chicago Sun-Times newspaper

Robert Frost’s poem Birches Robert Frost’s poem Birches

Use quotation marks around the titles of stories, songs, short poems,
articles, and other smaller works.

INSIDE TRACK

DON’T BE FICKLE and use italics in one paragraph or entry, and

then underline in the next one. You must be consistent in your choice.
Pick one and then stick with it the entire time.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 45

Italicize foreign words in your writing.

The French word bonjour means “hello.”

Italicize or underline words in sentences you want to emphasize

for the reader.
Can you tell the difference in the meanings of these four sentences?

Maria was sad. [Okay, Maria was sad.]

Maria was sad. [Oh, it was Maria who was sad.]

Maria was sad. [Good, Maria’s no longer sad.]

Maria was sad. [I see; she wasn’t glad, she was sad.]

When we read, we have to sometimes interpret the speech patterns of the

writer (or speaker). Using italics allows us to help our readers in that
interpretation.

The Ellipsis—You Don’t Say . . .

When you encounter three single-spaced periods in your reading . . . it means
one of a couple of things:

An ellipsis indicates that some words before or after the dots have
been left out.

“. . . but I didn’t do it!” sobbed AJ.

Grandpa went on. “You know, when I was a little boy I had to walk
seven miles, barefoot, in the snow . . . and then over that mountain
over there, and then . . .”

An ellipsis indicates a pause in between words or thoughts.

“I’m not afraid of the dark . . . but I’d still like the light on until I
fall asleep,” Raymond whispered.
46 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

When you write and want to use an ellipsis, be careful not to leave out
important information that would intentionally mislead the reader of the
speaker’s message:

Journalist Jess D. Faks reports that actress superstar, Holly Wood,

said in her acceptance speech, “I owe ALL of my success to . . . me
. . . not . . . my fans and my manager.”

Hmm . . . it seems that Mr. Faks decided to omit some very important
words from his citation. If Mr. Faks had not misused the ellipses, we would
have known what Holly had REALLY said:

“I owe ALL of my success to many special people who have sup-

ported me through my highs and lows: my parents and teachers,
and of course, I cannot forget my fans and my manager.”

PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the mistakes in the following sentences? You may check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

31. The vice president elect spoke briefly about the president.

32. The Gary Paulsen novel Brian’s Winter, a story of survival in the Cana-
dian wilderness, would make a good G rated movie for kids.

33. Some ski resorts use gondolas and Tbars to transport skiers to the top
of the mountain.

34. Twenty two is my lucky number. What’s yours?

35. Louisa May Alcott 1832–1888 was thirty five when she wrote Little
Women.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 47

ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sen-
tences, (2) question marks are used after a question, and (3) exclamations
signify strong feelings or emotion.
1. The sun was shining in my window when I woke up.
2. Did you see the tightrope walker at the circus?
3. The honest stranger found a wallet and returned it to its owner.
4. Ouch! That hurt!
5. Excellent work class. I am very proud of you!

Reminder: Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items in a sen-
tence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, and (3) before and after a
word or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that precedes it
(an appositive).
6. Sal’s uncle, Joe, is a mail carrier in Mississippi.
7. Believe it or not, Joe walks about five miles a day on his route.
8. Last month, he was chased by a neighborhood dog, Rex, while working
on his route.
9. Fortunately, he was able to run, jump a fence, and hop into his truck
for safety.
10. Joe’s customer, Mr. Henderson, was careful to keep Rex inside from
then on.

Reminder: Also use commas (1) in dates and addresses, (2) to set off expres-
sions, and (3) with titles and degrees.
11. Mr. Eatmore S. Pinach, president of the Ban Brussels Sprouts Associa-
tion (BBSA), is heading a worldwide protest against the sale and con-
sumption of the so-called “wild cabbage.”
12. It seems its popularity has soared to new heights since the latest cam-
paign, The Brussels Sprout Tout, has gone on tour throughout Europe,
Asia, and North America.
13. The operation has prompted many widespread international anti-sprout
movements among dark, leafy greens lovers, led by China’s Bok Choy,
48 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Switzerland’s Swiss Chard, and North America’s renown Dan D. Lyon

Green.
14. Donations to support the cause are greatly appreciated, so please feel
free to give your time or money generously.
15. Send all correspondence and contributions to BBSA, 481 Bountiful
Blvd., Verdant Valley, CA, 98765.

Reminder: Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a
movie or book, and (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time.
Use a semicolon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two
complete sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
16. Mom’s list included the following: milk, eggs, butter, toothpaste, and soap.
17. I was supposed to be home at 11:30 A.M., but I got home at 1:30 P.M.
instead.
18. I had three cats growing up: a tabby, a Siamese, and a Manx.

19. The weather on Sunday was spectacular; however, we had to stay home
to paint.
20. His new baby sister was precious; her blue eyes were riveting.

Reminder: (1) Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending
quotation marks; (2) don’t place quote around someone’s thoughts; and (3)
use quotes to convey uncertainty or misgivings.
21. “Remember, class,” said Mr. McDermott, “tomorrow is Spirit Day, so
wear green!”
22. I don’t think I have anything green, thought Julie. I wonder if Kevin will
let me borrow his football jersey.
23. “This will be the third thing you’ve borrowed from me this week!”
Kevin said to Julie. “Including the jersey, you have to make sure you
return my headphones and my yearbook.”
24. Smiling, Julie replied, “I‘ll go get your yearbook and headphones right
now. I wanted to show Carol a picture of Mike Wiley, a boy she likes.”
25. “Uh, that’s more information than I needed to know, Jules. Just go get
my stuff,” jibed Kevin, on his way out the door.
 Capitalization and Punctuation 49

Reminder: (1) Contractions are two words shortened or squeezed together

with an apostrophe; (2) to make a singular noun possessive, add an ’s; (3) to
make a plural noun ending in s possessive, add an apostrophe AFTER the
final s; (4) to make a singular noun ending in s possessive, add an ’s OR add
an apostrophe after the s; (5) when writing abbreviations with more than one
period, add an ’s to denote more than to make it plural.
26. I don’t believe I’ve ever seen a five-toed cat before, have you?
27. Miss Marple’s detective skills are as clever as Sherlock Holmes’ (or
Holmes’s) flair for solving crimes.
28. These children’s picture books have become too easy for you. Let’s
choose a more challenging book to read this time.
29. Weren’t you at my sister Tracy’s birthday party two weeks ago?
30. Ms. Klink’s sons’ hobbies are woodworking and skeet shooting.

Reminder: Use hyphens (1) with some prefixes, (2) to join capital letters to
form a new word, (3) to write numbers 21–99 in word form or as a date. Also,
(4) dates and page numbers can be placed inside parentheses, and (5) ital-
icize or underline the titles of long works, like books.
31. The vice president-elect spoke briefly about the president.
32. The Gary Paulsen novel Brian’s Winter, a story of survival in the Cana-
dian wilderness, would make a good G-rated movie for kids.
(Brian’s Winter may also be italicized.)
33. Some ski resorts use gondolas and T-bars to transport skiers to the top
of the mountain.
34. Twenty-two is my lucky number. What’s yours?
35. Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888) was thirty-five when she wrote Little
Women.
(Little Women may also be italicized.)
Blank Page
3
J
Spelling
Spell Well . . . with a Few
Exceptions

ust how important is spelling anyway? Well, it can make

the difference between someone understanding and appreciating
your idea and someone walking away baffled. How important is that to you?
You know, it wasn’t that long ago when students had only dictionaries to
turn to in order to check their spelling errors, and not the ones on the
Internet, but the books on shelves that lined the walls in classrooms and
libraries. You might be tempted to think that dictionaries are a thing of the
past, letting spell check and autocorrect do the work for you as you write on
your computer, tablet, or phone. But dictionaries are still indispensable tools
for anyone who wants to spell—and speak—English correctly. To see what we
mean, take a look at this paragraph:

Ewe mite knot awl weighs sea yore riding miss takes write a weigh,
sew ewe halve two Czech care fully. Men knee mite yews tulles, like
ay computer, two tri too fined and altar thee mist aches, butt sum
thymes it seas write thru them.

Every word is a legitimate, correctly spelled English word, but nearly every
word is used incorrectly! How is this possible?
The English language has 26 letters in its alphabet (21 consonants and 5
vowels) and 19 different vowel combinations to make up a total of 44 sounds,
called phonemes. It would be easy if all you had to do was memorize 44 sounds
to help you spell words . . . but, alas, this is English, and these 44 sounds are
52 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

spelled in almost 1,000 different ways. (Other languages are a lot more
straightforward when it comes to spelling and pronunciation.) Unless you have a
perfect mastery of English vocabulary, you’ll always need to consult a dictionary in
order to choose the correct spelling of certain words you want to use.
There’s another key to becoming a good speller: knowing the basic rules guiding
English spelling. Yes, there are many exceptions, but knowing the rules will still
help you 90% of the time. Let’s take a look at some of the fundamental principles,
as well as the major exceptions.

COMMON SPELLING RULES

Words with ei or ie
Have you heard this mnemonic before?

Write i before e except after c or when sounding like a as in neighbor

and weigh.

I before E Except after C When Sounding Like A

thief friend ceiling receipt weigh neighbor

relief achieve deceive receive vein sleigh
niece believe conceit deceit reign eight

INSIDE TRACK
Here are some exceptions to this rule.

either, neither, seize, seizure, leisure, weird, foreign, height, glacier,

ancient, being, feisty, protein, counterfeit, sovereign
 Spelling 53

PRACTICE LAP
For the following questions, choose either ie or ei to spell each word given
correctly. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. rel f 5. sh ld 9. ght

2. dec ve 6. v n 10. for gn

3. ch f 7. s ve 11. y ld

4. w rd 8. fr ght 12. n ce

Doubling the Final Consonant

When a one-syllable word (bat, can, put) ends with a consonant (bat, can, put)
that is preceded by one vowel (bat, can, put), you should double the final con-
sonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ed, -ing, -er). For
instance:

bat batting batted batter

can canning canned canner

When a multisyllable word (patrol, forget, occur) ends with a consonant

(patrol, forget, occur) that is preceded by a vowel (patrol, refer, occur), and ends
with a stressed syllable (pa-TROL, re-FER, oc-CUR), you should double the
final consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ed,
-ing, -al, -ence, -ant). For instance:

repel repelling repelled repellant

refer referring referred referral
occur occurring occurred occurrence
54 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF THE MULTISYLLABLE word ends with a consonant preceded

by a vowel, but has its fnal syllable unstressed (TRA-vel, HON-or,
REV-el), do not double the fnal consonant before adding the suffx
(e.g., -ing, -ed, -er, -ary). For instance:

travel traveling traveled traveler

honor honoring honored honorary
revel reveling reveled reveler

Also, words ending in -x, -y, or -w do not double the fnal consonant
before adding a suffx. For instance:

mix mixing mixed mixer

crow crowing crowed crower
play playing played player

Last, words whose fnal consonant are preceded by two vowels do

not double the fnal consonant before adding a suffx. For instance:

reveal revealing revealed revealer

wait waiting waiting waiter

When a prefix being added to a word ends with the same letter the main
word begins with, include both letters in the new word. For instance:

mis + spell = misspell

un + necessary = unnecessary
il + logical = illogical
 Spelling 55

Likewise, when a suffix is being added to a word that ends with the same
letter the suffix begins with, include both letters in the new word. For
example:

musical + ly = musically
open + ness = openness
even + ness = evenness

INSIDE TRACK
ACCORDING TO THIS rule, eighteen should be spelled eight +
teen = eightteen, but it is not.

Finally, when you are making a compound word and the final consonant
letter of the first word is the same as the first consonant letter of the second
word, include all letters, even if the letters are repeated. For example:

can + not = cannot

book + keeper = bookkeeper
news + stand = newsstand

INSIDE TRACK
ACCORDING TO THIS rule, pastime should be spelled past +
time = pasttime, but it is not.
56 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending to spell each word correctly. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

13. steal stealling stealing

14. shop shopped shoped

15. tax taxing taxxing

16. step stepping steping

17. compel compelling compeling

18. portray portrayed portrayyed

19. draw drawwing drawing

20. need needed needded

21. perplex perplexxing perplexing

22. keep keeping keepping

The Silent E
When a word ends with a silent e, the e is dropped before adding the suffix
that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ing, -ed, -er, -able). For instance:

use using used user usable

debate debating debated debater debatable
move moving moved mover movable
 Spelling 57

When a suffix is being added that begins with a consonant (e.g., -ly, -ment,
-ful), leave the e at the end of the word. For instance:

love lovely
agree agreement
grace graceful

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

WORDS THAT END in -ce and -ge and have a suffx beginning with
-a or -o added to it (e.g., -able and -ous) keep the fnal e. For instance:

outrage outrageous enforce enforceable

courage courageous service serviceable

Also, words that end in -ee keep the fnal e before some suffxes
beginning with a vowel (e.g., -ing, -able). For instance:

agree agreeing agreeable

see seeing seeable
foresee foreseeing foreseeable

Finally, there are words that don’t follow the aforementioned rules and
whose spelling will need to be memorized. For instance:

argument truly ninth

These words keep the fnal e because dropping it would lead the
reader to think it was a completely different word. For instance:

singe singeing

Without the e, the word would read “fa-la-la” singing, not “oh, this is
burning” singeing. For another instance:

dye dyeing

Without the e, the word would read “soon to be not living” dying, not
“I prefer this shade of red for streaking my hair” dyeing.
58 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending to spell each word given correctly. Then, check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

23. compete competting competing

24. hope hopful hopeful

25. pale paling paleing

26. state stated statted

27. compile compilling compiling

28. like likly likely

29. manage management managment

30. take taken takn

31. amaze amazeing amazing

32. arrive arrived arriveed

Words Ending in -Y
When -y is the final letter, change the -y to -i before adding the suffix. For
instance:

happy happily happiness

lazy lazily laziness
faulty faultily faultiness
 Spelling 59

INSIDE TRACK

IF THE SUFFIX being added to the word ending in y begins with

an -i (e.g., -ing), the y should remain. For example:

try trying qualify qualifying horrify horrifying

When the -y at the end of the word is preceded by a vowel, the -y is not
changed but remains the same when a suffix is added. For instance:

employ employing employed employment

annoy annoying annoyed annoyance
enjoy enjoying enjoyed enjoyment

INSIDE TRACK
HERE ARE SOME words that don’t follow this rule.

day daily gay gaily say said

pay paid lay laid

PRACTICE LAP
Identify the word in each group that is spelled correctly. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

33. beauty beautyful beautiful beautuful

34. fancy fanciful fanceful fancyful

35. duty dutiful duteful dutyful

60 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

36. fuzzy fuzzyness fuzzieness fuzziness

37. lazy laziness lazyness lazieness

-tion, -cian, or -sion?

The “shun” sound, spelled three different ways (-tion, -cian, -sion), is pro-
nounced the same in all three spellings. Each suffix, though, is used with dif-
ferent kinds of root words. How will you know which one to choose? It’s
simple. Take a look.
Here is a list of words ending in -cian. Can you see a pattern for the spelling
rule this suffix will follow?

electrician musician physician politician

beautician magician optician mathematician

All of these -cian words involve people and their careers or hobbies. So,
-cian is used only when the spelling word has to do with people. The suffixes
-tion and -sion are never used with these “people words.”
Okay, let’s see if you can identify the next spelling pattern for the spelling
rule for the suffix -sion.

extend extension comprehend comprehension

suspend suspension apprehend apprehension
suppress suppression aggress aggression

Notice that all of the root words end in -s or -d. When the root word ends
in -s or -d, the suffix -sion is used to make the noun form of verbs ending in
-s or -d.
Additionally, one more rule applies to the -sion suffix. Can you spot it?

division conclusion adhesion exclusion vision

Do you hear a heavy “zhun” sound instead of the soft “shun” sound in these
words? When a word contains a heavy “zhun,” it is spelled with -sion only.
 Spelling 61

INSIDE TRACK

VERBS WITH THE ending -mit use the suffx -mission to make the
noun form of the word. For instance:

permit permission commit commission

submit submission

Last, if the root word ends in -t or -te, then -tion is used to make the noun
form of the verb. For instance:

protect protection project projection

reject rejection attribute attribution
contribute contribution educate education

PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending for the following words. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

38. confuse confu (-sion, -cian, -tion)

39. opposite opposi (-sion, -cian, -tion)

40. confess confes (-sion, -cian, -tion)

41. elect elec (-sion, -cian, -tion)

42. magic magi (-sion, -cian, -tion)

43. describe descrip (-sion, -cian, -tion)

44. collide colli (-sion, -cian, -tion)

62 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

45. extend enten (-sion, -cian, -tion)

46. explode explo (-sion, -cian, -tion)

47. beauty beauti (-sion, -cian, -tion)

The Letter Q
In the English language, the letter q must be followed by a u in a word. Think
of quart, quarter, question, queue, quality, quip, picturesque—the list of
qu words is endless.
But since English is a blend of words from other languages, too, don’t
be surprised if you see the occasional word that violates this rule. There are
only a few of them, but examples include qi (taken from Chinese culture, it
means life force) and coq au vin (taken from the French, it refers to a type of
chicken dish).
Also keep in mind that proper nouns don’t necessarily follow spelling rules.
The proper nouns Iraq, Iraqi, Qatar, and Qantas (the Australian airline) are all
missing u’s after their q’s—and that’s perfectly legitimate.

PRACTICE LAP
Use the clues to help you choose the correct q word from the word bank to
place in the blank. The letter q may be found at the beginning, middle, or end
of the words. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

Q WORD BANK

quizzical quick quagmire quail quality question

quake quack racquet bouquet unique physique
plaque conquer banquet sequel frequently opaque

48. a bunch of flowers

49. a dilemma
 Spelling 63

50. a large spread of food

51. the continuation of a story

52. a query

53. to shake

54. to overtake by force

55. not transparent or see-through

56. fast

57. reward of recognition

58. often

59. a small game bird

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Adding prefixes, groups of letters that have a significant meaning, to the
beginnings of words does not change the spelling of the original words
(called root words). When a prefix is added, its meaning is combined with
the original root word’s meaning to form a new word. English prefixes and
suffixes commonly come from Latin and Greek words, although Old English
(Anglo-Saxon) was borrowed from as well. Take the Greek prefix astro-, for
example. Astro- means “star” in Greek. Can you think of words beginning
with astro- that have to do with stars and space? What about astronaut,
astrology, astronomy, or asteroid?
Suffixes are added to the ends of words. Many suffixes actually change
the original word’s part of speech when they are added. For example, the verb
bowl becomes the noun bowler when the suffix -er is added. Adding suffixes
often requires that the spelling of the original word alter in some way,
which is what makes spelling so challenging. Like prefixes, suffixes are
64 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

derived from Greek, Latin, and Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words. Follow-
ing are some of these common prefixes and suffixes.

Common Prefxes and Suffxes

Prefx Meaning Example
acro- high, top acrobatics
aero- air aerobics
agri- felds agriculture
alti- high altitude
ambul- walk, move around ambulance
amphi- around, both amphibian
anima- life, breath, soul animal
ante- before, prior antecedent
anthro- man anthropologist
anti- against antipathy
aqua- water aquarium
arthro- joint arthropod
atom- gas, vapor atmosphere
audio- sound, hearing audience
auto- self, itself automatic
bi- two, double bicycle
biblio- book bibliography
bio- life biography
cardio- heart cardiologist
centi- hundred centipede
chlor- green chlorophyll
chrono- time chronology
circum- round circumference
co- together cooperation
cour- heart courage
crypto- secret cryptography
deca- ten decade
deci- tenth decimal
dent- tooth dentist
 Spelling 65

Prefx Meaning Example

dino- terrible dinosaur
eco- house ecology
equi- same equivalent
geo- earth, land geography
graph- written graphic
hemi- half hemisphere
hexa- six hexagon
hydr- water hydration
il- not illegal
im- not impossible
inter- between international
intra- within intrapersonal
liber- free liberty
lingua- tongue linguistics
magni- big, great magnify
mega- great, large megaphone
metro- measure metric
micro- small, tiny microscope
mini- small, little miniature
mono- one, alone monologue
multi- many multicolored
neo- new neoclassical
nocti- night nocturnal
nom- name nominate
non- not nonworking
octa- eight octagon
ortho- upright, straight orthodontist
ped- foot pedestrian
pedi- child pediatrics
pre- before preview
pro- for pronoun
re- again replay
sens- feeling sensory
soli- alone, only solitary
66 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Prefx Meaning Example

sub- below, under submarine
terra- land terrain
thermo- heat thermometer
trans- across, beyond transportation
un- not unhappy
uni- one united
vice- in place of vice president
zoo- animal zoology

Suffx Meaning Example

-able can do capable
-ancy condition vacancy
-archy rule monarchy
-chrome color monochrome
-cide kill homicide
-cracy rule democracy
-derm skin dermatologist
-ful characterized by cheerful
-gram writing telegram
-graph writing autograph
-ist one who pianist
-itis disease bronchitis
-less without homeless
-ment act of, result disappointment
-meter instrument speedometer
-ness state of, quality goodness
-pathy feeling, suffering sympathy
-phobia fear of claustrophobia
-phone sound telephone
-ward direction of westward
-y full of salty
 Spelling 67

ANSWERS
Reminder: Write i before e except after c or when sounding like a as in neigh-
bor and weigh (with a few exceptions).
1. relief 5. shield 9. eight
2. deceive 6. vein 10. foreign
3. chief 7. sieve 11. yield
4. weird 8. freight 12. niece

Reminder: (1) When a one-syllable word ends with a consonant that is pre-
ceded by a vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix that
begins with a vowel; (2) when a multisyllable word ends with a consonant
that is preceded by a vowel, and ends with a stressed syllable, double the final
consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel; (3) when a pre-
fix or suffix is being added to a word that begins or ends with the same let-
ter, include both letters in the new word.
13. steal stealing
14. shop shopped
15. tax taxing
16. step stepping
17. compel compelling
18. portray portrayed
19. draw drawing
20. need needed
21. perplex perplexing
22. keep keeping

Reminder: (1) When a word ends with a silent e, the e is dropped before
adding the suffix that begins with a vowel; and (2) when a suffix is being
added that begins with a consonant, leave the e at the end of the word.
23. compete competing
24. hope hopeful
25. pale paling
26. state stated
27. compile compiling
68 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

28. like likely

29. manage management
30. take taken
31. amaze amazing
32. arrive arrived

Reminder: (1) When -y is the final letter, change the -y to -i before adding
the suffix.
33. beauty beautiful
34. fancy fanciful
35. duty dutiful
36. fuzzy fuzziness
37. lazy laziness

Reminder: (1) Words with the -cian suffix involve people and their careers
or hobbies; (2) when the root word ends in -s or -d, the suffix -sion is used
to make the noun form of verbs; and (3) if the root word ends in -t or -te, then
-tion is used to make the noun form of the verb.
38. confuse confusion
39. oppose opposition
40. confess confession
41. elect election
42. magic magician
43. describe description
44. collide collision
45. extend extension
46. explode explosion
47. beauty beautician

Reminder: In English, the letter q must be followed by a u.

48. bouquet 54. conquer
49. quagmire 55. opaque
50. banquet 56. quick
51. sequel 57. plaque
52. question 58. frequently
53. quake 59. quail
4
I
Verbs
The Movers and Shakers
of Language

magine having a lively conversation with your friend

about a recent hit movie, each of you contorting your faces and wav-
ing your arms about, as in a game of charades. If we lacked verbs in our lan-
guage, this would be about the only way that we could get our points across:
by mimicking. Luckily, with the use of verbs—the movers and shakers of any
written and spoken language—you can convey your ideas not only expres-
sively, but also with a wide variety of colorful, vivid choices. For instance, let’s
see in how many ways L. E. Phant and Pac A. Derm, a pair of loxodonta
africanus, trek across the Kenyan savannah.

The pair walk . . . then decide to stomp . . . and march . . . and then
parade . . . after which, they lumber . . . trudge . . . and plod . . . then
finally, overcome with exhaustion, they hobble and limp their way
to the forest.

Okay, so these action verbs are pretty obvious. But are they all? Well, no.
Some are less physical, and more mental: want, need, require, think, suppose,
know, wonder, hope, feel, mean, remember, understand, see, find, consider,
love, like, etc. The action is there; it’s just not visible.
70 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

LINKING AND HELPING VERBS: MAKE THE CONNECTION!

The linking verb does not express action but expresses a state of being or
a condition. Specifically, this kind of verb links, or connects, a noun to an
adjective or other noun.

Rosemarie is thoughtful. (Thoughtful describes Rosemarie; is links

the two.)
Mark became a soccer coach. (Coach identifies Mark; became links
the two.)
The bananas looked ripe. (Ripe describes bananas; looked links the
two.)

Identifying some linking verbs can be tricky because they look like action
verbs. Their job, however, is to clarify the condition of the related noun in the
sentence. Following is a short list of verbs that perform multiple tasks, and
act not only as action verbs, but also as linking verbs.

appear become feel grow look prove remain

seem smell sound stay taste come lie
prove act turned fall get

How can one tell the difference with these tricky verbs? Take the word feels:

Meghan gently pets the cat and feels its soft fur.

Meghan is performing the action, to feel. Can you visualize her hand petting
and feeling the cat’s soft fur?

The cat begins to purr because it feels content.

The word feel connects the adjective content to the noun cat. Feel is acting
as a linking verb, not an action verb.
 Verbs 71

Let’s try another one.

Mom remained calm even though she burned last night’s dinner.
The odor of charred fish remained in the house for a week.

In the first sentence, remained links Mom and the adjective calm, which
describes how Mom felt, whereas in the second sentence, remained is an
action verb, implying that the odor stayed behind.
An easy way to tell if a verb is an action or linking verb is to substitute the
verb with a verb form of to be, or another linking verb, like seem or become.
If you substitute the verb and it still makes sense, then you have a linking verb.
If it doesn’t, then it’s an action verb. Take a look at these examples.

The leaves turn orange and red every autumn.

Now, replace turn with the verb are.

The leaves are orange and red every autumn.

Or use the verb seem.

The leaves seem orange and red every autumn.

Let’s try another one.

When I turn the hair dryer on, it is very noisy.

Now, replace turn again with the verb was.

When I was the hair dryer on, it is noisy.

Or use became here.

When I became the hair dryer on, it is noisy.

These just don’t make sense, because the word turn in this sentence is an
action verb, not a linking verb.
72 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
See if you can tell whether the verbs in the following sentences is an action
verb or a linking verb. Remember to use the seem/became trick if you need
help. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. The ghost appeared in the window.

2. The ghost appeared disgruntled as it passed by the window.

3. Can you prove the theory of relativity?

4. Your answer could prove faulty if you are not careful.

5. We arrived late and had to stay overnight at a hotel this weekend.

6. Mom asked us to stay quiet as we walked down the hallway.

7. Have you tasted my newest candy bar creation?

8. Yes, the Summit Sensation tasted delectable.

9. The lunch bell sounds melodic, especially when you have a hungry
stomach.

10. At noon, the clock sounds the bell to inform the students that it’s
lunchtime.
 Verbs 73

Sometimes, you’ll encounter another type of verb in your writing and read-
ing called a helping verb. Helping verbs enhance the main verb by provid-
ing more information about its tense. Some common helping verbs are am,
are, be, can, could, do, have, had, has, may, might, should, was, were, and
would, among others. A main verb can have as many as three helping verbs.
For instance:

Nathan was playing guitar yesterday.

He has been playing for quite a while now.
Next year, he will have been playing for 11 years total.

PRINCIPLE PARTS OF VERBS: PART AND PARCEL

Participles, verb forms that act like verbs or adjectives, are broken into four
principle parts:

1. Present—the verb form that is usually found as the main or first entry
in the dictionary, e.g., throw, sleep, dance, sit, ride, etc. Sometimes, an s
is added to the end of the verb when it is used in conjunction with a sin-
gular noun.
2. Present participle—the verb form used with to be verbs to express ongo-
ing action, e.g., am throwing, is sleeping, are dancing, was sitting, were rid-
ing, etc. The suffix -ing is added to the present infinitive and is always
accompanied by a helping verb, forming what is called a verb phrase.
When the verb is acting as an adjective, a helping verb is not required.
3. Past—the verb form that describes actions that happened in the past,
e.g., threw, slept, danced, sat, rode, etc. All regular verbs in past tense end
in -ed. Irregular verbs end in a variety of ways.
4. Past participle—a verb form that must be accompanied by the helping
verb have with the past tense form of the verb (regular or irregular), e.g.,
have thrown, has slept, had danced, have sat, has ridden, etc. When the
verb is acting as an adjective, a helping verb is not required.
74 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Regular Verbs

Present Present Participle* Past Past Participle**

walk, walks am walking walked have walked
jump, jumps are jumping jumped had jumped
listen, listens are listening listened has listened

Irregular Verbs

Present Present Participle* Past Past Participle**

sing, sings is singing sang has sung
think, thinks was thinking thought have thought
see, sees were seeing saw has seen

Irregular Verbs Whose Form Does Not Change

Present Present Participle* Past Past Participle**

cost, costs is costing cost has cost
cut, cuts am cutting cut have cut
hurt, hurts are hurting hurt has hurt
* Uses am, is, are, was, or were
** Uses have, has, or had

VERB TENSES: CONSIS-TENSE-CY IS THE KEY!

When you speak or write, you help your listeners and readers understand
when something happens, has happened, or will happen using three basic
tenses: present, past, and future. To avoid confusion, you should be con-
sistent with tenses as you speak and write. If your passage begins in past
tense, then continue in past tense; likewise if you are using present or
future. Consistency is the key!

Present Tense—implies present action or action that happens again and

again
I meet my friends every day at school. We have many of the same
classes.
Past Tense—implies that the action already happened
I met them at lunchtime today. We sat at the same table.
 Verbs 75

Future Tense—implies that the action hasn’t happened yet, but will
I will meet with Nicole after school. We will study for our midterms.
Present Progressive Tense—implies that the action is currently in
progress. Always add -ing to the verb and with the helping verbs am, is,
or are.
Katelyn is learning how to skateboard from her brother, Andrew.
They are riding on the sidewalk in front of their house.
Past Progressive—implies that the action was happening at some specific
time in the past. Add -ing to the verb and use the helping verbs was and
were.
I was sweeping the basement floor yesterday while my parents were
painting the dining room ceiling. Kurt, my younger brother, was
helping also.
Future Progressive—implies that the action will occur in the future or is
continuous. Use the verb form ending in -ing and the helping verbs will be
or shall be.
Tom will be traveling to Thailand again this summer. I shall be going
with him next year when I graduate.
Present Perfect Tense—implies that the action started in the past and con-
tinues up to the present time. Use the helping verb have or has with the
past participle form of the verb.
Suzanne and David have gone to the theater to see a movie.
Past Perfect Tense—implies that the action happened in the past and was
completed before some other past action. Use only the helping verb had
with the past participle form of the verb.
They had planned to see the 4:30 show, but it was already completely
sold out by the time they got to the theater.

Future Perfect Tense—implies that the action will start and finish in the
future. Use the helping verb will have, would have, or will have been with
the past participle form of the verb.
Because they arrived early this time, it is unlikely the show will have
sold out by the time they reach the ticket counter.
76 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HAVE YOU EVER heard anyone say or write should of, as in I
should of ordered strawberry instead? It might sound similar, but
the correct wording really is should have, as in I should have
ordered strawberry instead. (You can also use a contraction: I
should’ve ordered strawberry instead.) Keep this in mind when
you’re using could have, must have, and would have, too. The
phrases could of, must of, and would of are all wrong.

PRACTICE LAP
Which tense of the verb or verb phrase is needed to complete the following
sentences? Check your answers at the end of the chapter.

11. I think parties (were, are) always fun, especially during the holidays.

12. I (waited, wait) with anticipation every year for my invitations to arrive.

13. Last year, the parties (are, were) small gatherings with just a few close
friends. I (enjoy, enjoyed) that.

14. This year, my friends (will have, will have had) big parties with oodles
of people, loud music, and lots of good food.

15. I (will have, will) attend every celebration this holiday season. Cheers!

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Have you ever noticed how little kids tend to add -ed to the end of every verb
they say? For instance:
 Verbs 77

When Daddy goed to work, I cried. I gotted my toys and played,

and then I feeled better.

Why is this? Many English verbs, although not all, follow the same pat-
tern when expressing past action—they end in -d or -ed. Those that end with
-d or -ed are called regular verbs and are the ones you learned first when you
learned to read and write.
I bike along the boardwalk often. This afternoon, though, I biked
through park trails with my friends.
Last year, Taryn played basketball nearly every day. Now she plays
just on the weekend.

Irregular verbs, on the other hand, have no set way of forming the past
tense and should be memorized.

I cut the grass this morning. Yesterday, I cut my neighbor’s grass.

Here, the irregular verb cut stays the same whether it is past or present.
Other verbs that follow suit are cost, burst, bid, put, and set, to name a few.

I usually tear the wrapper right off my pack of gum, but I carefully
tore my father’s open.
My friends and I eat pizza at Nick’s. We ate three pies today.

Other irregular verbs include the following:

Common Irregular Verbs

Present Past Past Participle
be was/were been
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
78 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Present Past Past Participle

broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fght fought fought
fnd found found
fy few fown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
 Verbs 79

Present Past Past Participle

know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
mistake mistook mistaken
mow mowed mowed/mown
pay paid paid
proofread proofread proofread
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
sew sewed sewed/sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved/shaven
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show showed showed/shown
80 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Present Past Past Participle

shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
speak spoke spoken
speed speeded/sped speeded/sped
spend spent spent
spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
strike struck struck/stricken
strive strove striven/strived
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weep wept wept
win won won
wind wound wound
write wrote written
 Verbs 81

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THE VERBS hang and lie can be both regular and irregular. These
verbs have multiple meanings, and their proper conjugation hinges
on how you are using them in a sentence. Say you mean hang as in
a thief going to the gallows to hang for his crime, then hang conju-
gates as a regular verb (hang, hanged, hanged). On the other hand,
say you want to mean hang out with friends or hang a poster on the
wall. Hang should now conjugate as an irregular verb (hang, hung,
has hung). Likewise, if lie carries the meaning “to tell an untruth or
falsehood,” it should be conjugated as a regular verb (lie, lied, has
lied). Otherwise, it means “to recline,” which should conjugate as an
irregular verb (lie, lay, has lain).

INFINITIVES: TO SPLIT OR NOT TO SPLIT?

When the word to precedes a main verb, that verb is in the infinitive form.
The infinitive form of a verb can act as a noun, adjective, or adverb, depend-
ing upon its usage in the sentence.

To play Juliet in this year’s production is her dream. (noun)

Michael is going to the tennis courts to play. (adverb)
The need to play helps young children learn important social skills.
(adjective)

Long before the twenty-first century, grammarians held onto the notion
that it was wrong to split an infinitive (to insert an adverb between to and
the verb, as in to reluctantly move or to decidedly speak). At the time, Latin,
now a dead language, was a mandatory topic of study for students like you.
Oddly, some of the rules of English reflected those of Latin grammar,
even though they were two completely different languages. In Latin gram-
mar, an infinitive is written as one word and cannot be split; thus, the
grammarians said that English infinitives should not be split either. Fortu-
nately, for the most part, the rule has since changed. After all, isn’t the goal
82 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

of writing and speaking to make your meaning clearer and more under-
standable for your audience? Take this example:

Benjamin used his flash cards to quickly review his vocabulary

words for class.

This sentence reads far more clearly than the following, in which the infini-
tives are not split.

Benjamin used his flash cards to review quickly his vocabulary

words for class.
Benjamin used quickly his flash cards to review his vocabulary
words for class.

Bear in mind that some un-split infinitives are better left unchanged.

She is generally quick to make her decisions.

The alternative, She is quick to generally make her decisions, sounds a bit awk-
ward. So does She is quick to make generally her decisions.
So, how do you decide whether or not to split the infinitive? Let your ear
tell you. If it sounds right, then it by all means, go with it. If it doesn’t, then
you’re better off leaving it whole.

WHEN IS A VERB A NOUN? WHEN IT’S A GERUND, OF COURSE!

When you place -ing at the end of a verb, that verb can become a noun.

Smoking is bad for your health. (the verb smoke + ing = noun/gerund)
Running is wonderful exercise. (the verb run + ing = noun/gerund)
Listening to music is relaxing. (the verb listen + ing = noun/gerund)

Have you noticed that these, and other gerunds, look like something else
you’ve just learned about? Present participles, you say? Bravo! You’re correct!
Progressive verbs, you say? Congratulations! You’re correct, too!
 Verbs 83

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

GRAMMAR IS LIKE a puzzle. To construct the picture correctly, you

have to look at each piece carefully to see how it fts into the adjoin-
ing piece. You must do the same for grammar. Because a word can
play many different roles in a sentence, you must look carefully at how
it is being used with the words surrounding it. This is especially
important with verbs, participles, and gerunds.

Running is wonderful exercise.

Here, running is a gerund, acting as a noun.

Running 20 miles each week, Jeremy became enthusiastic about

competing in the New York City Marathon.

In this second sentence, running is functioning as a participle,

describing Jeremy.

Jeremy has fnished running the marathon and feels tremendously

energized.

Last, the word running is acting as a verb in this sentence. It is

showing action.

OH, THOSE TROUBLESOME VERBS!

For the most part, by the time you graduate high school, you will know how
to say most any verb in the present tense, simple past tense, and simple past
participle (using has, have, and had as helping verbs) without much thought
at all. Okay, maybe you’ll have to use a bit more thought for the irregular verbs
because they don’t follow any particular standard form. There are, though, two
irregular verbs that are known to make most people (even grammar-savvy
adults) stop and think for a moment or two: lay/lie and sit/set.
84 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

LAY / LIE

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

lay, lays (am, is, are, was) laying laid (have, has) laid

Lay means “to place or put an object somewhere.” A noun must always fol-
low the verb lay (making the noun a direct object—the object receiving the
action) in the sentence.

Each night, Carly lays her clothes out for school. She laid her plaid
sweater and jean skirt on her chair after dinner this evening.

The nouns clothes and sweater, now direct objects, receive the action in each
sentence.

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

lie, lies (am, is, are, was) lying lay (have, has) lain

Lie means “to rest or recline” or “to be situated.” No noun follows the verb
this time. A prepositional phrase or adverb sometimes follows, however.

The cat lies in the window to bask in the morning sun. He has lain
there almost every day this summer.

The prepositional phrase in the window and the adverb there follow the verb
lies and the verb phrase has lain in each sentence.

SET / SIT

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

set, sets (am, is, are, was) setting set (have, has) set

Set means “to place or put an object in a particular spot.” Like lay, set must
be followed by a noun (which will become the direct object—the object
receiving the action) in the sentence.
 Verbs 85

Joanne carefully set the new crystal figurine inside the cabinet
hanging on the wall. She has already set two others in her special
collection this week.

The nouns figurine and the pronoun others, now direct objects, receive the
action in each sentence.

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

sit, sits (am, is, are, was) sitting sat (have, has) sat

Sit means to be situated or to be seated or resting. Like lie, no noun need fol-
low the verb, but an adverb or prepositional phrase very well may.

With a smile, Joanne sat proudly admiring her collection of crystal

figurines that were sitting in the cabinet.

The adverb proudly and the prepositional phrase in the cabinet follow the verb
sat and verb phrase were sitting in the sentence.

PRACTICE LAP
Identify the correct verb needed to complete the following sentences. Then,
check your answers at the end of the chapter.

16. The county park (lies, lays) just north of Jackson Avenue in Humbolt.

17. Sometimes, you can see people (sitting, setting) on park benches, or they
will (lay, lie) on a blanket they have (laid, lain) on the grass.

18. Some enjoy watching the geese as they swim, (sit, set), and (lain, lie)
in the sun.

19. Sometimes, people will (sit, sat) and throw bread crumbs to the bask-
ing geese.

20. Many of the geese are so relaxed that they (lay, lie) their heads under
their wings for hours at a time.
86 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ANSWERS
Reminder: An easy way to tell if a verb is an action verb or a linking verb is
to substitute the verb in the sentence with a form of the verb to be or the link-
ing verb seem or become. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is a link-
ing verb, and if it doesn’t, then the verb is an action verb.
1. The ghost appeared in the window. (action)
2. The ghost appeared disgruntled as it passed by the window. (linking)
3. Can you prove the theory of relativity? (action)
4. Your answer could prove faulty if you are not careful. (linking)
5. We arrived late and had to stay overnight at a hotel this weekend.
(action)
6. Mom asked us to stay quiet as we walked down the hallway. (linking)
7. Have you tasted my newest candy bar creation? (action)
8. Yes, the Summit Sensation tasted delectable. (linking)
9. The lunch bell sounds melodic, especially when you have a hungry stom-
ach. (linking)
10. At noon, the clock sounds the bell to inform the students that it’s
lunchtime. (action)

Reminder: Be consistent with verb tenses as you speak and write. If your pas-
sage begins in past tense, then continue in past tense; likewise, if you are
using present or future tenses, be consistent.
11. I think parties are always fun, especially during the holidays.
12. I wait with anticipation every year for my invitations to arrive.
13. Last year, the parties were small gatherings with just a few close friends.
I enjoyed that.
14. This year, my friends will have big parties with oodles of people, loud
music, and lots of good food.
15. I will attend every celebration this holiday season. Cheers!
 Verbs 87

Reminder: (1) Lay means to place or put an object somewhere, and lie means
to rest or recline or to be situated; and (2) set means to place or put an object
in a particular spot, and sit means to be situated or to be seated or resting.
16. The county park lies just north of Jackson Avenue in Humboldt.
17. Sometimes, you can see people sitting on park benches, or they will lie
on a blanket they have laid on the grass.
18. Some enjoy watching the geese as they swim, sit, and lie in the sun.
19. Sometimes, people will sit and throw bread crumbs to the basking
geese.
20. Some of the geese are so relaxed that they lay their heads under their
wings for hours at a time.
Blank Page
5
A
Adjectives and Adverbs
The 5 Ws and 4 Hs of Good Writing

djectives and adverbs are like the vibrant paints on

an artist’s palette that she uses to create the picture she sees; likewise,
a writer paints pictures with his words so his readers can not only understand
his ideas but enjoy reading about them, too. In other words, if you were hun-
gry and went to the pantry or fridge to scope out a tasty snack, would you grab
the box of plain, low-sodium crackers or opt for a helping of chips and salsa?
Not to knock crackers—sometimes they are just what the doctor ordered.
And sometimes a no-frills, get-to-the-point sentence or paragraph is what
you have to write. Let’s face it: not all creations have to be masterpieces. But
when the creative mood strikes, adjectives and adverbs add spark to your
writing.

COMMON ADJECTIVES
Simply put, adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They give more specific
information about a person, place, or thing. Take the word house, for
instance. Alone, the word is general. Add the words two-story and yellow, and
you have a clearer picture of the house in your mind. Sometimes, you hear
90 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

adjectives referred to as modifiers. Modify means “to change,” and in truth,

adjectives change a noun by making it more specific.
Adjectives answer three specific questions about nouns and pronouns.

What kind? long, short, heavy, red, excellent, difficult

Which one(s)? this, that, these, those
How many? some, few, many, eight, 4,000

To decide if a word is an adjective, simply ask yourself these three ques-

tions. Let’s put it to the test.

The moldy, green bread made Josh lose his appetite for the mile-
high turkey sub.

The words green and moldy seem to describe the noun bread (a thing), but
just to make certain, let’s ask ourselves whether they answer What kind?
Which one? How many? Both words answer what kind of bread (moldy and
green—yuck!), making them both adjectives. Now, do you see any other
adjectives in the sentence? If you pointed to mile-high and turkey, you are cor-
rect. Both words answer what kind of sub (a thing). Excellent!
Let’s try another one.

That striped shirt clashes with your plaid pants.

The noun shirt (a thing) is being described, or modified, by two words: that
(which answers which shirt) and striped (which answers what kind of shirt).
The other noun, pants (a thing), is being described by the adjectives your
(which answers which pants) and plaid (which answers what kind of pants).
Good job!
 Adjectives and Adverbs 91

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

ADJECTIVES USUALLY COME before the noun they are modify-

ing, but not always. Let’s go back to the moldy sub for a moment.

The moldy, green bread made Josh lose his appetite for the mile-
high turkey sub.

With a little tweak here and there, you can easily reword the sentence
to make the adjectives come after the noun.

The bread, moldy and green, made Josh lose his appetite for the
sub piled a mile high with turkey.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the adjectives in the following sentences? Check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

1. Leslie bought a new white-and-silver beach cruiser.

2. Her old bike had a broken rim and pedal.

3. Every weekend, she rode on the wooden boardwalk at the local beach.

4. Her father will repair her damaged bike and paint it blue and red.

5. Then, Leslie will give it to her younger brother, Matthew.

92 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ARTICLES: ARE YOU DEFINITE?

The three words—a, an, and the—are special adjectives called articles. You
encounter them when reading all the time. The is called a definite article
because it implies a specific person, place, or thing (the cafeteria, the princi-
pal). A and an are called indefinite articles because they do not imply anything
specific (a boy, a movie).

Definite: Class, please line up at the door. (a specific door)

Indefinite: Class, please line up at a door. (any door)

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THE ARTICLE A is placed before words that begin with a conso-

nant sound, and an is placed before words beginning with a vowel
sound. Here are some examples.

a tiger an open window

a quarter an igloo
a shoestring an ankle

Be careful! Not all words that begin with a vowel begin with a vowel
sound! Look at these examples.

a unicorn, a university (Both begin with a y sound.)

a one-eyed monster, a one-way street (Both begin with a w sound.)
 Adjectives and Adverbs 93

PRACTICE LAP
See if you can correctly place the indefinite articles a or an in front of each
noun. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

6. hour 14. unicorn

7. inspector 15. honest person

8. umbrella 16. house

9. yellow jacket 17. unique opportunity

10. European 18. earthworm

11. upperclassman 19. university

12. ounce 20. hollow log

13. one-eyed monster

PROPER ADJECTIVES: IT’S ALL IN THE NAME

Sometimes, you may encounter a word that is capitalized like a proper
noun, but its job in the sentence is to be an adjective. Take the phrases French
toast, English muffin, and Smith family. Each one begins with a proper adjec-
tive, and each proper adjective answers the questions What kind? or Which
one? about the nouns that they are modifying.

What kind of toast? French

What kind of muffins? English
Which family? Smith
94 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Many proper adjectives are derived from country or cultural names. You
often need to adjust the proper noun by adding a suffix to the end of the
word.

America American
Italy Italian
Vietnam Vietnamese
Japan Japanese
Peru Peruvian
Paris Parisian

PRACTICE LAP
Can you revise the following phrases to change the proper noun into a
proper adjective? For instance, the phrase the students from Japan becomes
the Japanese students. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

21. some grapefruits from Florida

22. the ancient empire belonging to the Mayas

23. a symphony by Mozart

24. a pyramid in Egypt

25. a store in Paris

PRONOUNS AS ADJECTIVES: IS IT MINE, YOURS, OR OURS?

Like nouns, can pronouns can be used as adjectives? Yes! Personal pro-
nouns, called possessive adjectives, can act as adjectives when preceding
a noun. Here are some examples.

Liza carried her books to class.

“His name is Milo,” said the little boy.
I hope that their recital is successful.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 95

INSIDE TRACK

SOMETIMES PERSONAL PRONOUNS act as adjectives:

Singular Plural
my our
your your
his, her their
its their

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES: WHICH ONE?

Made up of four words—this, that, these, and those—demonstrative adjec-
tives answer the question, Which one(s)? Demonstrative adjectives always
appear before the noun they are modifying.

That car looks cool.

This lamp is broken.
These shells are pretty.
Those waves seem dangerous.

INSIDE TRACK

WHEN THIS, THAT, these, and those are not followed by a noun,
they are pronouns (a word that replaces a noun).

That looks cool.

This is broken.
These are pretty.
Those seem dangerous.
96 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

DETERMINING WHICH DEMONSTRATIVE adjective or demon-

strative pronoun to use depends upon your distance from the object
or objects.
If you are holding or touching an object, you would use this; when
referring to two or more objects, you would use these.

Demonstrative Adjective: This pen is mine.

Demonstrative Pronoun: These are yours.

If you are pointing to an object at a distance, you would say that;

when referring to two or more objects, you would say those.

Demonstrative Adjective: That pen is mine.

Demonstrative Pronoun: Those are yours.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you tell whether the italicized word in the sentence is a demonstrative
adjective, a demonstrative pronoun, or a possessive adjective? Check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

26. This is an adorable puppy. Just look at its eyes.

27. That toothbrush belongs to Emily, not Keith. This one is his.

28. Hopefully, my payment will reach this company on time.

29. These are really delicious. May I have more please?

30. The peanuts in their bag are boiled; these in our bag are roasted.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 97

USING ADJECTIVES TO COMPARE: GOOD, BETTER, BEST!

Sometimes, you need to be able to show how one object compares to another.
You can make these comparisons with adjectives on three levels: the posi-
tive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree. Here’s how
they work.
With the positive degree, a person makes a simple statement about the
noun.

This balloon is big.

The comparative degree makes a comparison between two nouns only.

This balloon is big, but that one is bigger.

In the superlative degree, a person compares more than two nouns.

Of all the balloons, this one is the biggest.

Positive Comparative Superlative

small smaller smallest

red redder reddest
cute cuter cutest
thick thicker thickest
close closer closest

You need to remember three rules when using the comparative and the
superlative degrees.

Rule 1: Add -er and -est to one-syllable adjectives (see the previous table).
Rule 2: When using adjectives with two or more syllables, use more and
most to enhance their degree or less and least to decrease the degree.

Use this book for the advanced class, that one for the more advanced
class, and any of those for the most advanced class.
98 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

His mother was less apprehensive about him when he walked to

school, and was least apprehensive when he took the bus.

Rule 3: There are some exceptions to the second rule. Some two-syllable
adjectives use -er and -est.

happy happier happiest

picky pickier pickiest
silly sillier silliest
Others won’t follow any of these forms; they are considered irregular.

good better best

bad worse worst
many more most

INSIDE TRACK

IF YOU ARE uncertain as to which comparative form to use, con-

sult a dictionary to help you decide. If the comparative and superla-
tive forms aren’t given, play it safe and use more and most with the
positive degree of comparison.

This puppy is more silly than that one.

This puppy is the most silly of all.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME ADJECTIVES JUST can’t be compared no matter how hard

you try. They are referred to as absolute adjectives. Take the word
round, for instance. Can something be rounder than round? How
about the word unique? What can be more unique than something
that is already one of a kind? Words like favorite, true, false, perfect,
square, free, and complete also fall into this category.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 99

PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct form of the comparative or superlative adjective that best
completes each sentence. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

31. Victoria’s dog, Shadow, is the (friendlier, friendliest) dog I’ve ever met.

32. Which is (cuter, cutest), the yellow purse with flowers or the pink
purse with stripes?

33. President Lincoln is one of the (most famous, famousest) U.S. presidents.

34. Jack’s piano lesson went (good, well) because he practiced every day.

35. Sheila is (happiest, most happy) when she gets to nap during the afternoon.

ADVERBS
Like adjectives, adverbs modify words, specifically verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs. Of those three, verbs are the most often modified.
Adverbs answer five specific questions about the words they modify.

Where? here, there, everywhere, outside, underneath

When? now, then, sometimes, often, infrequently, yesterday
How? slowly, timidly, suspiciously, curiously, fervently
How much?
(To what extent?) really, too, extremely, very, so
How often? daily, weekly, sometimes, never, once, twice
How long? forever, all day, not long, all night, for a while

Just as when you are trying to identify adjectives, you can ask yourself these
questions to help you determine whether a word is an adverb. Let’s try it.

The mouse scampered hastily across the kitchen floor yesterday.

Notice the -ly word hastily. Does it answer how something was done? Yes,
it answers how the mouse scampered (a verb): It scampered hastily. Do you
100 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

notice any other words that may be adverbs? How about yesterday? Does yes-
terday answer any adverb questions? Yes, it answers when the mouse scam-
pered hastily: yesterday. Good! Let’s try another one.

His hair grows so fast that it has to be trimmed often.

There aren’t any -ly words this time. Don’t panic! Notice the word fast. This
word answers how his hair grows—it grows fast—and, therefore, it is an
adverb. Now, take the word so. So answers to what extent of fast it grows—
it grows so fast—making so an adverb (modifying another adverb). The next
word, often, answers when haircuts are needed: often.

INSIDE TRACK

NOT ALL WORDS ending in -ly are adverbs. There are some adjec-
tives that share the same ending.

friendly, neighborly, costly, ugly, burly, lovely, cowardly

Comparing Adverbs
Just like adjectives, adverbs use -er and -est, as well as more, most, less, and
least to show degrees of comparison. The comparative degree is used when
comparing only two persons or things; the superlative degree is used when
comparing three or more persons or things.
For short one-syllable adverbs, use the -er and -est endings.

soon sooner soonest

For longer two-syllable adverbs, use more and most to enhance their
degree or less and least to decrease the degree.

often more often most often

frequently more frequently most frequently
 Adjectives and Adverbs 101

Additionally, irregular adverbs don’t follow either form.

well better best

badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest

Last, some adverbs just can’t be intensified, no matter how hard you try.
They are referred to as absolute adverbs. The words all, every, completely,
and entirely, for instance, imply everything possible—how could there be
more? Likewise, never and always imply the two extremes of when. You cer-
tainly would have trouble trying to do something more always or less never,
wouldn’t you agree?

PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct form of comparative or superlative adverb that best com-
pletes each sentence. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

36. Mariah can hold her breath (longer, longest) than her sister, Tanya.

37. In my family, I can shower the (fastest, faster), which gives me more
time to eat breakfast in the morning.

38. Most students sleep (later, latest) during the summer break than dur-
ing the school year.

39. Mr. Thomas reminded the class that the (sooner, soonest) they finished
the lesson, the (quicker, quickest) they could start their homework.

40. Unfortunately, the group behaved so (poorly, poorer) in the museum

that they were asked to leave.
102 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ADVERB OR ADJECTIVE
It isn’t unusual, as you already know, to encounter a word that looks like it
is one part of speech when, in fact, it is really another. For instance:

Shelly studied hard for the test on the Industrial Revolution.

Shelly thought the test on the Industrial Revolution was hard.

In the first sentence, hard is modifying, or enhancing, the verb studied. It

is answering the question how Shelly studied: She studied hard. In the sec-
ond sentence, hard is modifying, or enhancing, the noun test. It answers the
question what kind of test: It was a hard test.
Here are some words that can be more than one part of speech.

Adjective Adverb

His sports car is fast. He drives too fast.

The early class was flled quickly. I arrived early to class.
The straight line looked crooked. Please come straight home.
Sue and Brittany are close friends. You shouldn’t sit too close to the TV.
She has fair skin and burns easily. People expect others to play fair.
The hikers climbed the high hills. The eagle soared high into the air.
My daily exercise routine is simple. She eats fruits and vegetables daily.
Jason’s late uncle left him a house. Michael got to stay up late last night.

There are many others. Can you think of some?

PRACTICE LAP
Try to determine whether the underlined words in the sentences are adjec-
tives or adverbs. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

41. My plane will fly straight to Chicago and arrive late on Saturday evening.

42. Daily doses of vitamin C will help prevent colds during the winter.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 103

43. We saw many high buildings from our hotel room, which was situated
high on the top floor.

44. It was a close call when my kitten, sitting close to the open window,
decided to move onto the sill.

45. “Open wide,” said the dentist playfully, holding the huge toothbrush. My
wide-eyed stare made him grin.

ANSWERS
Reminder: Adjectives (1) modify only nouns and (2) answer What kind?
Which one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying.
1. Leslie bought a new white-and-silver beach cruiser.
2. Her old bike had a broken rim and pedal.
3. Every weekend, she rode on the wooden boardwalk at the local beach.
4. Her father will repair her damaged bike and paint it blue and red.
5. Then, Leslie will give it to her younger brother, Matthew.

Reminder: The indefinite article a is placed before words that begin with a
consonant sound, and the indefinite article an is placed before words begin-
ning with a vowel sound.
6. an hour 14. a unicorn
7. an inspector 15. an honest person
8. an umbrella 16. a house
9. a yellow jacket 17. a unique opportunity
10. a European 18. an earthworm
11. an upperclassman 19. a university
12. an ounce 20. a hollow log
13. a one-eyed monster
104 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Reminder: Proper adjectives (1) are proper nouns that behave like adjec-
tives and (2) answer Which one? and What kind? about the nouns they are
modifying.
21. some grapefruits from Florida—Florida grapefruits
22. the ancient empire belonging to the Mayas—the ancient Mayan
empire
23. a symphony by Mozart—a Mozart symphony
24. a pyramid in Egypt—an Egyptian pyramid
25. a store in Paris—a Parisian store

Reminder: Possessive adjectives are pronouns that imply something belongs

to someone. Demonstrative adjectives (1) consist of the four words this, that,
these, and those, which are always followed by a noun; and (2) answer the
question Which one(s)? about the nouns they are modifying.
26. This is . . . (demonstrative pronoun) . . . its eyes. (possessive adjective)
27. That toothbrush . . . (demonstrative adjective) This one . . . (demon-
strative adjective) . . . is his (possessive adjective)
28. . . . my payment . . . (possessive adjective) . . . this company (demon-
strative adjective)
29. These are . . . (demonstrative pronoun)
30. their bag . . . (possessive adjective) these . . . (demonstrative pronoun)
our bag . . . (possessive adjective)

Reminder: The comparative degree makes a comparison between only two

nouns, and the superlative degree is used when more than two nouns are
compared.
31. Victoria’s dog, Shadow, is the friendliest dog I’ve ever met.
32. Which is cuter, the yellow purse with flowers or the pink purse with
stripes?
33. President Lincoln is one of the most famous U.S. presidents.
34. Jack’s piano lesson went well because he practiced every day.
35. Sheila is happiest when she gets to nap during the afternoon.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 105

Reminder: The comparative degree of the adverb is used when comparing

only two persons or things; the superlative degree of the adverb is used when
comparing three or more persons or things.
36. Mariah can hold her breath longer than her sister, Tanya.
37. In my family, I can shower the fastest, which gives me more time to eat
breakfast in the morning.
38. Most students sleep later during the summer break than during the
school year.
39. Mr. Thomas reminded the class that the sooner they finished the les-
son, the quicker they could start their homework.
40. Unfortunately, the group behaved so poorly in the museum that they
were asked to leave.

Reminder: Adjectives modify only nouns and answer What kind? Which
one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying. Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer Where? When? How? How
much? How often? and How long?
41. My plane will fly straight (adverb) to Chicago and arrive late (adverb)
on Saturday evening.
42. Daily (adjective) doses of vitamin C will help prevent colds during the
winter.
43. We saw many high (adjective) buildings from our hotel room, which
was situated high (adverb) on the top floor.
44. It was a close (adjective) call when my kitten, sitting close (adverb) to
the open window, decided to move onto the sill.
45. “Open wide (adverb),” said the dentist playfully, holding the huge
toothbrush. My wide-eyed (adjective) stare made him grin.
Blank Page
6
I
Agreement
A Matter of Compatibility

n polite settings, such as school and work, you are expected

to use a socially acceptable form of grammar, but sometimes, you can
make an inadvertent mistake. One of the most obvious blunders in socially
acceptable grammar is poor subject-verb agreement, and it sticks out like a
big nose on your forehead when you do it!

I is having a bad day today. My alarm clock be going off late this
morning and I be getting to school late. I hope Mr. Smith don’t get
mad because I weren’t there for class.

Singular subjects must be coupled with singular verbs, and likewise, plu-
ral subjects with plural verbs.
A singular subject, usually a noun, refers to one person, place, or thing.

class, hamburger, book report, locker, child, woman, mouse

A plural noun refers to more than one. Most nouns become plural just by
adding an -s or -es to the end of the word.

classes, hamburgers, book reports, lockers

108 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Other nouns take a different form when made plural.

children, women, mice

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME NOUNS KEEP the same spelling whether plural or singular.

deer, moose, sheep, scissors, species, series, jellyfsh

Use the meaning of the surrounding words to determine whether

these nouns are meant to be plural or singular.

Verbs have singular and plural forms as well (see Chapter 4), in both
regular and irregular forms.
 Agreement 109

Regular Verb

Singular Plural
First person I study, studied we study, studied
Second person you study, studied you study, studied
Third person he, she, it studies, studied they study, studied

Irregular Verb

First person I go, went we go, went

Second person you go, went you go, went
Third person he, she, it goes, went they go, went

When you write a sentence, your subject and verb have to be compatible
in number and person. For instance:

Singular: She [singular subject] dances [singular verb] every day.

Plural: They [plural subject] dance [plural verb] every day.
Singular: She [singular subject] goes [singular verb] to dance class every day.
Plural: They [plural subject] go [plural verb] to dance class every day.

INSIDE TRACK

WHEN MAKING A regular verb singular, add an -s or -es to the end

of the word.

score scores cheer cheers

study studies drum drums

For the most part, the subject-verb agreement rule is pretty straightfor-
ward. There can, however, be some tricky situations. Let’s take a look at them.
110 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

THE VERB FORM TO BE

Most verbs are easy to recognize and, when used improperly, are exception-
ally harsh on the ears and eyes. It is especially true of the most widely used verb
in the English language: words formed from the verb to be (which often don’t
look anything like be, oddly enough, except being and been). For instance:

Subject Present Past Past Participle

I am was have been
you are were have been
he, she, it is were has been
we are were have been
they are were have been

Do not use the verb be after a subject.

Incorrect: I be going to the school dance. They be going, too.

The teacher be asking us to read.
Correct: I am going to the school dance. They are going, too.
The teacher is asking us to read.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the verb that agrees with the sentence subject? Check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

1. Ian and Dawn (live, lives) in Washington.

2. They (be, are) siblings.

3. Every summer, their parents (take, takes) them white-water rafting on

the Colorado River.
 Agreement 111

4. Last year, Ian (got, gets) thrown from the raft into the river.

5. Luckily, he could (swim, swims) well and was strong enough to (pull,
pulls) himself back into the raft.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Sometimes, the subject of the sentence is followed by a prepositional
phrase (phrases that start with prepositions such as of, at, between, on,
under, beside, etc.). If you’re not careful, these phrases can confuse you into
picking the wrong verb form to agree with the subject.
When a subject is followed by a prepositional phrase, ignore that phrase
and look only at the subject to determine the correct verb. For instance:

The box of staples (was, were) in the cabinet.

The plural word staples may lead you to choose the plural verb were, but you
must ignore the phrase of staples because box, not staples, is the subject.
Therefore, the sentence would read as follows.

The box [singular subject] of staples was [singular verb] in the cabinet.

Let’s look at another one.

The clothes in the hamper (are, is) dirty.

Again, ignore the prepositional phrase in the hamper, and focus on the sub-
ject, clothes. Then, the sentence should read as follows.

The clothes [plural subject] in the hamper are [plural verb] dirty.

Other prepositional phrases—such as along with, as well as, including,

and in addition to—can also throw you off. For instance:

Daniel, along with Stephen and Anthony, (are, is) a member of the
school marching band.
Vegetables, in addition to fruit, (is, are) a healthy choice for a snack.
112 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

If you disregard the phrases along with Stephen and Anthony and in addition
to fruit, you are able to focus better on the subjects Daniel and vegetables and
choose the correct verb to agree with them.

Daniel [singular subject], along with Stephen and Anthony, is [sin-

gular verb] a member of the school marching band.
Vegetables [plural subject], in addition to fruit, are [plural verb] a
healthy choice for a snack.

Prepositional phrases with plurals in them can create subject agreement

havoc, too. Take a look at the following.

Every one of these cards (are, is) ruined because of the sticky spill.
The subject of these four research reports (is, are) the Alaskan
wilderness.

When you disregard the prepositional phrases of these cards and of these
four research reports to find the subject of each sentence, the sentences
should read as follows.

Every one [singular subject] of these cards is ruined [singular verb]

because of the sticky spill.
The subject [singular subject] of these four research reports is [sin-
gular subject] the Alaskan wilderness.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns take the place of nouns with words like everyone,
both, few, and all. Determining whether these words are singular or plural
is sometimes easy.

Several from the group are walking to the movie, while a few others
are staying behind to chat.

The plural verb are agrees with the plural subjects several and few.
 Agreement 113

Each of the students is encouraged to share a little bit about him-

or herself.
Anyone was allowed to volunteer to share first.

The singular verb is agrees with the singular subjects each and anyone.

Indefnite Pronouns

Singular Plural Both

anybody anyone several all
anything each both more
either everybody others some
everyone everything few most
much nobody many none
neither no one any
nothing one
other somebody
someone something

When you encounter the indefinite pronouns all, more, none, most, any,
and some before a prepositional phrase, don’t ignore the phrase. Instead, use
the noun at the end of the prepositional phrase, called the object of the
preposition (OOP), to help you decide whether to use a singular or plural
verb. For instance:

Some of the cars [OOP] are driving slowly.

The noun cars following the pronoun some is plural, so a plural verb is needed.

Some of the road [OOP] is slippery.

The noun road following the pronoun some is singular, so a singular verb is
needed.

Most of the desserts [OOP] are delicious.

114 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

The noun desserts following the pronoun most is plural, so a plural verb is
required.

Most of the pie [OOP] is frozen.

The noun pie following the pronoun most is singular, so a singular verb is
needed.

INSIDE TRACK
THIS IS THE only time that you should break the “ignore the prepo-
sitional phrase” rule stated earlier and not ignore it in the sentence.
The OOP will determine what kind of verb will follow.

PRACTICE LAP
Identify the verb that will agree with the indefinite pronouns in the follow-
ing sentences. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

6. All of the flowers in the vase (were, was) beautiful.

7. Some of the tourists (were eating, was eating) pizza with cheese and
pepperoni.

8. Yesterday, each of the trains (was, were) on time for once.

9. It is likely that everyone from the class (are, is) going on the trip to the
planetarium.

10. Both of the pears in the basket (is, are) ripe.

 Agreement 115

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are words that name groups of people, animals, and
objects as a single unit, such as team or dozen.
A collective noun can take on either a singular or a plural form, depend-
ing on how it is used in the sentence. For instance:

Singular: The soccer team places its logo on the banner.

The team, as a single unit, has a logo.
Plural: The soccer team place trophies in the display case.
The team’s members have trophies to display and place them
in the case.

Let’s look at another one.

Singular: A dozen roses is such a thoughtful gift.

The roses are purchased by the dozen, as a single unit.
Plural: A dozen friends are coming over tonight.
Friends don’t come by the dozen, like roses. They come as
individuals.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THE TERM THE number is a singular collective noun, where a

number is the plural form.

Singular: The number of cats in the shelter has grown since

September.
One by one, the number of cats in the shelter increased
since September.
Plural: A number of cats were brought to the shelter last night.
Several cats were brought to the shelter last night.
116 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

WORDS EXPRESSING MEASURE

Expressions of measure include words like dollars, cents, tons, pounds, ounces,
grams, days, weeks, months, years, gallons, quarts, pints, cups, pieces, slices, car-
tons, etc. These words denote a quantity of money, weight, time, volume,
food, and fractions.
Determine whether the words are referring to a single unit or to separate
items, to determine what type of verb is required.
Words falling into this category can often trick you because they look plu-
ral, even though they imply a single unit, which makes them singular.

Two gallons of milk is all that is left in the refrigerator.

The gallons are considered a single unit and require a singular verb.

Two one-gallon containers of milk are all that is left in the refrigerator.

This time, the milk is referred to as separate units, containers, so you would
use a plural verb to complete the sentence.

Nine dollars is a lot of money for a toll.

Again, the nine dollars are being lumped together as a single unit, so you
would use a singular verb.

Five one-dollar bills are all I have in my pocket.

Here, the dollars are separated into smaller units, bills, so the verb is plural.

Let’s try one more.

Singular: Nine hours of sleep is ideal for teens.

Plural: Ideally, nine hours of sleep are needed for teens.
 Agreement 117

PRACTICE LAP
Identify which verb properly completes each sentence. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.

11. Look! A herd of cows (are, is) crossing the road ahead.

12. Nan saw schools of colorful fish (swim, swims) around her while she
was snorkeling.

13. A number of geese (has made, have made) their home by the pond in
my backyard.

14. Fifty-two weeks (make, makes) up a year.

15. Three cups of flour (is, are) needed to make the cake batter.

COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND VERBS

When two or more subjects share the same verb, that sentence has a com-
pound subject. Compound subjects are connected with the conjunctions
and, or, or nor.
When the conjunction and is used, the verb will be plural. For instance:

My sister and brother go to the same college.

Annabelle, Molly, and Taylor sit by one another in class.

INSIDE TRACK

THE EXCEPTION TO this rule is when the subjects are thought of

as a single unit, even though they are joined by the conjunction and.
For instance:

Spaghetti and meatballs is one of my favorite meals, as is macaroni

and cheese.
118 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

When singular subjects are joined by the conjunctions or or nor, the verb
used will be singular, and when plural subjects are joined by or or nor, the
verb used will be plural. For instance:

Singular: A cat or a dog is a good choice for a pet.

Neither a bear nor a lion makes a good choice for a pet.
Plural: Musicians or dancers may attend the musical arts convention.
Neither landscapers nor masons would likely be interested in
attending.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

OH, NO! YOU have a sentence that uses a singular and a plural sub-
ject. What kind of verb do you choose now—singular or plural? The
answer is simple: Choose the verb that agrees with the subject you
mention last in the sentence (the one closest to the verb):

Neither fries nor a hot dog is offered for lunch today, only salad.
Neither a hot dog nor fries are offered for lunch today, only salad.

PRACTICE LAP
See if you can identify the correct verb to complete the following sentences
with compound subjects and predicates. Then, check your answers at the end
of the chapter.

16. Alexa and Maya (enjoys, enjoy) camping.

17. Dolphins and turtles (is, are) Lindsay’s favorite animals.

18. Peanut butter and jelly (was, were) all that we ate for lunch.

19. Either Richard or Chelsea (plan, plans) to help with the school play.

20. Neither eggplant nor carrots (is, are) on the menu.

 Agreement 119

AGREEMENT BETWEEN ANTECEDENTS AND PRONOUNS

How important are pronouns? Let’s see:

Every now and then, Tom liked to play a round of golf. Tom would
bring Tom’s golf bag and Tom’s cart to the course Tom belonged to,
and Tom would often meet with Tom’s golf partner, Joe. Tom and
Joe would usually warm up at the putting green before Tom and Joe
played an 18-hole round. Then, Tom and Joe would grab a bite to
eat at the clubhouse. Afterward, Tom and Joe would drive Tom’s and
Joe’s cars back home to Tom’s and Joe’s families.

This sounds ridiculous, right? Without pronouns, though, this is how you
would have to tell about an event.
Pronouns take the place of a noun (the name of a person, place, or thing).
An antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers. For instance:

Brianna studied all day, and she was too tired to go out with friends.

The pronoun she refers to Brianna in the sentence, making Brianna the
antecedent. Because Brianna is one girl, the pronoun she is used, as opposed
to, say, he or they. A singular noun must agree in number with its pronoun.
Let’s look at another one.

Jimmy and Penny went to the statehouse to visit a friend. Later, they
had lunch and walked through the park.

They, a plural pronoun, agrees with the compound subject it is referring to,
Jimmy and Penny.

Common English Pronouns

all another any anybody anyone

anything both each either everybody
everyone everything few he her
hers herself him himself his
120 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Common English Pronouns

I it its itself many

me mine my myself neither
no one nobody none nothing one
others our ours ourselves she
some somebody someone something that
their theirs them themselves these
they this us we what
which who whom whose you
your yours yourself yourselves

Pronouns must be compatible in gender, number, and person with their

antecedents.

Singular Plural
First person I, me, my, mine we, us, our
Second person you your, yours you, your, yours
Third person he, she, it they, them, their

Before going out for dinner, my brother showered, shaved, and put
on her best suit.

Needless to say, my brother refers to a male, not a female, so the pronoun her
is incorrect. It should be his.

James likes to read, and you is always carrying a book with them.

You, a second-person pronoun, does not work here. The writer is referring
to a male, James, so the pronoun needs to be third-person male, or he. Also,
the pronoun them is plural, and James can be only one person. The correct
pronoun, then, would be him.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, either, neither, everybody, every-
one, everything, no one, nobody, somebody, someone, each, none, and one are con-
sidered singular in number and are compatible only with singular pronouns.
 Agreement 121

Incorrect: Somebody left their phone on the table.

Somebody is a singular pronoun, and their is plural. Even
though this is probably the way most people would say this, it
is grammatically incorrect.
Okay: Somebody left his or her phone on the table.
This is grammatically correct, but a bit stuffy.
Best: Somebody’s phone was left on the table.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

Sometimes when you’re writing or speaking, the gender of the
person you’re discussing isn’t clear. Or maybe the gender isn’t
important to begin with. But you may still need to use a pronoun—either he
or she, her or his, him or her—simply in order to complete your sentence.
Think of the following example:
Anyone who wants to go on the beach trip should raise ____ hand now.
In order to complete the sentence, you need to add a pronoun. The
subject is Anyone, and you need to fill in the blank with a pronoun that
correctly fits with anyone. What pronoun should you choose? Anyone
could be a male or female, after all.
In the past, people used to automatically use a male pronoun. (In this
sentence, it would be his.) Male pronouns stood in for all people—even if
the statement applied to women just as well as men. Nowadays, many
people try to consider everyone when they write and speak, but there’s
still the pesky problem of how pronouns work in English grammar.
Sometimes there isn’t a smooth way to include both genders.
So what’s the solution? If you want to include both genders when you write
and speak, you have a few options, depending on the structure of
your sentence. You can:
• Use the phrase he or she (or his or her, hers or his, himself or herself, etc.).
• Switch between genders from sentence to sentence: sometimes write he
and other times write she, so you’re not giving a preference to either one.
(Make sure to be consistent within individual sentences, though. Don’t
switch genders within a single sentence.)
• Use they. Strictly speaking, this option is not grammatically correct, since
using a plural pronoun where a singular pronoun should be used is a basic
grammar error. But as English evolves, this usage is beginning to become
more accepted, especially in college settings, since it doesn’t lump people
into one gender or another. Don’t use this option in formal-writing
situations, however, because it will probably be seen as a mistake.
• Change the sentence so you can use you. In many cases, this will be the
best choice, because it doesn’t bring up the concept of gender at all and
often leads to the most cleanly written sentences. Let’s see how it works
with the sentence above:
If you want to go on the beach trip, raise your hand now.
122 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

When using pronouns, you must be cautious that the antecedent-pronoun

agreement be clear to avoid confusion on the listener’s or reader’s part. For
instance:

Michael texted Mark, who IM’ed Jaleel about the new superhero
movie they watched last week. He said it was boring and wanted to go
bowling instead.

Who thought the movie was boring: Mark, Jaleel, or Michael?

Let’s look at another one.

Carol and Julie went to the mountains for a weekend of skiing with
Doug and Edward. They were having a great time until she got hurt
when they collided on the slopes. They are going to try snow-
boarding next time.

My, that’s confusing. Who collided: Carol and Doug? Julie and Doug? Carol
and Edward? Julie and Edward? Is they referring to Carol and Julie? Carol and
Doug? Carol, Doug, and Julie? Only Julie and Doug? Carol, Doug, and
Edward? Maybe Julie, Doug, and Edward? Perhaps just the boys, or just the
girls, or just maybe the entire group? Whew! Get the point?
When using here’s or there’s in a sentence, keep in mind that these con-
tractions mean here is and there is—both contain the singular verb is. There-
fore, the subject has to be singular.
It’s not uncommon to hear sentences like the following:

“Here’s the pages we did for homework,” Carla said to Rebecca.

“Awesome! There’s only a few days left of school before summer
break!”

While they may sound okay, they are wrong. They should be said or writ-
ten like this.

“Here are the pages we did for homework,” Carla said to Rebecca.
“Awesome! There are only a few days left of school before summer
break!”
 Agreement 123

PRACTICE LAP
See if you can identify the mistakes in the following sentences. Then, check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

21. My niece tried to tie her shoes by himself.

22. Everybody should fasten their seatbelt before takeoff.

23. Janice told her mom that she had a stain on her blouse.

24. There’s some ants crawling on the sidewalk.

25. Each student signed their name to the petition.

ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Singular subjects must be coupled with singular verbs and,
likewise, plural subjects with plural verbs; and (2) do not use the verb be after
a subject.
1. Ian and Dawn live in Washington.
2. They are siblings.
3. Every summer, their parents take them white-water rafting on the Col-
orado River.
4. Last year, Ian got thrown from the raft into the river.
5. Luckily, he could swim well and was strong enough to pull himself back
into the raft.

Reminder: (1) When a subject is followed by a prepositional phrase, look at

the subject to determine the verb’s form; and (2) when you encounter the
indefinite pronouns all, more, none, most, any, and some before a prepositional
phrase, use the noun at the end of the prepositional phrase to decide whether
to use a singular or plural verb.
6. All of the flowers in the vase were beautiful.
7. Some of the tourists were eating pizza with cheese and pepperoni.
8. Yesterday, each of the trains was on time for once.
124 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

9. It is likely that everyone from the class is going on the trip to the
planetarium.
10. Both of the pears in the basket are ripe.

Reminder: Determine whether the words are referring to a single unit or sep-
arate items to determine what type of verb is required. Singular nouns must
be coupled with singular verbs, and, likewise, plural nouns with plural verbs.
11. Look! A herd (singular) of cows is crossing the road ahead.
12. Nan saw schools (plural) of colorful fish swim around her while she was
snorkeling.
13. A number (singular) of geese have made their home by the pond in my
backyard.
14. Fifty-two weeks (plural) make up a year.
15. Three cups (plural) of flour are needed to make the cake batter.

Reminder: (1) When the conjunction and is used to join two subject nouns,
the verb will be plural; (2) when singular subjects are joined by the con-
junctions or or nor, the verb will be singular; and (3) when plural subjects are
joined by or or nor, the verb will be plural.
16. Alexa and Maya enjoy camping.
17. Dolphins and turtles are Lindsay’s favorite animals.
18. Peanut butter and jelly was all that we ate for lunch.
(Note: Peanut butter and jelly is thought of as a single unit and is, there-
fore, singular.)
19. Either Richard or Chelsea plans to help with the school play.
20. Neither eggplant nor carrots are on the menu.
(Note: Choose the verb that agrees with the subject mentioned last in
the sentence.)

Reminder: (1) Pronouns must be compatible in gender, number, and person

with their antecedents; (2) indefinite pronouns are considered singular in
number and are compatible only with singular pronouns; (3) antecedent-
pronoun agreement must be clear to avoid confusion; (4) here’s and there’s
mean here is and there is, and the subject has to be singular.
21. My niece tried to tie her shoes by herself.
22. Everybody should fasten his or her seatbelt before takeoff.
 Agreement 125

23. Janice had a stain on her blouse, and she told her mom.
Janice’s mom had a stain on her blouse, and Janice told her.
24. There’s an ant crawling on the sidewalk.
There are some ants crawling on the sidewalk.
25. Each student signed his or her name to the petition.
Blank Page
7
I
Modifiers
Does It Dangle or Squint or Split?

n addition to single-word adjectives and adverbs, modifiers

include phrases and clauses that behave like adjectives and adverbs.
Without these modifiers, writing and speech would be dull, dry, and boring.
Writers use all types of modifiers to enhance their writing by making it more
vivid in order to help their readers understand more clearly what they are
saying. Of course, you want to present your readers with writing that is inter-
esting and meaningful. Otherwise, why write? Let’s see how you can use
these other modifiers to enliven your writing that much more.

PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Any group of words that expresses an incomplete thought is a phrase.
Phrases do not have both a subject and a predicate (a verb). For instance:

my favorite team [no verb]

eat popcorn every night [no subject]

Clauses are heavier hitters than phrases. Like phrases, clauses act like a
particular part of speech, but they do have a subject and a predicate (verb).
128 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

Prepositions and prepositional phrases show how words relate to one
another. Typically, these words will tell where something is or where some-
thing is going, with some exceptions. Here are some common prepositions.

Common Prepositions

about above across after against along

among around as at before behind
below beneath beside between beyond but
by concerning despite down during except
for from in into like near
next of off on onto out
outside over past since through throughout
to toward under underneath unlike until
under up upon with within without

There are some compound prepositions as well.

Compound Prepositions

prior to next to on top of because of in addition to

in place of according to in front of aside from on account of

INSIDE TRACK

TO HELP YOU decide whether or not a word is a preposition, you can

plug many of them into this sentence, and they should make sense.

The mouse went it to get the cheese.

Obviously, not all of the prepositions will work. How can a mouse
went concerning it? Or except it? Or of it?
 Modifers 129

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition

and ends with a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun at the end of the
phrase is called the object of the preposition (OOP). For instance:

across the meadow (OOP)

under the bridge (OOP)
beyond the Milky Way (OOP)
for him (OOP)
after it (OOP)

A prepositional phrase can function as an adjective or an adverb in a sen-

tence, adding color and depth to your writing. For instance:

An adjective phrase can tell what kind or which one.

His report about tsunamis was well written. (adjective phrase)

His tsunami report was well written. (adjective)

The prepositional phrase about tsunamis behaves like an adjective and

modifies the noun report.

An adverb phrase can tell where, when, or how.

The tennis ball landed on the court. (adverb phrase)

The tennis ball landed there. (adverb)

The prepositional phrase on the court behaves like an adverb and modifies
the verb landed.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the prepositional phrases in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. The mysterious container in the corner of the attic had not been opened
for many years.

2. After school, many of the students stayed to practice for the play.
130 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

3. Do you plan to travel over spring break?

4. The wooden chair beside the desk had splinters.

5. I watched the ants scurry back and forth over the deck rails and across
the patio for food.

Appositives
An appositive is a word or phrase that directly follows a noun with the sole
purpose of identifying that noun. For instance:

Martha, George Washington’s wife, died on May 22, 1802.

George Washington, our first president, took his oath of office on
April 30, 1789.

Participial Phrases
Participial phrases begin with a participle (an -ing verb in present tense or
an -ed , -en, -t, or -n verb in past tense) and act like an adjective, describing
a noun or pronoun in your sentence. For instance:

Wielding his sword, the chivalrous knight bravely defeated the

dragon.
Wiped out from his run, he took a dip in the pool.

The participial phrases wielding his sword and wiped out from his run behave
like adjectives and modify the noun knight and the pronoun he, respectively.

Infnitive Phrases
Infinitive phrases begin with the word to and end with a verb or a verb plus
an adverb. Let’s take a look.

To answer confidently was the least he could do.

The infinitive to answer and the adverb confidently make up the infinitive
phrase, which acts as the subject of the sentence.
 Modifers 131

His plans to go to Europe after graduation fell through.

The infinitive verb to go makes up the infinitive phrase, which acts like an
adjective and modifies the plural noun plans.

Gerunds
A gerund is a group of two or more words that contains an -ing verb that acts
as a noun. For instance:

Cramming the night before a test is never a good idea.

The gerund phrase cramming the night before a test acts like a noun and is the
subject of the sentence.

Benjamin enjoys climbing mountains.

The gerund phrase climbing mountains acts like a noun and is the direct object
of the sentence.

PRACTICE LAP
Correctly identify the types of phrases in the following sentences. Then,
check your answers at the end of the chapter.

6. Marty, Angelina’s cousin, is attending Brown University next fall.

(a) prepositional phrase
(b) appositive phrase
(c) gerund phrase

7. The abandoned building at the end of the road will be razed for the
construction of a new community center.
(a) adverb phrase
(b) adjective phrase
(c) appositive phrase
132 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

8. “To close, I would like to thank Michelle for her assistance in making the
program a success.”
(a) participial phrase
(b) prepositional phrase
(c) infinitive phrase

9. Excusing the boys from their irresponsible behavior is not an option.

(a) gerund phrase
(b) adverb phrase
(c) adjective phrase

10. Shaken by the fall, the youngster ran to his mother and cried.
(a) participial phrase
(b) adverb phrase
(c) gerund phrase

Independent Clauses
Sometimes referred to as a main clause, the independent clause has its own
subject and verb and can stand alone (independently) as a sentence. Here
is an example.

The magician’s helper stood at his side to assist.

This is a simple enough sentence. Now, let’s look at another one.

The magician’s helper remained at his side to assist, and with poise, she
held his magic hat.

This longer sentence is made up of two independent clauses. The first

one—the magician’s helper remained at his side to assist—contains a subject
and verb, helper and remained. The second independent clause—with poise,
she held his magic hat—also contains a subject and verb, she and held. The sec-
ond independent clause could also stand alone as a simple sentence.
 Modifers 133

Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses, also called dependent clauses, contain a subject and a
verb, but they differ from independent clauses because they can’t stand by
themselves as simple sentences. They depend on another clause in the sen-
tence. Look at this sentence.

The assistant had just placed the magic hat into the magician’s hand
when he, POOF, disappeared into thin air.

The clause, when he, POOF, disappeared into thin air, contains a subject and
verb, he and disappeared. It cannot stand alone as a sentence, however,
because it’s not a complete thought. If you said to someone, “When he,
POOF, disappeared into thin air,” they would first look at you like you had
six heads, and then probably say something like, “He who? And why?”
That’s because the subordinate clause you said lacks important information
that a complete sentence would have. Make sense?

Adjective Clauses
A subordinate clause can act as an adjective when it describes or modifies
a noun or pronoun (just as adjectives do). These clauses will answer the ques-
tions what kind and which one about the noun they are modifying. Adjective
clauses begin with who, whom, that, which, when, where, or why. For instance:

Evan, who began practicing magic when he was seven, was now a
celebrity magician.

Who began practicing when he was seven is a subordinate clause (the sub-
ject is who, and the verb is began) that acts as an adjective modifying the noun
Evan. It gives us more information about the subject of this sentence.
134 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Adverb Clauses
When a subordinate clause can answer where, when, how, or why, it is
behaving as an adverb and is called an adverb clause. Adverb clauses begin
with words such as because, although, once, until, and after. Take a look at
this sentence.

Chris had a hard time convincing Nancy that he would make a good
DJ for her party because he had a chronic case of the hiccups.

The adverb clause is because he had a chronic case of the hiccups. Let’s check
to see that it has a subject and a verb.

because he [subject] had [verb] a chronic case of the hiccups

Noun Clauses
Last, a subordinate clause that behaves as a noun in a sentence is called a noun
clause. Because noun clauses act as nouns, they share the same qualities that
a noun would and, therefore, can be the subject, object, or appositive, among
others, in a sentence. A noun clause answers who, whom, or what. For
instance:

The recipe is confusing.

Here, the noun recipe is the subject of the sentence. You can determine
the subject by asking, Whom or what is confusing? The word recipe is the
answer, making it the subject.

What the recipe says to do with the mixture is confusing.

In this sentence, what the recipe says to do with the mixture is the subject
of the sentence. Again, you can determine that when you ask, Whom or what
is confusing? The noun clause what the recipe says to do with the mixture is the
answer, making it the subject.
 Modifers 135

PRACTICE LAP
Correctly identify the type of subordinate clause in each sentence: adjective,
adverb, or noun. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

11. People who read often are well informed.

(a) adverb clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adjective clause

12. The Canada geese, which flew overhead, were headed south.
(a) noun clause
(b) adjective clause
(c) adverb clause

13. When the last guest had arrived, the ship set sail for the small island.
(a) adverb clause
(b) adjective clause
(c) noun clause

14. The swimmer swam laps until he was tired.

(a) adverb clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adjective clause

15. The balloon that was drifting higher in the air became a tiny speck in
the sky.
(a) adjective clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adverb clause
136 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

MISPLACED MODIFIERS
If modifiers are supposed to be so helpful, then how do they become mis-
placed? It’s not hard. When you are writing, you know what you mean to say,
and overlooking misplaced modifiers is easy. Reading with a critical eye is
essential. If you apply the following simple placement rules, many of these
misplacement mishaps can be avoided.
Let’s see how this works.

Here is a simple sentence: The bus rode.

There is little information here. Is this a city bus? A school bus? Perhaps
a charter bus? And where did it go? Without more information, you
don’t know.

This is a better sentence: The yellow school bus rode slowly up the hill.
Okay, the adjectives yellow and school make it clearer, as do the adverb
slowly and the phrase up the hill. Your mental picture of what the writer is
telling you should be less ambiguous.

Huh?: The yellow school bus rode slowly up the hill with children bouncing in
their seats.
That’s odd; have you seen many hills strewn with bouncing children?

This sentence has a misplaced modifier. Can you tell where it is? In its cur-
rent spot in the sentence, the phrase with children bouncing in their seats mod-
ifies the hill, making it sound as though the children were bouncing in their
seats on the hill, not on the bus. The sentence needs to be reworded. Here
are a couple of ways that can be done.

The yellow school bus, with children bouncing in their seats, rode
slowly up the hill.
With children bouncing in their seats, the yellow school bus rode
slowly up the hill.

In both sentences, the children are where they should be—on the bus, not
on the hill.
 Modifers 137

DANGLING MODIFIERS
Just like single-word adverbs, adverb phrases need to be placed near the word
they are modifying to maintain clear sentence meaning. For instance:

My science teacher showed me a book about mummification at

the library.

Do the librarians moonlight as Egyptian embalmers and, at closing, trans-

form the library into a mummification chamber?
Instead, the sentence should read as follows.

My science teacher showed me a book at the library about

mummification.
At the library, my science teacher showed me a book abut
mummification.

Sometimes, you may try to start a sentence with a phrase to add detail to,
or clarify, your message. The phrase appears to be related to the subject of
the sentence, but it really isn’t, and so it unfortunately creates the opposite
effect for readers. Take a look at these sentences.

While singing in the shower, Jackie’s mom [subject] vacuumed the liv-
ing room drapes and washed the kitchen windows.

Wow, what a multitasker! Jackie’s mom is a very talented and flexible lady,
wouldn’t you agree?

Chained to the post, Scott [subject] saw the motorcycle he’s always
dreamed of.

Hmm . . . why was Scott chained to the post as he admired a motorcycle?

Badly stained, Angelica [subject] tossed the expensive blouse into the
trash with disgust.
138 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Why was Angelica stained? Did a bucket of paint or ink fall on her?
These sentences need to be reworded so that the phrases add to the
meaning, not take away from it.

While Jackie sang in the shower, her mom vacuumed the living
room drapes and washed the kitchen windows.
Scott saw the motorcycle he had always dreamed of chained to a post.
Disgusted, Angelica tossed the stained, expensive blouse into the trash.

Let’s try another one.

When the cool breeze blew, Martin closed the window in his pajamas.

Do your pajamas have a window in them like Martin’s? How can you fix the
sentence to make it correct?

In his pajamas, Martin closed the window when the cool breeze blew.
Martin, in his pajamas, closed the window when the cool breeze blew.

Incorrect: Martin closed the window when the cool breeze blew in
his pajamas.

It should be fairly obvious that this won’t work. The phrase in his pajamas is
still misplaced, so it sounds as if the cool breeze was now blowing in Martin’s
pajamas.

SQUINTING MODIFIERS
When a modifier could be describing the words or phrases on either side of
it, it is called a squinting modifier. For instance:

Not studying notes regularly keeps students from being successful.

Does the word regularly describe how infrequently notes aren’t studied?

Not regularly studying notes keeps students from being successful.

 Modifers 139

Or does it describe how the practice often keeps students from being successful?

Not studying notes keeps students from regularly being successful.

PRACTICE LAP
Rewrite each sentence so that the modifier is properly placed. Then, check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

16. While turning left at the light, the baby began to cry.

17. She stared at the spider on the wall with wide eyes.

18. Alice served prime rib and baked potatoes to her guests on her best china.

19. Did you see a boy with a dog riding his bike?

20. The expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen by the Middle-
town police.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

MANAGING YOUR MODIFIERS

Rule 1: Place a simple adjective before the noun it is modifying.

Wearing a green raincoat, the exhausted student walked
home in the rain.

Rule 2: Place phrases and clauses acting as adjectives after the

noun being modifed.
The surfer with long blond hair rode the ten-foot wave
with ease.

Rule 3: The placement of simple adverbs is fexible.

The blue suede shoes got dirty quickly; the blue suede shoes
quickly got dirty; quickly, the blue suede shoes got dirty.
140 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Rule 4: Place the words only, barely, just, and almost before the
noun or verb they are modifying. Sentence meaning can vary
widely depending on where you place these special limiters.

Only she says she likes sushi.

[No one else says it . . . only her.]

She only says she likes sushi.

[She may like something else . . . but won’t say so.]

She says only she likes sushi.

[No one else likes it but her.]

She says she only likes sushi.

[She doesn’t love it . . . just likes it.]

She says she likes only sushi.

[It’s sushi . . . or nothing.]

ANSWERS
Reminder: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a
preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.
1. The mysterious container in the corner of the attic had not been
opened for many years.
2. After school, many of the students stayed to practice for the play.
3. Do you plan to travel over spring break?
4. The wooden chair beside the desk had splinters.
5. I watched the ants scurry back and forth over the deck rails and across
the patio for food.

Reminder: (1) An appositive is a word or phrase that directly follows the

noun it is identifying; (2) participial phrases begin with a participle (an -ing,
-ed , -en, -t, or -n verb); and (3) infinitive phrases begin with the word to and
end with a verb or a verb plus an adverb.
 Modifers 141

6. Marty, Angelina’s cousin, is attending Brown University next fall.

(b) appositive phrase
7. The abandoned building at the end of the road will be razed for the con-
struction of a new community center.
(a) adverb phrase
8. “To close, I would like to thank Michelle for her assistance in making the
program a success.”
(c) infinitive phrase
9. Excusing the boys from their irresponsible behavior is not an option.
(a) gerund phrase
10. Shaken by the fall, the youngster ran to his mother and cried.
(a) participial phrase

Reminder: Subordinate clauses (1) can’t stand by themselves as simple sen-

tences; (2) can behave like adjectives when they answer what kind or which
one; (3) behave as adverbs when they answer where, when, how, or why; and
(4) can behave as nouns in a sentence when they answer whom or what.
11. People who read often are well informed.
(c) adjective clause (answers what kind of people)
12. The Canada geese, which flew overhead, were headed south.
(b) adjective clause (answers which geese)
13. Once the last guest had finally arrived, the ship set sail for the small
island.
(a) adverb clause (answers when the ship sailed)
14. The swimmer swam laps until he was tired.
(a) adverb clause (answers when the swimmer swam)
15. The balloon that was drifting high in the air became a tiny speck in the sky.
(b) noun clause (answers what became a tiny speck)

Reminder: Modifiers need to be placed near the word they are modifying to
maintain clear sentence meaning.
16. Turning left at the light, the baby began to cry.
The baby began to cry as I turned left at the light.
As I turned left at the light, the baby began to cry.
17. She stared at the spider on the wall with wide eyes.
With wide eyes, she stared at the spider on the wall.
142 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

18. Alice served prime rib and baked potatoes to her guests on her best
china.
Alice served prime rib and baked potato to her guests, using her best
china.
Using her best china, Alice served her guests prime rib and baked
potatoes.
19. Did you see a boy with a dog riding his bike?
Did you see a boy riding a bike with his dog?
Did you see a boy riding his bike with a dog?
20. The expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen by the Middle-
town police.
The Middletown police reported that an expensive diamond neck-
lace had been stolen.
An expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen, according to
by the Middletown police.
8
A
Sentence Structure
From the Simple to the Complex

s a student, and even later in life as an adult, you need to

know how to write coherent (sensible) sentences and paragraphs.
And being able to do so well is especially desirable, particularly if you aim
to excel in your education and achieve your career goals. What, you may ask,
does writing well have to do with my potential level of success? A lot, if you
think about it. Take school, for example. What good teacher lets you write
your essays in any way you want, using slang, poor grammar, or misspellings?
If your grade on a test or an essay is based on your teacher being able to
understand your message, then it would be in your best interest to write well,
wouldn’t you agree? Now, that same teacher has to read not only your essay,
but the essays of all the other students—probably numbering anywhere
from 20 to more than 100, depending on the grade level. When your essay
is well written, it stands out to your teacher, like a breath of cool, fresh air.
If you think that this is not important, think again! It can mean the differ-
ence between receiving an okay grade and a terrific grade! Which would you
like to have?
Now let’s see how you can apply what you’ve learned to make some awe-
some sentences and paragraphs! First, let’s look at some basic sentence
structure.
144 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Every sentence must have a subject and a verb called a predicate. The sub-
ject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is about. For instance:

Isaac went to baseball practice.

In this sentence, the proper noun Isaac is who the sentence is about, so it is
the subject. A subject can also be a common noun.

The ice cream cone melted.

Or it can be a pronoun.

He was tired after his long day at school.

The predicate, or verb, moves the sentence along and tells you what the
subject is doing or what condition the subject is in. For instance:

Isaac went to baseball practice.

You know what Isaac did—he went.

The ice cream cone melted.

You know what happened to the ice cream cone—it melted.

Sometimes, sentences have more than one subject, known as a compound
subject, or more than one verb, known as a compound verb. For instance:

Halley and Jon are starring in this year’s school play.

The compound subject is Halley and Jon.

Snickers, my cat, climbed the fence and walked along the top of it.

The compound verbs are climbed and walked.

 Sentence Structure 145

Jan and Martin played cards and ate pizza last night.

This sentence has a compound subject—Jan and Martin—and two com-

pound verbs—played and ate.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IN MORE COMPLEX sentences, fnding the subject can be tricky.
An easy way to fnd it is to ask yourself who or what performed the
action of the verb. The subject(s) will answer that.

Many people, if given the chance to do so, would jump at the

opportunity to travel abroad.

The verb in this sentence is jump. Ask yourself, Who or what would
jump? The answer, people, is the subject.

Sometimes, sentences have a subject that is not written. Look at this example.

Wash the dishes before watching television.

When you have a sentence that is telling you to do something (an impera-
tive), the subject is implied or understood to be you. So, the sentence really
means (You) wash the dishes before watching television. To make this even more
confusing, even if someone’s name is mentioned in the imperative sen-
tence, the subject is still you.

Kelly, wash the dishes before watching television.

This really means:

Kelly, (you) wash the dishes before watching television.

The subject, again, is you.

146 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

FINDING A SUBJECT in a question can be tricky, too, because the

subject often follows the verb in this sentence form. The easiest way
to fnd the subject is to turn the question into a statement, which
brings the subject before the verb. Here’s an example.

What time does Nicholas go to swim practice on Thursdays?

Now, change the question into a statement and identify the verb.

Nicholas goes to swim practice on Thursdays at .

Ask yourself, Who goes? Nicholas is the subject.

 Sentence Structure 147

PRACTICE LAP
Underline the simple subject once and underline the predicate twice in the
following sentences. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. Rosemary was glad to see her best friend, Joanne.

2. Here is your new pencil case that I bought this afternoon.

3. Molly, please bring this note to the office.

4. Is there any ice cream in the freezer?

5. His favorite place to relax was in the hammock.

6. My bicycle is in the garage.

7. Potato chips taste great with or without dip.

8. Jerry, my uncle, is taller than Jerome.

9. Does Elisabeth get her driver’s permit next month?

10. I should have bought that video game when I had the chance.

TYPES OF SENTENCES
In the last chapter, you learned that an independent clause is a simple sen-
tence, meaning that a simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word)
and a simple predicate (one word), as follows.

Shane runs.
Dennis tosses.
Judy jumps.
148 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Thankfully, you don’t have to limit your sentence writing to just two
words—which leads to compound subjects and predicates. Here, multiple
subjects or verbs appear in one complete thought, or sentence.

Shane, Dennis, and Judy enjoy running, hiding, and jumping.

This sentence structure allows you to liven up your writing a bit, but it’s
still rather limiting. So you can get more complex in your sentence structure
by joining two complete sentences together with a conjunction, a sentence
structure called a compound sentence. Here, you have two independent
clauses joined by a semicolon or by words like and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and
so. For instance:

Shane and Dennis run and hide, but Judy jumps rope.

Or, let’s kick it up a notch.

Shane and Dennis ran around and tossed a football in the yard; Judy
jumped rope in the driveway.

Notice how just adding one or two prepositional phrases adds more detail to
the sentence, making it more interesting to read. Let’s tweak it a bit more.

Shane and Dennis, who are best friends, run around the yard and
toss a football, but Judy jumps rope with her sister at the top of the
driveway.

An adjective clause was added (who are best friends) to give more informa-
tion about the boys, and several phrases were added to give more informa-
tion about what Judy was doing. Notice that the subjects (Shane, Dennis, and
Judy) stay the same, as do the verbs (run, toss, and jump) in some form.
Also, there are the complex sentences, which really aren’t so complex.
They are made up of at least one independent clause and one subordinate
(dependent) clause. Here is an example of a complex sentence.
 Sentence Structure 149

Jumping rope with her sister at the top of the driveway [subordi-
nate clause], Judy watched Shane run and tackle his friend Dennis
after Shane tossed the football [independent clause].

Last, here is an example of a compound-complex sentence, which has

at least two independent clauses and one subordinate clause.

Jumping rope in her driveway [subordinate clause], Judy pretended

not to be interested in Shane tossing the football with Dennis
[independent clause], but she couldn’t help but laugh out loud
when he almost ran into a tree [independent clause].

Starting a sentence off with a participle (an -ing verb being used as an adjec-
tive) is a great way to bring action into the sentence right away and draw your
reader into your writing. Notice that the subjects (Shane, Dennis, and Judy)
are the same, as are the verbs (run, toss, and jump) in some form or other. One
more verb was added for detail; do you know what it is?

PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the simple, compound, and complex sentences? For extra
practice, underline the subject once and underline the predicate twice.
Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

11. Yesterday, Brittany arrived at school late.

(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

12. Despite bad traffic, rain, and a flat tire, my parents and I miraculously got
to my older brother’s wedding just in time to hear him say, “I do.”
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
150 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

13. Brittany suspects her brother Luke.

(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

14. His trick wasn’t very nice of him, but she felt that she kind of deserved it.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

15. Yesterday afternoon, she and her friends were being loud and rather
obnoxious.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

16. Luke was studying for his midterm exams for two of his hardest classes,
chemistry and geometry, and he was writing a term paper for his
French class.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

17. After he asked Brittany to quiet down three times, he finally gave up and
went to the library to study.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

18. Brittany just ignored Luke, acting as though he wasn’t even there.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
 Sentence Structure 151

19. Brittany should have suggested they go somewhere else to hang out, but
unfortunately, she didn’t do that.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

20. Now she must stay after school to get the classwork and notes she
missed.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex

FRAGMENTS
Fragments are incomplete sentences.

She runs faster than anyone on the team. Even faster than you.

Better: She runs faster than anyone on the team, even faster than you.

Or they can be phrases and clause that are punctuated like a sentence.

Tad walked to the store. To pick up a gallon of milk for his mother.

Better: Tad walked to the store to pick up a gallon of milk for his mother.

As a student, you are forever told to write in complete sentences; frag-

ments are forbidden.
So, is it ever okay to use fragments in your writing? Well, yes and no. (Did
you notice the fragment here?) Formal writing should rarely, if ever, contain
fragments, and in general, if they’re used in informal writing, they should
be used sparingly. Sometimes, they can be used intentionally in your writ-
ing for special effect. For instance:
152 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Thomas looked at the clock. Three hours. Not so long. Only three
hours before he was able to walk through the doors to freedom from
bells, homework, and studying. Summer vacation was almost here,
and Thomas was reeling with anticipation.

You also find fragments when you write bulleted lists, like this one:

My Summer To-Do List

• Sleep in
• Read a book a week
• Take surfing lessons
• Go on long bike rides with Aiden
• Start studying for the SAT

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND NEWS SITES are teeming
with sentence fragments. Why? When space is tight, sentence
fragments help writers grab the reader’s attention and
communicate a message using as few words as possible. The
next time you’re reading a headline, photo caption, or line of
advertising copy, think about whether it’s a full, proper sentence
or just a fragment. Chances are, it’s a “frag.”

RUN-ON SENTENCES
When I write quickly I sometimes forget to put punctuation where I should
I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense at all I’m sure this
drives my teachers crazy!
This fused sentence is one kind of run-on. In a run-on sentence, two or
more complete sentences are merged together without the necessary
punctuation marks. The preceding example can be written in a number of
ways. Let’s see how.
 Sentence Structure 153

With periods inserted:

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where
I should. I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all. I’m sure this drives my teachers crazy!

With a semicolon inserted:

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where
I should; I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all. I’m sure this drives my teachers crazy!

With a comma and a conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, yet, so)
inserted:
When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where
I should, so I end up having one long sentence that makes little
sense at all. I’m sure this drives my teachers crazy!

Another type of run-on sentence is called a comma splice. Here, a comma

is used in place of end punctuation or a conjunction. For instance:

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where

I should, I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all.

If the comma is simply removed, you would still wind up with a run-on
sentence. In order to fix the error altogether, you would need to exchange
the comma with an appropriate conjunction.

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where

I should, so I end up having one long sentence that makes little
sense at all.

Or with another punctuation mark:

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where

I should; I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all.
154 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

One final way to fix a fused sentence, or comma splice, is to reword the
sentences in order to make a complex sentence (one independent clause
with at least one subordinate clause). For instance:

When I write quickly [subordinate clause], I sometimes forget to put

punctuation where I should [independent clause], leaving me with
one long sentence that makes little sense at all [subordinate clause].

PRACTICE LAP
Rewrite each sentence to make corrections. Then, check your answers at the
end of the chapter.

21. This is an interesting movie I think I’ll watch it again.

22. What’s your name where do you live?

23. The gray squirrel hopped along the top of the fence, down the post.

24. My brother would not open the door when I knocked it made me angry
so I left.

25. Halfway to our destination two of our tires went flat we had to get
towed.
 Sentence Structure 155

ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, called a pred-
icate. The subject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is about; (2) the
predicate, or verb, moves the sentence along and tells you what the subject
is doing or what condition the subject is in.
1. Rosemary was glad to see her best friend, Joanne.
2. Here is your new pencil case that I bought this afternoon.
3. Molly, (you) please bring this note to the office.
4. Is there any ice cream in the freezer?
5. His favorite place to relax was in the hammock.
6. My bicycle is in the garage.
7. Potato chips taste great with or without dip.
8. Jerry, my uncle, is taller than Jerome.
9. Does Elisabeth get her driver’s permit next month?
10. I should have bought that video game when I had the chance.

Reminder: (1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and
a simple predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete
sentences joined together with a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is
made up of at least one independent clause and one subordinate (depend-
ent) clause.
11. Yesterday, Brittany arrived at school late.
(a) simple
12. Despite bad traffic, rain, and a flat tire, my parents and I miraculously
got to my older brother’s wedding just in time to hear him say, “I do.”
(a) simple
13. Brittany suspects her brother Luke.
(a) simple
14. His trick wasn’t very nice of him, but she felt that she kind of deserved
it.
(d) compound
15. Yesterday afternoon, she and her friends were being loud and rather
obnoxious.
(c) simple
156 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

16. Luke was studying for his midterm exams for two of his hardest classes,
chemistry and geometry, and he was writing a term paper for his French
class.
(a) compound
17. After he asked Brittany to quiet down three times, he finally gave up and
went to the library to study.
(c) complex
18. Brittany just ignored Luke, and she acted as though he wasn’t even there.
(c) compound
19. Brittany should have suggested they go somewhere else to hang out, but
unfortunately, she didn’t do that.
(b) compound
20. Now she must stay after school and get the classwork and notes she
missed.
(a) simple

Reminder: (1) One kind of run-on sentence has two or more complete
sentences merged together without any punctuation mark; (2) another
type of run-on sentence has a comma used in place of end punctuation
or a conjunction.
21. This is an interesting movie; I think I’ll watch it again.
This is an interesting movie. I think I’ll watch it again.
22. What’s your name? Where do you live?
23. The gray squirrel hopped along the top of the fence and down the post.
24. My brother would not open the door when I knocked; it made me
angry, so I left.
25. Halfway to our destination, two of our tires went flat; we had to get
towed.
9
P
Paragraphs
As Easy as Announce-Build-Close

aragraphs are groups of sentences centered on a

focused topic. The writer of a good paragraph makes sure to include
a topic sentence, descriptive detail sentences, proper organization, and a cen-
tral focus. When you have to write only one paragraph, you should also
include a summary sentence at the end that restates or reviews the main idea,
using different words. Let’s look at these components more closely.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

Every paragraph must identify its topic or purpose for the reader. This is one
of its most important components. Although the topic or purpose doesn’t
have to be found in the paragraph’s first sentence, it usually is. However, you
could find it in the middle or even the end of a paragraph.

Spelunking, or cave exploring, is a sport with many avid fol-

lowers. Spelunkers, as the cave explorers are called, have formed
clubs worldwide to promote and support the unusual, and some-
times extreme, sport.
158 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
For each of the following topics, write a topic sentence you could put in a para-
graph. Then, check out some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.

1. What you may be doing ten years from now

2. Making a root beer float

3. A review of the last movie you saw with a friend

4. A trip to the Grand Canyon

5. Your favorite music

DETAIL SENTENCES
Detail sentences provide support and elaborate on the ideas in your para-
graph. With these sentences, you can flesh out your topic with vivid details
and explain or clarify your paragraph’s main idea by including facts or proof.
Detail sentences that don’t fulfill this purpose should be eliminated because
they distract the reader from your main point.

People once trekked through caves to find shelter or to

perform scientific research; now, cave exploring— also known
as spelunking—is considered a sport. For the sport’s athletes,
from novice to expert alike, stamina and strength are a
necessity. Spelunking requires the cave explorer to be a good
crawler and climber, be able to negotiate well in small
openings and crevices, and traverse safely in vertical spaces
w ith the use of ropes. In recent decades, spelunking
equipment and protective gear have been introduced and
improved in light of the sport’s growing popularity.
 Paragraphs 159

PRACTICE LAP
Write two possible detail sentences for the following topics. Then, check out
some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.

6. Pizza is more nutritious than you think.

7. Is there really a bigfoot?

8. Making your bed is easy.

9. Riding in the space shuttle

10. Limiting phone use among teens

PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION
The order of your sentences in your paragraph is important. Your readers expect
your ideas to be presented a logical, linear (A-B-C) order. If your ideas don’t flow
properly, your reader will get lost in the confusion. Think of it this way: If you were
going to write a paragraph explaining how to make a peanut-butter-and-banana
sandwich, you would not begin by writing Throw away the banana peel.

PRACTICE LAP: UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH

Identify any sentences that interfere with the unity of the following para-
graph and eliminate them. You may reorder the sentences where necessary.
Then, compare your paragraph to the one at the end of the chapter.

I woke up in my cozy wooden cabin at sunrise, hearing the birds

chirping outside in the trees. The water glimmered with a deep blue
color. I did not have to hunt, gather firewood, or pick up in the
cabin. Because nobody lived within ten miles of me, the lake was
completely clear and unpolluted. I trotted down the 50 yards to the
shoreline, grabbing my raft on the way there. I have assigned things
to do for every day of the week so I can keep up with my daily neces-
160 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

sities, and today was a work-free day for me. I arose excitedly
because I knew today was my kick-back day of the week.

PARAGRAPH FOCUS
Besides order, your paragraph must have focus and symmetry. Like a balance
scale you use in school, your topic sentence is the calibrator, and the trays on
either side of it hold your supporting details. If your paragraph is about the leaf-
and-shoot diet of the three-toed sloth, and your sentences remain on topic,
the scale will remain balanced because you are focused. If, however, you begin
elaborating on the sloth’s innate ability to suspend itself motionless on a sin-
gle branch for 20 hours, then you’ve strayed off topic, and your balance scale
begins to tip.

PRACTICE LAP: FOCUS OF THE PARAGRAPH

Revise the following paragraph to amend mistakes that interfere with its
focus. If necessary, you may reorder the sentences. Then, compare your para-
graph to the one at the end of the chapter.

I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass

I had caught the day before with my homemade wooden knife.
When I finished, I used a large, flat stone from the stockpile I kept
indoors, set it over my fireplace, and began frying my fish. By the
time I had finished, my mind was made up. When I had first started
living in the cabin, it took me nearly 20 minutes to start a fire on
my own with two sticks. I always loved working with wood in
shop class in school when I was younger, and I had gotten better
at it with years of practice. Now that I have been doing it for nearly
five years, starting a fire takes less than ten seconds. As I sat at the
wooden table, thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began thinking
about what I wanted to do with my free day.
 Paragraphs 161

THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

What if you need to write more than one paragraph? Then what? In school, you
are usually expected to write essays upward of five paragraphs in length. You
write book reports, research reports, and reaction papers for classes and are
expected to write persuasive and narrative essays on standardized tests. The for-
mat for the five-paragraph essay is, for the most part, fixed: an opening para-
graph (to Announce your topic), three body paragraphs (to Build your topic),
and a concluding paragraph (to Close your topic). This is the common A-B-B-
B-C pattern. For the most part, your paragraph components remain the
same, with a few exceptions. Let’s examine this more closely.

The Opening Paragraph

Like a topic sentence, the opening paragraph of an essay is going to inform
your reader of the essay’s main idea. It should also include, however, an inter-
esting opening sentence to hook your reader’s attention, and a brief (non-
detailed) sketch of your essay’s three subtopics, and end with a value
statement (a sentence that conveys your—the writer’s—stance on the topic)
or a transition into the next paragraph.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THERE ARE MANY interesting ways to begin your essay so your

readers “bite” and continue to read your work. Throw away the inef-
fective In this essay, I am going to tell you about . . . This is not only
boring, but also poor writing. Here are just a few ways you can kick
things up a notch.

A question: What has three toes, hangs out on a limb all day, and
grows algae on its fur?

Three adjectives: Slow, sleepy, stationary. The three-toed sloth lives

an almost motionless life high in the canopy of the rainforest.
162 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Three gerunds: Hanging, sleeping, eating. Suspended for up to 20

hours a day on one branch, the male three-toed sloth is known to
inhabit only one tree for its entire life.

Onomotopoeia: “Ay-eee!” The shrill whistle of the three-toed sloth

sounds from high above in the rainforest canopy.

PRACTICE LAP
For each of the following topics, write a hook that will make your readers want
to read more. Then, check out some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.

11. I’ve invented a robot!

12. I rubbed the lamp and have been granted three wishes.

13. Did you vote in the last election?

14. Babysitting tips for newbies

15. Do you dread giving presentations as much as I do?

Build Paragraphs
Your three build paragraphs are meant to elaborate on your essay’s main idea,
each touching upon one of the three subtopics that support your main
topic. Why three? Because three subtopics should provide enough support
to give the reader a full picture of your topic or to persuade the reader to your
point of view. Besides, after your opening and closing paragraphs, the five-
paragraph essay leaves room for only three more paragraphs. Each of those
paragraphs will explain the three subtopics you introduced in your opening
paragraph, one paragraph at a time. And just like a single-paragraph essay,
each of your build paragraphs will have a topic sentence to inform your
reader about the specific subtopic that paragraph will elaborate on.
 Paragraphs 163

To guide your reader along and provide fluidity to your writing, you need
to include transitional words and phrases in your paragraph. These cue
words help your reader follow movement and time, and create connections
between your thoughts, sentences, and paragraphs.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME common transitional words and phrases:

Sequence
frst, next, last, additionally, afterward, further, furthermore, in addi-
tion, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, overall

Concession
admittedly, although, certainly, naturally, no doubt, surely, undoubtedly

Example
for instance, for example, for one thing, clearly, by all means, in other
words, of course, such as, thus, this can be seen, to illustrate

Cause/Effect
accordingly, consequently, as a result, due to, because, because of,
for that reason, hence, therefore, since, so, then, thus, to this end,
with this in mind

Similarity
also, and, as well as, besides, likewise, moreover, similarly, too

Summary
all in all, in conclusion, to conclude, in other words, in summary, to
summarize, on the whole, therefore

Time
after, while, when, before, after, afterward, later, at last, at the same
time, initially, immediately, once upon a time, in the future, tomorrow,
thereafter, from now on, whenever, until, until now, until then
164 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

PRACTICE LAP
Read the following sentences and insert transitional words or phrases where
appropriate. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.

16. I started off my morning by removing the bones of a

fresh sea bass with my homemade wooden knife. I
used a large, flat stone from the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my
fire, and waited for it to get hot. I began frying my fish.

17. when I started living in the cabin, it took me nearly 20

minutes to start a fire on my own with flint and sticks.
I have been doing it for nearly five years, and starting a fire takes less
than ten seconds.

18. I sat at the wooden table thoroughly enjoying my

fresh fish, I began thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day.
I had finished my fish, I had decided what I wanted to.

The Concluding Paragraph

The concluding paragraph should never introduce new information (which
will leave your reader confused), but should summarize in a few sentences,
what you have written about—a recap. Begin your concluding paragraph
with one of the summary words from the Fuel for Thought, and review your
subtopics, using different words. Finally, end with a value statement that is
along the same lines as the one in your opening paragraph (again, worded
differently). If you do your job well, you will have provided your reader with
a sense of satisfaction at the conclusion.
 Paragraphs 165

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF A WELL-WRITTEN essay could be likened to a painting, it would

be like Michelangelo’s fresco paintings: every word a stroke of paint
elaborating the scene it is depicting, the colors and shading working
together to form a balanced, beautiful picture. On the other hand, an
unbalanced, choppy essay could be likened to Picasso’s Cubist
paintings, with blocks of colors and distorted faces that have noses
and ears placed where chins and foreheads should be.

PRACTICE LAP: A SUCCESSFUL CONCLUSION

Read the following paragraph and try to identify what would keep this con-
clusion from being successful. Then, check your answers at the end of the
chapter.

I really did love living in the wilderness with nature and animals
around me. I was at peace with no one to bother me. That day, I had
continued working on a large bear sculpture that I had started the
week before. I am, however, glad to be back home now after many
years. A lot has changed, and it will take some getting used to. It’s
nice, though, to have people to talk to, instead of just keeping
everything to myself. When I was younger, I always loved working
with wood in shop class in school, and I had gotten good at it with
years of practice. I could make all kinds of sculptures, including the
ones I had already done over the years such as a dog, a swan, and
a squirrel. All in all, I am sure I will have moments where I’ll miss
living in the wilderness, but it was definitely time for a change.
166 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ANSWERS
1. What you may be doing ten years from now
(1) Life at 25 is looking better every day now that my career as a
graphic advertiser has taken off.
(2) I’m a millionaire at age 20, and it’s a lot harder than I thought
it would be.
2. Making a root beer float
(1) This old-fashioned treat has not lost its popularity and is as
easy to make today as it was 50 years ago.
(2) With a tall glass, a few scoops of vanilla ice cream, and a can of
your favorite root beer, you can make a delicious treat.
3. A review of the last movie you saw with a friend
(1) Movies these days just aren’t worth the ticket price.
(2) I can always pick an Academy Award winner, and this one has
it in the bag.
4. A trip to the Grand Canyon
(1) It’s no wonder that the Grand Canyon is sometimes called the
Eighth Wonder of the World.
(2) Camping at the bottom of the Grand Canyon is truly an experience
of a lifetime.
5. Your favorite music
(1) If Beethoven could hear this music, he’d turn over in his grave
for sure.
(2) Classical music transcends centuries and will forever.
6. Pizza is more nutritious than you think.
(1) Not only can you put fresh vegetables on it, but also, it’s baked,
not fried.
(2) It contains all your food groups: grains, dairy, fruits and vegetables,
and sometimes meat.
7. Is there really a bigfoot?
(1) Sightings of Sasquatch date back to the 1920s.
(2) Most scientists consider bigfoot to be a legend that remains
unproven.
 Paragraphs 167

8. Making your bed is easy.

(1) Put the tagged side of your pillow into the pocket of the pillowcase.
(2) Tucking the ends of your sheet in tightly will prevent them
from being pulled out.
9. Riding in the space shuttle
(1) You are one of up to seven astronauts aboard.
(2) The shuttle launches vertically but lands horizontally.
10. Limiting phone use among teens
(1) Monthly cell-phone bills can be costly.
(2) Teens can get obsessed with checking their phones, causing them to
lose focus on their homework or whatever they’re studying.

PRACTICE LAP: UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH

I woke up in my cozy wooden cabin at sunrise, hearing the birds chirp-
ing outside in the trees. I arose excitedly because I knew today was
my kick-back day of the week. I did not have to hunt, gather firewood,
or pick up in the cabin. I trotted down the 50 yards to the shoreline,
grabbing my raft on the way there. I have assigned things to do for every
day of the week so I can keep up with my daily necessities, and today
was a work-free day for me.
Eliminate: The water glimmered with a deep blue color. Because
nobody lived within ten miles of me, the lake was completely clear and
unpolluted.

PRACTICE LAP: FOCUS OF THE PARAGRAPH

I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass with
my homemade wooden knife. When I finished, I used a large, flat
stone from the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my fireplace, and
began frying my fish. When I had first started living in the cabin, it took
me nearly 20 minutes to start a fire on my own with two sticks. I always
loved working with wood in shop class in school when I was younger,
and I had gotten better at it with years of practice. Now that I have been
doing it for nearly five years, starting a fire takes less than ten seconds.
As I sat at the wooden table, thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began
168 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day. By the time I had
finished, my mind was made up.
Eliminate: I had caught the day before

11. I’ve invented a robot!

Tired of cleaning your room, doing laundry, taking the dog for a
walk, and taking out the trash?
12 I rubbed the lamp and have been granted three wishes.
It was the genie that made me do it.
13. Did you vote in the last election?
I know what you’re thinking: My vote doesn’t count. Well, you’re
wrong; it does!
14. Babysitting tips for newbies
I can change a diaper in 23 seconds flat.
15. Do you dread giving presentations as much as I do?
I’ve tried everything from imagining the audience in their birthday
suits to telling ridiculously hideous jokes to my audience—but it’s
just not working.
16. First, I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass
with my homemade wooden knife. Then, I used a large, flat stone from
the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my fire, and waited for it to get
hot. Finally, I began frying my fish.
17. Initially, when I started living in the cabin, it took menearly 20 minutes
to start a fire onmy own with flintand sticks. Now I have been doingit
for nearly five years, and starting a fire takes less than ten seconds.
18. As I sat at the wooden table thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began
thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day. By the time I had
finished my fish, I had decided what I wanted to.
 Paragraphs 169

PRACTICE LAP: A SUCCESSFUL CONCLUSION

I really did love living in the wilderness with nature and animals around
me. I was at peace with no one to bother me. That day, I had contin-
ued working on a large bear sculpture that I had started the week
before. I am, however, glad to be back home now after many years. A
lot has changed, and it will take some getting used to. It’s nice, though,
to have people to talk to, instead of just keeping everything to myself.
When I was younger, I always loved working with wood in shop
class in school, and I had gotten good at it with years of practice. I
could make all kinds of sculptures, including the ones I had already
done over the years such as a dog, a swan, and a squirrel. All in all,
I am sure I will have moments where I’ll miss living in the wilderness,
but it was definitely time for a change.
Blank Page
10
HOMONYMS
Tricky Words
Bee a Wear of Why Lee Words

Now that you understand basic spelling rules, let’s take the correct usage of
words one step further. It is not unusual to come across words that are spelled
differently and have dissimilar meanings, but are pronounced exactly the
same. Such words are called homonyms. The Greek words homo, meaning
“the same,” and onyma, meaning “name,” make up the word homonym. The
following sample paragraph is full of homonyms. Can you tell what this para-
graph is trying to say?

Ewe mite knot awl weighs sea yore riding miss takes write a weigh,
sew ewe halve two Czech care fully. Men knee mite yews tulles, like
ay computer, two tri two fined and altar thee mist aches, butt sum
thymes it seas write thru them.

Likewise, you will frequently encounter words that are spelled exactly the
same way, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called
homographs, from the Greek words homo and graph, which means “same
writing.” So, not only being able to spell a word to write it correctly—but
knowing which correctly spelled word to use and how to pronounce it—is
essential, as well!
Following are some familiar English homonyms and homographs.
172 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Homonyms

ad/add The ad in the newspaper for the jacket was colorful.

Can you add the tip into the total please?
allowed/aloud He is allowed to cross the street alone now.
You should read your spelling words aloud daily.
aunt/ant Aunt Jean collected coins.
The ant carried the crumb up the tree.
ate/eight He ate six hot dogs for lunch.
The basketball player was almost eight feet tall.
bear/bare The brown bear hibernated all winter.
Charlotte can ride her horse bareback.
blue/blew The house with blue shutters is mine.
He blew the horn to warn the swimmers.
break/brake If you break the dish, Mom will be angry.
Apply the brake gently when stopping.
by/buy I live by the ocean.
She must buy milk and bread at the store.
cent/sent/scent I received only one cent change after my purchase.
He sent roses to his sweetheart for Valentine’s Day.
The heavy scent of her perfume was overwhelming.
chews/choose Be careful, his dog chews on shoes.
He will choose to attend either Rutgers or Drew University.
colonel/kernel My uncle is a colonel in the army.
I found a kernel of popcorn on the foor by the chair.
deer/dear There are many deer in the woods behind the school.
My dear friend Alice came to visit me.
do/dew/due I do not like licorice.
The morning dew lightly covered the grass.
My library book was due yesterday.
ewe/you/yew The ewe stayed close to her lamb all the time.
Have you seen the Liberty Bell?
The yew, a small evergreen, is found on almost all continents.
eye/I I’m not crying; I think I have something in my eye.
I am going out tonight.
 Tricky Words 173

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

1. Dad woke up in such a sour mood this morning that Mom called him a bare.

2. With so many different cents to chews from, Chloe will be in the per-
fume store for hours!

3. Henry, ate, is too years older than Sue.

4. Due yew see the dear over buy Ant Jean’s new blew car?

5. If ewe brake the toy, you won’t be aloud to play anymore.

few/fu/fue They few to the Caribbean Islands for spring break.

Unfortunately, Jesse caught the fu and is in bed.
The chimney sweeper cleaned the fue well.
four/fower Use four to make the gravy thick.
The fower I chose for her corsage was a yellow rose.
for/fore/four Let me hold the door for you.
She saw the golf ball headed toward the crowd and shouted
“Fore!”
We stayed up until four in the morning.
grate/great Mom asked me to grate the cheese for the salad.
You did such a great job on that solo.
he’ll/heal/heel He’ll make it if he tries hard enough.
Your scratched elbow should heal quickly with the medicine.
My heel is bruised from jumping off the stair.
here/hear Here is your homework.
Can you hear me?
him/hymn Help him fnish his chores.
The choir sang a traditional hymn.
hole/whole The hole in his sock got bigger.
Two halves make a whole.
hour/our Within the next hour, we will leave.
Our backyards are connected.
174 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

I’ll/aisle/isle I’ll write you soon.

The bride walked down the aisle with her father at her side.
The small isle in the gulf was a popular vacation spot.
knew/new I knew we shouldn’t have gone this far north.
The new student made friends quickly.
knot/not The girl tied a knot in her shoestring.
You should not stay too late.
know/no Do you know how to spell his name?
No, I do not.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

6. After recovering from the flew, Romie new she would knot be able to
run for a while.

7. Xavier was sew hungry that he eight the hole pair quickly.

8. Hour family drove for over an our two get too the flour show at City Hall.

9. Aisle be walking down the isle with my father at hour knew church.

10. I’m knot sure heal he’ll fast enough to be able two travel to the aisle.

meet/meat My swim meet was delayed.

Vegetarians don’t eat meat.
need/kneed/knead I need a softer pillow.
Michael got kneed in the leg by his opponent.
After you knead the bread dough, let it rise in a bowl.
one/won Harry spent one hour picking out a suit.
Merlandia won the school raffe.
pair/pear This pair of pants is too small.
She likes to eat a pear with her lunch.
peace/piece It was no surprise that she said all she wanted was world peace.
Can I have a piece of pie?
 Tricky Words 175

principal/principle Mr. Kostula is the school principal.

He is a man of principle.
rain/rein/reign The weather forecast is calling for rain.
The cowboy held on to the rein as his horse galloped.
Queen Elizabeth’s reign over England lasted 45 years.
real/reel You’re being a real pain!
Reel that fsh in so we can go eat!
right/write/rite Turn right at the intersection of Eyland and Hillside Avenues.
James has to write a research report on King Tut.
The tribe celebrated the boy’s rite of passage to manhood.
sail/sale Columbus set sail for the Americas in 1492.
The house next door has a "For Sale" sign posted in the front yard.
scene/seen The scene from the top of the Grand Canyon is breathtaking.
Have you seen a tornado before?
so/sew That paper cut hurt so much.
Will you teach me how to sew my dress?
stationary/stationery Guards at Buckingham Palace stand stationary for hours at a time.
Monogrammed stationery is an old-fashioned tradition.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

11. Unfortunately, we cannot sale do two to much rein.

12. The seen too the write was of a patient principle standing stationery
wading to meat his grate ant.

13. Class, please right your spelling words for times each four homework
over spring brake.

14. The women stood rite hear in the reign waiting four the annual meet
sail to begin.

15. It seams as though the king rained with much principal and rite threw
out his rein.
176 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

there/their/they’re There is a spider on the wall.

Their favorite restaurant is Merandino’s.
They’re going to play touch football at the park.
threw/through Morgan accidentally threw the Frisbee over the fence.
Sarah went through the entire school year without an absence.

thyme/time The recipe calls for thyme and sage.

What time is it?
to/too/two To try something and fail is better than not trying at all.
I ate too much ice cream and got a stomachache.
The two kitties romped and played happily.
wading/waiting Wading through the crowd made her nervous.
I’ve been waiting for that movie sequel!
wood/would Chopping and stacking wood is a tough chore.
Would you mind helping me?
which/witch I can’t decide which I like better, grape or orange.
Dorothy must outsmart the bad witch in The Wizard of Oz.
weather/whether Sometimes inclement weather causes schools to close.
Whether or not you like it, you’re going to have to decide.
whose/who’s Whose wallet is this?
Who’s going bowling Saturday night?

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

16. Whose going two take the thyme too go threw all these complicated
steps?

17. Eye can’t tell weather or knot the would is reel.

18. Witch stationary do ewe think is better, the read one or the blew won?

19. His parents are trying to help hymn chews a knew car.

20. Their wood halve been more peaces, but Geoff was aloud two bring
only these.
 Tricky Words 177

Homographs
address Be careful to address the envelope to the proper address.
bass Before becoming a bass fsherman, he played bass in a band.
bow Bow to the king, and he’ll reward you with a bow and some arrows.
close I live close by, so I can close up the store if you like.
confict The reports about the confict seem to confict.
desert The soldier would not desert his unit in the desert.
does The hunter does not want to get fned for shooting any does.
dove The dove few high and dove toward the pile of crumbs below.
house The house next door has cages to house up to six dogs at once.
lead The contestant lost his lead when the lead broke on his pencil.
live Live bait doesn’t live long when the fsh are hungry.
minute The discussion about the minute changes lasted a minute.
moped She moped all day after her moped got stolen.
number The number of ice skaters with number toes than mine is nil.
present I was asked to present this special present to you by an admirer.
produce Few farms produce any produce during the cold winter months.
read Yesterday, I read the paper; today, I will read a magazine.
record When did the Beatles record their frst record?
resume I suggest that you resume writing your resume before it’s too late.
separate Separate the eggs, and place the whites and yolks in separate bowls.
tear My eyes began to tear when I saw him tear the check in two.
use If you can fnd any use for this, feel free to use it!
well Well out here, we get our water only from a well.
wind Wind the kite string, then let it out slowly as the wind blows.
wound His small wound festered, and it wound up infected.

WORD CHOICE
Sometimes when writing, you may find it difficult to choose between words
or phrases that are so similar that the only difference between them is a sim-
ple space or an extra letter. For instance, which of the following sentences
would receive high marks from your English teacher?

a. James thought he was already until he looked down and saw that he was
wearing one black sock and one blue sock.
b. James thought he was all ready until he looked down and saw that he
was wearing one black sock and one blue sock.
178 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Answer: b. Why not a? Because already means “previously” or “before now.”

The sentence implies that James was all [completely] ready [prepared] to do
something until he noticed his mismatched socks.

Let’s look at another one.

a. Every day Charlotte helps her sister with her homework.

b. Everyday Charlotte helps her sister with her homework.

Answer: a. Why not b? Because everyday means “ordinary” or “typical.”

Choice b implies that “ordinary Charlotte” helps her sister, whereas choice
a implies that Charlotte helps her sister every (each) day with her homework.

Let’s try one more.

a. Bill Gates maybe the richest man in the world.

b. Bill Gates may be the richest man in the world.

Answer: b. Why not a? Because maybe is an adverb meaning “possibly,” and

in choice a, maybe appears where a verb should be. It really says Bill Gates
possibly the richest man . . . There is no verb in the sentence. On the other
hand, may be in choice b is a verb phrase meaning “could be.” It really says
Bill Gates could be the richest man . . . This sentence is grammatically correct.
Following are other words that are commonly mixed up.

altogether/all together alright/all right anymore/any more

anyone/any one anyway/any way awhile/a while
apart/a part every one/everyone sometime/some time

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

21. My dog chases his tail everyday.

22. May be Stuart wants to be apart of the school play this year.
 Tricky Words 179

23. Let me see if any one is all ready finished.

24. Altogether, there are more than 300 million people in the United States.

25. Some time in the near future, astronauts may fly to Jupiter.

OTHER TRICKY WORDS AND PHRASES TO CONSIDER

A or An?
Both words are adjectives called articles. When you have to use one or the other,
base your decision on the sound of the first letter of the word it will precede, not
whether the word is spelled with a vowel as the first letter. For instance:
One-way begins with the consonant sound /w/, so a is the correct article
to use; however, open door begins with the long vowel sound ō, so an would
be the correct choice.
Unicorn begins with the consonant sound /y/, so a is the correct article,
whereas an would be the correct article to use before umbrella because it
begins with the short vowel sound ŭ.

Affect or Effect?
These two words really throw people for a loop. Affect, pronounced a-FECT,
is a verb meaning “to influence.”

The scary accident scene affected us the rest of the way home.

When pronounced AFF-ect, it is a rarely used noun meaning “emotion.”

The student’s flat affect during the exciting train ride was baffling.

Effect, as a noun, means “result or outcome.”

The effect of brushing your teeth twice a day is a cavity-free mouth.

As a verb, it means “to cause or to create.”

As class president, she will effect a change in school policy that

allows students to attend home games for free.
180 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

INSIDE TRACK

YOU CAN THINK of it this way: When you affect something, you
have an effect on it.

When you successfully infuence your parents’ position on increas-

ing your allowance (affecting their point of view), the outcome
(effect) is more cash in your piggy bank.

Alot or A lot?
Would you write alittle or a little if you wanted to mean “not much”? Why,
a little, of course! Let that help you remember that you shouldn’t write alot,
but a lot. In fact, alot isn’t even a word in the dictionary!

Among or Between?
When you are referring to three or more people or things in your sentence,
use the word among.

There were several red tulips among all the daffodils and irises.

When you are referring to only two people or things in your sentence, use
between.

You may pick any chair between Marie and Harry.

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

YOU MAY SAY between when you are looking at similarities and dif-
ferences between any number or people and things.

We were asked to research the similarities and differences

between trumpets, cornets, and bugles.
 Tricky Words 181

Can or May?
How many times has your teacher replied, “I’m sure you’re capable of going,”
or “I don’t know, can you?” after you ask if you can go to your locker, get a
drink, or go to the bathroom? Too many, right? Why do they always say that?
Here’s why.
Can means “having the ability.” When you say, “Can I . . .?” you’re really
asking if you have the ability of going or doing what you asked.
May means “having permission to do something.” Permission is what
you really want from your teacher, not his or her assurance of your being able
to walk, drink, or whatever.

Except or Accept?
By virtue of the fact that these two words sound so alike, their misuse is com-
mon. Except means “excluding or unless,” and accept means “to approve,
agree, or willingly receive.”

Except for anchovies, I will accept almost anything on my pizza.

INSIDE TRACK

CONFUSED ABOUT WHETHER to use except or accept? Remem-

ber, when you’re agreeing to something, you’re “cc-eeing” eye to eye with
someone. When making exceptions, you’re “x-cluding” something.

Good or Well?
The adjective good is used to describe a person, place, or thing (a noun).

Strawberry ice cream tastes good.

Well, on the other hand, is an adverb that describes something being done
(a verb).

The choir sang well in the practice today.

182 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Have or Of?
Of all the mistakes students make in writing, confusing these two words is
one of the most common. Perhaps you have written this once or twice: I
should of gone, I could of had that, I would of done it if . . .
What you really meant is I should have gone, I could have had that, I would
have done it if . . .

Sit or Set?
When you tell your dog to sit, you want him to sit down. When you set the
table, you are placing plates, forks, glasses, on the table.
When you put something on your desk, you’re not sitting it on the desk,
you’re setting it. When your mom put you in time-out, she may have made
you sit in the corner, not set in it.

Than or Then?
When comparing two pairs of jeans at the store, you’re looking for some fea-
tures you like more than others. When making a sandwich, first you spread
the peanut butter, then you put on the jelly.

Who or Whom?
Although whom is slowly making its way out of usage, it is still important to
know when to use it and when not to. One quick way to know is to replace
the words who and whom with he and him. When he is the correct choice, use
who. When him is the correct choice, use whom. For instance:

Who/whom owns that soccer ball?

When you place he and him in a reply, you get:

a. He owns the soccer ball.

and
b. Him owns the soccer ball.
 Tricky Words 183

Which reply sounds correct? He owns the soccer ball does, so you would use
the word who.

Let’s try another.

My uncle, who/whom I haven’t seen in years, is coming for a visit.

If you replace he and him in the clause, you get:

a. I haven’t seen he in years.

and
b. I haven’t seen him in years.

Which reply sounds correct? I haven’t seen him in years does, so you would
use the word whom.

My uncle, whom I haven’t seen in years, is coming for a visit.

PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
your answers at the end of the chapter.

26. Every one should know about the negative affects of smoking.

27. I should of handed my paper in earlier.

28. We split the pepperoni pizza between the three of us.

29. I except your apology. Thank you.

30. Maddie draws good, but sings better.

184 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

ANSWERS
1. Dad woke up in such a sour mood this morning that Mom called him
a bear.
2. With so many different scents to choose from, Chloe will be in the per-
fume store for hours!
3. Henry, eight, is two years older than Sue.
4. Do you see the deer over by Aunt Jean’s new blue car?
5. If you break the toy, you won’t be allowed to play anymore.
6. After recovering from the flu, Romie knew she would not be able to run
for a while.
7. Xavier was so hungry that he ate the whole pear quickly.
8. Our family drove for over an hour to get to the flower show at City Hall.
9. I’ll be walking down the aisle with my father at our new church.
10. I’m not sure he’ll heal fast enough to be able to travel to the isle.
11. Unfortunately, we cannot sail due to too much rain.
12. The scene to the right was of a patient principal standing stationary
waiting to meet his great aunt.
13. Class, please write your spelling words four times each for homework
over spring break.
14. The women stood right here in the rain waiting for the annual meat
sale to begin.
15. It seems as though the king reigned with much principle and right
throughout his reign.
16. Who’s going to take the time to go through all these complicated
steps?
17. I can’t tell whether or not the wood is real.
18. Which stationery do you think is better, the red one or the blue one?
19. His parents are trying to help him choose a new car.
20. There would have been more pieces, but Geoff was allowed to bring
only these.
21. My dog chases his tail every day.
22. Maybe Stuart wants to be a part of the school play this year.
23. Let me see if anyone is already finished.
 Tricky Words 185

24. All together, there are more than 300 million people in the United
States.
25. Sometime in the near future, astronauts may fly to Jupiter.
26. Everyone should know about the negative effects of smoking.
27. I should have handed my paper in earlier.
28. We split the pepperoni pizza among the three of us.
29. I accept your apology. Thank you.
30. Maddie draws well, but sings better.
Blank Page
11
J
Posttest

ust like the pretest, the posttest contains 70 questions. It con-

tains the same types of questions that you answered in the pretest, and
again, it should take you no longer than one hour to complete. After taking
the posttest and checking your answers against the answer key that follows,
you will see how much you have learned from the lessons in this book. For
each question you answer incorrectly, go over the answer explanation and
refer back to the chapter that discusses that particular topic. Good luck!

CAPITALIZATION
Correct the words that require proper capitalization.

1. the cat yawned lazily.

2. i have been awake for hours.

3. his books usually get good reviews.

4. delaware was the first state in the union.

5. my grandmother sent me money for my birthday.

188 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

6. sam’s neighbor’s dog barks at night.

7. i read the chronicles of narnia this past summer.

8. italian food seems to be the most popular.

9. “my, what big eyes you have,” said little red riding hood.

10. “all the better to see you with,” replied the big bad wolf.

PUNCTUATION
Insert proper punctuation into the following sentences.

11. It was cold today

12. How many people were at the dance

13. She leisurely walked through the store

14. Ouch that really hurt

15. I didnt hear you clearly

16. None of this game equipment belongs to me

17. How was I supposed to know

18. When the bell rang Kelly ran to the door

19. My uncle got married on March 6 2017

20. Drew a real estate broker is always taking phone calls

21. Today you must wash the clothes dust vacuum make the beds and iron
 Posttest 189

22. After studying her flash cards Julie tried to remember the answers

23. It was late very late so I went to bed

24. Her ankle was swollen it was more than she could bear

25. I missed my dentist appointment at 400 yesterday

26. After driving all that time about six hours she still hadn’t reached her
destination

27. Please buy the following colors red white yellow blue orange pink and
green

28. The Force played hard they deserved to win

29. I have forgotten the combination sighed Tina

30. Austin replied Dont worry I wrote it down in my binder

MODIFIERS
Adjectives
In each sentence, circle the adjective(s).

31. Jennifer, your recital was outstanding.

32. The Florida sunshine is warm and inviting.

33. Christian was elated to finally have a work-free weekend.

34. Fourteen girls lined up in front of the green door.

190 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Adverbs
In each sentence, circle the adverb(s).

35. Harry’s best friend moved away this summer.

36. Nathan ran hard to train for the tournament.

37. Anthony is sometimes careless with his belongings.

38. There are too many names on the list now.

39. The gondola gradually climbed the steep hillside.

40. Stacy is sometimes late for class.

Prepositional Phrases
In each sentence, circle the prepositional phrase(s).

41. Place the dirty dishes in the sink, please.

42. After the movie, do you want to get ice cream at the diner?

43. Go down the street about six blocks and turn right at the stoplight.

Tricky Words
In each sentence, circle the tricky word(s).

44. It seams like ewe due knot want two bee hear write now.

45. What blew and read shirt are ewe talking about?

46. The mane point is that hour concerns are herd.

47. The principle will sea ewe now.

48. We have had two much reign this thyme.

 Posttest 191

49. Actually, the boat sets sale early inn the mourning.

50. The dog’s tale wagged excitedly when I through the bawl to hymn.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. Underline
the subject(s) once and underline the predicate(s) twice.

51. The librarian stamped the books and placed them on the cart.

52. Patty’s research paper had a table of contents, an index, and a glossary.

53. The group of tourists walked eagerly through the museum and admired
the paintings on the wall.

54. Betsy Ross, the maker of the first American flag, was a hero.

55. Paula enjoyed working with animals, a job she had dreamed about
since she was a child.

56. Cowboys of the Wild West rode horses in rodeos, and many worked on
ranches.

57. At the bottom of the lane sat a tiny yellow cottage surrounded by golden
sunflowers.

58. Victoria plays the trombone in the school band, and Lucas plays the
French horn.

59. As we flew over the Atlantic Ocean, our plane encountered heavy
turbulence.

60. Making snowmen is fun, but snowball fights are better.

192 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

COMBINING SENTENCES
Choppy sentences in a paragraph are unappealing. Combine the following
sentences, rewriting them when necessary, to create more informative,
interesting sentences. Although there are many possible combinations, a
sample of each question is provided for you at the end of the posttest.

61. Julia Cooper was going to Fargo Junior High School, a new school.
It was going to be a dreadful year for her.
She had to leave all of the friends she’d ever had in Phoenix, Arizona.
She had to leave behind the only home she’d ever known.

62. Her dad was George Cooper.

He worked for an international car company called Global Autos.
He had a job that was sending him and his family to North Dakota.
Julia thought that she’d never be able to have good friends again.

63. It was the morning of her first day of school at FJHS.

Julia prepared for the day ahead of her.
She was filled with trepidation and hoped for the best.
She walked into her classroom and sat in the back corner of the room.
 Posttest 193

64. Another girl in her class walked up to Julia and started talking to her.
She seemed very nice.
Her name was Charlotte.

65. They sat and talked to each other until the bell rang.
Julia and Charlotte compared schedules and realized that they had
classes together almost all day.
At lunch, Charlotte introduced Julia to some of her friends.

66. Julia thought about her old house and her old friends in Arizona.
She started to wonder if she’d ever fit in or even get used to North
Dakota.

67. When school ended, Julia took the bus home.

She went to her room, ate a snack, and did her homework until she was
called for dinner.
She smelled the delicious meal her mother had cooked.
She saw her favorite, spaghetti with meatballs.
194 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

68. Another few weeks had gone by, and Julia was starting to like Fargo.
She couldn’t believe the number of friends she already made.
She couldn’t have been happier with the new place that they had
moved to.

69. The next night, when her father came home, he started to loosen his
necktie.
He had an uneasy look on his face.
Julia knew that something was wrong.
She went upstairs to her room and started her homework.
But she couldn’t concentrate on her work because she was worried about
her dad. Had he been laid off?
She could think of nothing else that could have gone wrong.

70. When she sat down at the dinner table, everyone started eating.
It was quiet.
She was about to start a conversation, but her dad started to speak.
“I’m afraid there’s been a change of plans,” he said. “Ben Casey, president
of the plant in Sweden, has left, and Central is putting me in his place.”
 Posttest 195

ANSWERS
Capitalization
Reminder: We capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first
word of a direct quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using
the word I, (4) proper nouns, (5) proper adjectives, and (6) the first word
and all key words in titles. (To better understand capitalization, please see
Chapter 2.)
1. The cat yawned lazily.
2. I have been awake for hours.
3. His books usually get good reviews.
4. Delaware was the first state in the Union.
5. My grandmother sent me money for my birthday.
6. Sam’s neighbor’s dog barks at night.
7. I read The Chronicles of Narnia this past summer.
8. Italian food seems to be the most popular.
9. “My, what big eyes you have,” said Little Red Riding Hood.
10. “All the better to see you with,” replied the Big Bad Wolf.

Punctuation
Reminder: (1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sen-
tences; (2) question marks are used after a question; (3) exclamations sig-
nify strong feelings or emotion. (To better understand punctuation, please
see Chapter 2.)
11. It was cold today.
12. How many people were at the dance?
13. She leisurely walked through the store.
14. Ouch, that really hurt!
15. I didn’t hear you clearly.
16. None of this game equipment belongs to me.
17. How was I supposed to know?
196 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Reminder: Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items or

phrases in a sentence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, (3) before
and after a word or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that
precedes it (an appositive), and (4) in dates and addresses.
18. When the bell rang, Kelly ran to the door.
19. My uncle got married on March 6, 2020.
20. Drew, a real estate broker, is always taking phone calls.
21. Today, you must wash the clothes, dust, vacuum, make the beds, and iron.
22. After studying her flash cards, Julie tried to remember the answers.
23. It was late, very late, so I went to bed.

Reminder: Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a
movie or book, or (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time.
Use a semicolon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two
complete sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
24. Her ankle was swollen; it was more than she could bear.
25. I missed my dentist appointment at 4:00 yesterday.
26. After driving all that time, about six hours, she still hadn’t reached her
destination.
27. Please buy the following colors: red, white, yellow, blue, orange, pink,
and green.
28. The Force played hard; they deserved to win.

Reminder: Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quota-
tion marks.
29. “I have forgotten the combination,” sighed Tina.
30. Austin replied, “Don’t worry, I wrote it down in my binder.”

Modifers
Adjectives
Reminder: Adjectives (1) modify only nouns; (2) answer What kind? Which
one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying; (3) imply some-
thing belongs to someone; and (4) are sometimes proper nouns that behave
like adjectives. (To better understand adjectives, please see Chapter 5.)
31. Jennifer, your recital was outstanding.
32. The Florida sunshine is warm and inviting.
 Posttest 197

33. Christian was elated to finally have a work-free weekend.

34. Fourteen girls lined up in front of the green door.

Adverbs
Reminder: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer
Where? When? How? How much? How often? and How long? (To better under-
stand adverbs, please see Chapter 5.)
35. Harry’s best friend moved away this summer.
36. Nathan ran hard to train for the tournament.
37. Anthony is sometimes careless with his belongings.
38. There are too many names on the list now.
39. The gondola gradually climbed the steep hillside.
40. Stacy is sometimes late for class.

Prepositional Phrases
Reminder: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a
preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. (To better understand prepo-
sitional phrases, please see Chapters 6 and 7.)
41. Place the dirty dishes in the sink, please.
42. After the movie, do you want to get ice cream at the diner?
43. Go down the street about six blocks and turn right at the stoplight.

Tricky Words
Reminder: Words that are spelled differently and have dissimilar meanings,
but are pronounced exactly the same, are called homonyms. (To better under-
stand tricky words, please see Chapter 10.)
44. It seems like you do not want to be here right now.
45. What blue and red shirt are you talking about?
46. The main point is that our concerns are heard.
47. The principal will see you now.
48. We have had too much rain this time.
49. Actually, the boat sets sail early in the morning.
50. The dog’s tail wagged excitedly when I threw the ball to him.
198 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Sentence Structure
Reminder: (1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and a
simple predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete
sentences together with a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is made up of at
least one independent clause and one subordinate (dependent) clause. (For
see Chapter 8.)

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.
 Posttest 199

Combining Sentences
(For more help with combining sentences, please see Chapters 8 and 9.)
61. Julia Cooper was going to a new school—Fargo Junior High School—
and it was going to be a dreadful year. She had to leave all of the friends
she’d ever had in Phoenix, Arizona, and was going to leave behind the
only home she’d ever known.
Avoid choppiness by combining sentences and ideas that comple-
ment each other. Many times, sentences share the same subjects,
which means they can be fused easily.
62. Her dad, George Cooper, worked for Global Autos, an international car
company. His job was sending him and his family to North Dakota, and
Julia, crushed, thought that she’d never be able to have good friends again.
We made four sentences into two by finding similarities and com-
bining ideas. Three sentences involved Julia’s dad.
63. It was the morning of her first day of school at FJHS, and Julia prepared
for the day ahead of her. She was filled with trepidation but hoped for
the best as she walked into her classroom. Feeling out of place, she took
a seat in the back corner of the room.
The other sentences lacked fluidity and were dry. Notice that three
of the four sentences have Julia as the subject. Take advantage of
that and combine.
64. A girl in her class, Charlotte, walked up to Julia and started talking to her.
She seemed very nice.
The last two sentences are very choppy. All three can easily be
combined to make one interesting thought.
65. They sat and talked to each other until the bell rang. At Julia’s locker,
they compared schedules and realized that they had classes together
almost all day. Charlotte couldn’t wait to introduce Julia to some of her
friends at lunch.
Adding a little detail for the reader (at Julia’s locker and Charlotte’s
anticipation) makes this sentence more interesting.
66. Julia thought about her old house and friends in Arizona and started
to wonder if she’d ever fit in or even get used to this new place called
North Dakota.
Combining and shortening a few details (old house and friends)
does the trick.
200 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

67. When school ended, Julia took the bus home, went to her room, and did
her homework until she was called for dinner. She smelled the delicious
meal her mother had cooked; it was her favorite dinner: spaghetti with
meatballs.
She, she, she . . . yikes. Fuse ideas and subjects together.
68. Another few weeks had gone by, and Fargo was finally beginning to sink
in. Julia couldn’t believe the number of friends she already made; she
hadn’t felt this happy in a long time.
69. The next night, when her father came home from work, he loosened his
necktie and had an uneasy look on his face. Julia knew that something
was wrong. She went upstairs to her room and started her homework,
but she couldn’t concentrate because she was worried about her dad.
Had he been laid off? She could think of nothing else that could have
gone wrong.
You can combine her dad’s actions easily. Leaving the next sentence
by itself adds emphasis and some apprehension for the reader.
70. It was quiet at the dinner table. To break the silence, Julia was about to
speak when her dad started. “I’m afraid there’s been a change of plans,”
he said. “Ben Casey, president of the plant in Sweden, has left, and Cen-
tral is putting me in his place.”
You can just as easily say in one sentence what was originally said
in two. Rearranging and replacing some words improves the over-
all feel of the sentences.
 Glossary

Action verb: A verb that expresses thought or activity.

A part of speech that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives

Adjective:
answer What kind? Which one? How much? How many? about a noun.

Adverb: A part of speech that modifies a verb, an adjective, or other adverb.

Adverbs answer Where? When? How much? How many? about the verb,
adjective, or other adverb.

Antecedent: The word or words to which a specific pronoun refers.

Appositive: A word or words that describe the noun or pronoun that comes
before the appositive in the sentence.

Audience: The reader(s) of your writing. When writing, you should always
consider your audience’s age, experience, and position on the topic, and
then adapt your word choice, style, and tone for your essay.

Body paragraph: Sentences that develop or explain one of the ideas stated
in the introduction.

Clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb.

Colon (:): The punctuation mark that comes before a series, a lengthy quo-
tation, or an example, or after the salutation in a business letter.
202 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Comma (,): The punctuation mark that separates words, phrases, and items
in a series.

Comma splice: A sentence in which two sentences have been improperly

joined together by a comma.

Comparative: A form of an adjective or adverb that implies the greater degree

when compared to something else. Comparatives end with the suffix -er.

Complex sentence: A sentence that is made up of an independent clause and

subordinate (dependent) clause.

Compound-complex sentence: A sentence that is made up of more than one

independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.

Compound sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent

clauses with no subordinate (dependent) clauses.

Compound subjects: Two or more subjects that share the same verb in a
sentence.

Compound word: Two or more separate words put together to create a new
word. Compound words may be joined, separate, or hyphenated.

Conclusions: The final paragraph in an essay, in which the writer restates

the main idea, summarizes the main points, and closes with a value state-
ment to bring effective closure to the essay.

Conjunction: A word or phrase that connects words or groups of words

together.

Dangling modifer: A word or phrase that is meant to modify a specific part

of the sentence, but has not been written next to that part, thus altering
the meaning of the sentence.

Dash (—): A punctuation mark that indicates a strong pause, to emphasize

a point or set off a comment or short list within a sentence.

Demonstrative pronoun: A word such as this, that, these, and those that is
used to replace a specific noun in a sentence.

Direct object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
 Glossary 203

Direct quotation: The exact spoken or written words of a person written by

another person and enclosed in quotation marks.

Ellipsis ( . . . ): The punctuation mark that indicates that words have been
omitted, or that indicates a pause between thoughts or words.

Exclamation point (!): The punctuation mark that indicates strong emotion.

Future tense: A verb tense that implies that something hasn’t happened yet,
but will.

Gerund: A verb ending with -ing that functions as a noun in a sentence. A

gerund can act as a subject, a direct object, or an object of a preposition
(OOP).

Homonyms: Two distinct words with their own meanings but identical
pronunciations.

Hyphen (-): The punctuation mark that joins or separates numbers, letters,
syllables, and words for specific purposes.

Imperative sentence: A sentence that expresses a request or command. The

subject of any imperative sentence is always you.

Indefnite pronoun: A part of speech such as no one, anyone, anybody, or some-

body that refers to a noun, but not a specific one.

Independent clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a predi-

cate (verb) and can stand by itself as a sentence.

Infnitive: A verb written in the form of to plus the verb (e.g., to walk) that
acts as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence.

Interjection: A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or feelings.

Introduction: The opening paragraph of an essay that hooks the reader and
introduces the main idea and subtopics that will be explored.

Irregular verb: A verb that does not use an -ed ending when written in past
tense. The past tense endings for irregular verbs do not follow any specific
pattern and need to be memorized.

Linking verb: A verb that conveys a state of being or condition and that links
a noun with either another noun or an adjective.
204 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Misplaced modifer: A word or phrase that is placed too far from the noun or
verb it is modifying, thus altering or confusing the meaning of the sentence.

Modifer: A word that describes or clarifies another word. Adjectives mod-

ify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Noun: A part of speech that names a person, place, or thing (including

ideas and feelings).

Object of a preposition (OOP): The noun or pronoun that follows a prepo-

sitional phrase.

Paragraph: A group of sentences that share a common topic and focus

upon a single idea.

Parentheses [( )]: The punctuation marks that set off information that is not
necessarily pertinent to the surrounding sentence or words.

Participle: A verb form that can be used as an adjective.

Past tense: A verb tense that implies something that already happened.

Period (.): The punctuation mark found at the end of a declarative sentence,
an imperative sentence, or an indirect question, or in abbreviations.

Personal pronoun: A part of speech such as I, you, me, he, him, she, her, it, they,
them, and we that refers to the speaker, the person, or thing being spoken
about, or the person or thing being spoken to.

Phrase: A group of words that does not have a subject and verb. Phrases
can act like various parts of speech (a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or
preposition).

Predicate: The action that the subject performs in a sentence; a verb.

Preposition: A part of speech that shows the relationship of a noun or pro-

noun to another word in the sentence in terms of time and/or space.

Prepositional phrase:A phrase beginning with a preposition and ending

with a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition).

Present tense: A verb tense that implies action happening in the present or
an action that happens constantly.
 Glossary 205

Pronoun: A part of speech that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.

Proper noun: A specific noun that is capitalized.

Punctuation: A set of special symbols that helps convey the tone and pace
of a writer’s voice to the reader.

Question mark (?): The punctuation mark that appears at the end of an inter-
rogatory sentence (a question).

Quotation marks ( “ ” ): The punctuation marks that indicate the exact words
of a speaker or that convey hesitation or irony in a writer’s words.

Run-on sentence: A sentence in which two or more complete sentences

have been improperly punctuated and joined together.

Semicolon (;): The punctuation mark that joins two independent clauses that
share a similar idea and are not already joined by a conjunction.

Sentence: A group of words that has a subject and predicate and expresses
a complete thought.

Sentence fragment: An incomplete thought that has been punctuated as a

complete sentence.

Simple sentence: An independent clause.

Subject-verb agreement: The rule that the subject and verb of a sentence
must agree in number and in person.

Subordinate clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb but can-
not stand alone as a complete thought; also known as a dependent clause.

Superlative: A comparative form of an adjective or adverb that implies the

greatest degree when compared to something else. Superlatives end with
the suffix -est.

Topic: The subject or main idea of an essay.

Thesis: A statement in an essay that conveys the main idea or point.

Verb: A part of speech that expresses action or the condition of the corre-
sponding noun or pronoun. Verb tense can indicate the time of the action
or condition.