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Zhichuan Guan
Tinggen Chen
Hualin Liao

Theory and
Technology
of Drilling
Engineering
Theory and Technology of Drilling
Engineering
Zhichuan Guan • Tinggen Chen •
Hualin Liao

Theory and Technology

of Drilling Engineering

123
Zhichuan Guan Tinggen Chen
School of Petroleum Engineering School of Petroleum Engineering
China University of Petroleum (East China) China University of Petroleum (East China)
Qingdao, Shandong, China Qingdao, Shandong, China

Hualin Liao
School of Petroleum Engineering
China University of Petroleum (East China)
Qingdao, Shandong, China

ISBN 978-981-15-9326-0 ISBN 978-981-15-9327-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9327-7
Jointly published with China University of Petroleum Press
The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the
print book from: China University of Petroleum Press.

© China University of Petroleum Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publishers, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

The textbook Theory and Technology of Drilling Engineering (Chinese version) is

a professional course textbook according to the teaching plan and talent training
requirements of petroleum engineering. The first edition of the book was formally
printed and published in August 2000. Over the past 20 years since its publication,
the book has been revised and reprinted for 12 times. It has been used by more than
dozens of undergraduate students majoring in petroleum engineering, as well as a
large number of adult education students and online education students.
By continuously enriching the teaching contents and soliciting opinions and
suggestions from field engineers and previous graduates, the content of the textbook
has been enhanced. The content of the book is based on the combination of theory
and practice in terms, and it is compacted and refined, covering a wide range,
reflecting as much as possible the new technology and new achievements in drilling
technologies.
The principal teachers of the department of oil and gas well engineering, School
of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China) jointly
wrote this book in the Chinese language. Chief Editors Prof. Zhichuan Guan and
Prof. Tinggen Chen organized the compilation of the book. Prof. Tinggen Chen and
Prof. Ruihe Wang wrote and modified the introduction and Chap. 8, Prof. Yuanfang
Chen modified Chap. 1, Prof. Deyong Zou and associate Prof. Yequan Jin wrote
and modified Chap. 2, Prof. Zhengsong Qiu modified Chap. 3, Prof. Zhichuan Guan
wrote and modified Chap. 4. Professor Zhiyong Han wrote and modified Chap. 5.
Professor Gang Liu modified Chap. 6. Professor Zhichuan Guan and Prof. Yuhuan
Bu wrote and modified Chap. 7. Associate Editor Prof. Hualin Liao conducted
translation, correction, and the overall revision of the book. During the phase of
translation and correction, many teachers and experts provided various kinds of
help, the editors representing the whole writing group would like to express their
thanks to all of them, who are Chichen Xu, Xiaochun Jin in the USA, Chunyuan
Zeng in Canada, Lei Wang in Kazakhstan, associate professors Yucai Shi, Xunchen
Song, Jiafang Xu, Genlu Huang, Ph.D. candidates Alaa Dandash, Alex William
Mwang’ande in UPC. Also, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to Ms.
Lina Mu of China University of Petroleum Press for her excellent work in pub-
lishing this book.

v
vi Preface

This textbook presents the theories and technologies of drilling operations. It

covers the gamut of the formulas and calculations for petroleum engineers. Some
of these formulas and calculations have been used for decades, while others are
meant to help guide engineers through some of the more recent breakthroughs in
the industry’s technology. However, there are inevitably improprieties and mis-
takes, and readers are kindly asked to criticize and correct them.

July 2020 Editors

About This Book

This book mainly describes the fundamental technological theories in the process of
oil and gas well drilling and modern major drilling technologies. This book consists
of eight chapters as well as tutorials for readers to self-learn and to master the
necessary knowledge. The main contents include engineering geological conditions
of drilling, rigs and drilling tools, drilling fluids, optimization of drilling parameters,
well trajectory design and inclination control, well control, cementing and com-
pletion, and other drilling technologies and operations.
This book has a complete system, clear levels, and appropriate depth and
breadth, which can be used as a textbook for petroleum engineering majors in
ordinary colleges and universities, as well as a reference book for engineers and
researchers engaged in oil and gas well drilling and production.

vii
Introduction

Drilling plays a significant role in various tasks of oil and gas exploration devel-
opment, such as finding and confirming oil and gas bearing structures, obtaining
industrial oil or gas flow, proving geological and development data about oil, and
finally taking crude oil to the ground, etc., all of which are completed by drilling.
Drilling is an important link in the exploration and exploitation of petroleum and
natural gas resources, and it is an essential means of exploration and exploitation of
oil and gas resources as well.
The process of oil and gas exploration and development consists of many phases
with different requirements and missions. The purpose and task of drilling are
different at different phases. Some are for proving reserves structures, and others are
for oil field development and crude oil exploitation. Therefore, oil and gas wells are
generally defined as cylindrical holes with a certain depth drilled in the formation to
explore and exploit underground resources such as oil and natural gas, and
obtaining underground information. To realize these above objectives, the types of
drilling could be categorized as follows:
Datum Well
The well is drilled during a regionally general investigation to understand the
sedimentary characteristics of the formation and the oil and gas bearing situation,
and verify the results of geophysical exploration, and provide geophysical param-
eters. The datum well is generally drilled to the bedrock and requires full wellbore
coring.
Profile Well
The well is drilled along a large regional profile. The purpose of drilling is to
expose local geological sections, to study stratigraphic lithology and lithofacies,
and to find structures. Profiles are mainly used during the regionally general
investigation.
Parameter Well
The well is drilled in petroliferous basins to understand regional structures and
provide rock physical parameters. Parameter wells are mainly used in the com-
prehensive investigation stage.

ix
x Introduction

Tectonic Well
The well is drilled to make the structural map of a standard layer in the formation,
to understand its geological structural characteristics, and to verify the results of
geophysical exploration.
Exploration Well
The well is drilled to determine the existence of oil and gas reservoirs, to delineate
the boundaries of oil and gas reservoirs, to perform a technical evaluation of oil and
gas reservoirs, and to obtain the geological data required for oil and gas develop-
ment in the favorable oil and gas collection structures or oil and gas fields. The
wells drilled in each exploration stage can be divided into pre-exploration wells,
preliminary exploration wells, and detailed exploration wells.
Information Well
The well is drilled to make oil and gas field development plans, or to obtain data for
particular thematic research during the development process.
Production Well
The well is drilled for oil and gas exploitation during oil and gas field development.
Production wells can be divided into oil-producing and gas-producing wells.
Water or Gas Injection Well
The well is drilled for injecting water or gas to supply and make reasonable use of
formation energy to improve oil and gas recovery and development process. Wells
drilled specifically for injecting water or gas are called water injection or gas
injection wells, respectively. Sometimes they are collectively referred to as injection
wells.
Inspection Well
The well is drilled to clarify the pressure and distribution of oil, gas, and water in
various oil and gas layers, and the distributions and changes of remaining oil
saturation in oil and gas fields to a particular water-cut stage, to understand the
effect of the adjustments of various submerged excavation measures.
Observation Well
The well is drilled during the development of oil and gas fields, which are used to
understand the dynamics of underground oil or gas fluids, for observing the pres-
sures variations of oil or gas at different layers, water cuts, and flooding as
examples. Observation wells are generally not used for production.
Adjustment Well
The well is drilled to adjust the well network to improve the development effect and
recovery rate in the middle and later stages of oil and gas field development, which
includes production wells, injection wells, observation wells, etc. The production
layer pressure of such wells may be low due to the later stage of oil production or be
high pressure due to the energy held by the injection well.
The whole oilfield development process is divided into several stages of
exploration, construction, and production, and each stage is interrelated, where a
Introduction xi

large amount of drilling work is required. High-quality, fast and efficient drilling is
an important approach to develop oil and gas fields.

II

Drilling is not only applied in the petroleum industry but also in national economic
construction. For example, drilling methods are often used to obtain relevant
information. They are used in engineering construction in the areas of prospecting,
hydrogeology, railway, hydraulics, and various types of infrastructure construction.
In ancient times, humans began to dig wells to obtain underground resources. The
development of drilling technology can generally be divided into four stages:
manual digging, manual percussion drilling, and mechanical percussion drilling,
rotary drilling. China has a long history of using drilling to develop underground
resources. According to records, salt wells were drilled in Sichuan area more than
2000 years ago using the method similar to the modern percussive drilling method,
and the basic principle is still used by people today. In the Northern Song Dynasty,
the manual rope drilling method was developed. In 1521, oil and fire wells (natural
gas wells) were drilled. In 1835, a fire well with a depth of 1200 m was drilled in
Sichuan, which was the deepest well in the world at that time. It is generally
believed that mechanical drilling (1859) was the beginning of modern oil drilling.
Later, in 1901, a rotary drilling method was developed, using a turning table to
drive the drill string, and a drill bit to break the rock at the bottom of the hole, as
well as to circulate drilling fluid to clean the wellbore. Former Soviet engineers
developed turbine drilling tools in 1923, which have been widely used since the
1940s. Later, electric drilling tools and screw drilling tools appeared, collectively
known as downhole power drilling tools, which have particular advantages in
drilling directional wells.
So far, the rotary drilling method is still the primary method of oil and gas
drilling. With the development of modern science and technology, the rotary
drilling technology has also been rapidly developed. Its characteristics are: ① From
empirical drilling to scientific drilling; ② From shallow wells to deep wells or
ultra-deep wells; ③ Development from vertical and directional wells to highly
deviated directional wells, cluster wells, and horizontal wells; ④ Development
from land drilling to offshore and deep-water drilling.
Drilling researchers have divided the development of rotary drilling technology
into the following four periods:
• Concept period (1901–1920): This period began to combine drilling and
washing wells, and the techniques of roller bit and cemented casing were used.
• Development period (1920–1948): During this period, technologies such as
roller cone bit, cementing technology, drilling fluid were further developed.
High-power drilling equipment appeared at the same time.
xii Introduction

• Scientific drilling period (1948–1969): During this period, a lot of research work
was carried out to study the natural laws in the drilling process, which led to the
rapid development of drilling technologies. Its main technical achievements
were: full use of water power (jet drilling); inserted teeth, sliding sealed bearing
drill bits; low solid phase, non-solid-phase non-dispersion system of drilling
fluid, and solid-phase control; optimized drilling parameters; well control
technologies and balanced pressure drilling technologies.
• Automated drilling period (1969 to present): During this period, automatic
measurement of drilling parameters, integrated logging, and measurement while
drilling technology (MWD) were developed. Computers were widely employed
in drilling operations. New techniques and equipment such as optimized dril-
ling, automated drilling, wellhead mechanization, automation tools, remote
control of wellbore trajectory, and automatic closed-loop control also came into
practice.
In recent years, slim wells, extended reach wells, multi-branch wells, under-
balanced pressure drilling, and coiled tubing drilling have been developed. The
development of these technologies is conducive to improving drilling efficiency and
enhancing oilfield production and recovery.

III

In oil and gas well drilling, although the purpose of drilling is different and the
depth of the well is different, the rotary drilling method is still dominant, including
rotary table rotary drilling, downhole power rotary drilling, and top drive rotary
drilling, wherever in the land or in the sea.
The process of well construction, from determining the well location to the final
test and production, includes a series of operations. According to the sequence, it
can be divided into three stages, namely pre-drill preparation, drilling, cementing,
and completion. Each stage also includes many practical techniques and operations.
Pre-drill Preparation
After determining the well location and completing the design of the well, the first
procedure in the well construction by the pre-drilling engineer mainly includes the
following four steps:
• Road construction: Construction of a transportation road to the well site to
transport drilling equipment.
• Well site and equipment foundation preparation: Leveling the site according to
the depth of the well, the type of equipment, and the design requirements, and
carrying out equipment foundation construction (including the foundation of the
rig, derrick, drilling pumps, etc.).
Introduction xiii

• Transportation and installation of drilling equipment: Placing, adjusting, and

fixing drilling equipment, and installation of drilling circulation pipelines and
oil, gas, water thermal insulation pipelines and tanks, insulation boilers, etc.
• Wellhead equipment preparation: Including digging a cellar (or not appliable),
running conductor and cementing, drilling a mouse hole and rat hole, etc.
Drilling
Drilling process is to apply weight on bit to break the rock at the bottom of the hole.
The cuttings generated by bit are carried to the surface by circulating drilling fluid.
Weight on bit is accomplished by the gravity of a part of the drill string (drill
collar). The rotation of the drill bit is achieved by the rotary table or the top drive
device. When using downhole motors, the rotary table may not rotate. During the
drilling process, as long as drilling tools are in the wellbore, the drilling fluid should
be continuously circulated to avoid downhole problems.
During drilling, the drill bit continues to break the rock, and the wellbore will be
gradually deepened. The drill string also needs to be lengthened, so it is necessary
to connect drill pipes (make-up single joint) intermittently.
Since the drill bit breaks the rock at the bottom of the hole, the drill bit will
gradually wear out, and the rate of penetration will decrease correspondingly. When
the drill bit wears to a certain extent, it needs to be replaced with a new one. For this
purpose, all the drill strings need to be taken out of the well. After a new drill bit is
replaced, the new drill bit and all the drill strings are again lowered into the well.
This process is called trip-out and trip-in. Sometimes it is necessary to carry out a
tripping operation to deal with accidents and logging.
During drilling, the borehole shall be deepened continuously and the wellbore
wall formed shall be stable without complications to ensure continued drilling. It is
necessary to drill through a variety of formations, but the characteristics of each
layer are different. Some formations have high or low rock strength; some contain
high-pressure water, oil, gas and other fluids; some contain salt, gypsum, sodium
sulfate and other compositions; all of which have adverse effects on the drilling
fluid. Low-strength formations may collapse or be fractured by dense drilling fluid,
preventing drilling from continuing. This requires running casing and cementing to
seal the hole, and then a new section is drilled with a smaller bit. The process of
changing the bit size (hole size) to start a new section drilling is called spud-in. In
general, there should be several spud-ins in the course of drilling a well. The
number of spud-in is different depending on the depth and formation. The basic
process of drilling a well includes:
First spud-in: drill a large hole from the ground to a certain depth, and then
running surface casing to this extent.
Second spud-in: Continue drilling from the surface casing with a smaller bit. If
the formation is not complicated, it can directly drill to the depth objective and
running production casing for completion; if formations are complex and it is
difficult to control well safety with drilling fluid, intermediate casings might be
required.
xiv Introduction

Third spud-in: Drill down from the intermediate casing with a smaller drill bit.
Depending on situations, it may drill to the target layer, or the second and third
intermediate casings will be needed, and the fourth and fifth spud-in will be carried
out until the final depth of the destination reach, and production casing will be run
for cementing and completion operations.
Cementing and Completion
Cementing is a process in which casing and formation are boned together by
pumping cement slurry into the annular space between casing and wellbore (low
part or full of annulus space). Cementing prevents complications occurring to
ensure safe drilling of the next hole (for the surface casing and intermediate casing)
or to ensure the successful production of oil and gas (for production casing). The
upper part of the casing string is fixed on the ground with a casing head. The
completion engineering includes drilling out oil and gas bearing layers, determining
the connection mode between the reservoir and the wellbore (i.e., the bottom hole
structure of completion), determining the wellhead device of the completion, and
related technical measures. Completion bottom hole structures can be divided into
four types, namely closed bottom holes, open bottom holes, mixed bottom holes,
and sand control completions, etc., which are respectively adapted to different
reservoir conditions. Completion operations also include running tubing, installing
tubing heads, and X-tree, followed by replacing injection and inducing the flow to
bring oil and gas into the wellbore for production.
In addition, cuttings logging, electrical logging, gas logging, and other logging
operations need to be performed during the construction of an entire well. If it is
necessary, coring is required as well. When the exploration well is drilled into the
oil-bearing layer, drill pipe testing is needed. The process of oil well construction is
shown in Fig. 1.
 Introduction

Fig. 1 The construction process of an oil and gas well

xv
Contents

1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Concepts of Various Subsurface Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Underground Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Evaluation Methods for Formation Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.4 Formation Fracture Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.5 Formation Collapse Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2 Rock Engineering Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.1 Mechanical Properties of Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.2 Rock Mechanical Properties Under Bottomhole Pressure
Conditions and Its Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
1.2.3 Rock Drillability and Abrasiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
2 Drilling Rigs and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1 Drilling Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.1 Requirements of Drilling Technology to a Drilling Rig . . . 60
2.1.2 The Primary Working System of a Drilling Rig . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.3 The Classifications and Characteristics of Drilling Rigs . . . 80
2.1.4 Series of Drilling Rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2 Drill Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2.2 Roller Cone Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.3 Diamond Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.2.4 PDC Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.3 Drill String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.3.1 Function and Composition of Drill Sting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.3.2 Working State and Force Analysis of the Drill String . . . . 149
2.3.3 Design of Drill String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.3.4 Examples of Typical Drill String Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

xvii
xviii Contents

3 Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

3.1 Composition and Category of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.1.1 Main Functions of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.1.2 Basic Composition of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.1.3 Types of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.2 Basic Properties of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.2.1 Density of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.2.2 The Rheological Properties of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.2.3 The Filtration Properties of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.2.4 Solid Content and Control in Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.5 The Lubrication Property of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.2.6 Well Collapsing and Anti-collapsing Methods . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.2.7 Lost Circulation of Drilling Fluid and Plugging . . . . . . . . . 201
3.2.8 Pipe Sticking and Stuck Freeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.2.9 Drilling and Completion Fluids and Formation
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4 Drilling Parameters Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1 Basic Relationship Between Various Parameters in Drilling
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.1.1 Main Factors Affecting ROP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.1.2 Drilling Rate Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.1.3 Bit Wear Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1.4 Determination of Related Coefficient in Drilling
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.2 Optimization of Drilling Parameters for Mechanical Rock
Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.2.1 Objective Function Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.2.2 The Extreme Condition and Constraint Condition
of Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.2.3 The Optimal Wear, ROP and WOB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.3 The Optimal Design of Hydraulic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.3.1 The Hydraulic Characteristics of Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.3.2 The Basic Relation of Hydraulic Horsepower
Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3.3 The Pressure Loss Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.3.4 The Working Performance of the Drill Pump . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.3.5 The Criteria of the Optimal Design of Hydraulic
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.3.6 The Maximum Bit Hydraulic Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.3.7 The Maximum Jet Impact Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.3.8 The Optimal Design of Hydraulic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 253
Contents xix

5 Well Trajectory Design and Wellpath Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

5.1 Fundamentals of Wellpath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.1.1 Basic Parameters of Wellpath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.1.2 Calculated Parameters of Wellpath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.1.3 Graphical Methods of Wellpath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.2 Wellpath Measurements and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.2.1 Introduction to Wellpath Survey Methods and
Inclinometer’s Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.2.2 Regulations on Calculation Data of Wellpath Survey . . . . . 276
5.2.3 Wellpath Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.3 Deviation Control for Vertical Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.3.1 Analyzing the Reasons for Well Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.3.2 Deviation Control by Packed-Hole BHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.3.3 Deviation Control by Pendulum BHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.4 Well Trajectory Design for Directional Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.4.1 Types of Directional Well Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.4.2 Well Trajectory Design for Conventional
2D Directional Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.5 Deflection Tools and Wellpath Control for Directional Well . . . . . 302
5.5.1 Downhole Motor Deflection Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.5.2 Rotary Drilling Deflection Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.5.3 Steering Drilling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.5.4 Basic Methods for Directional Wellpath Control . . . . . . . . 315
5.5.5 Calculations for Azimuth Correction Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
5.5.6 Orientation Methods of Deflection Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6 Well Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.1.1 The Basic Conception of Well Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.1.2 The Balance Relationship of Wellbore Pressure
and Formation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
6.2 The Invasion and Detection of Formation Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.2.1 The Invasion of Formation Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.2.2 Gas Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
6.2.3 Hazards of the H2S Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
6.2.4 Causes and Indicators of Kick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.2.5 Detection of the Formation Fluid Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.3 Well Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.3.1 Functions of Well Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.3.2 Basic Components of Well Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . 347
6.3.3 Common BOP Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.3.4 Well Control Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
xx Contents

6.4 Well Shut-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

6.4.1 Shut-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.4.2 The Calculation of Drilling Fluid Density for Well
Killing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.5 Well Killing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.5.1 Purpose and Principle of Well Killing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.5.2 Calculation of Basic Parameters of Well Killing . . . . . . . . 360
6.5.3 One-Circulation Well Killing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.5.4 Two-Circulation Well-Killing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.5.5 Special Killing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
6.6 Controlled Pressure Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.6.1 Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.6.2 Gas Underbalanced Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.6.3 Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7 Well Cementing and Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7.1 Casing Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.1.1 Casing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.1.2 The Principles of Casing Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
7.1.3 The Basis of Casing Program Design and the Relevant
Basic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.1.4 The Methods of Casing Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
7.1.5 Size Selection and Coordination of Casing
and Wellbore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
7.2 Casing String Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.2.1 Casing and Casing String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.2.2 The Calculation of Casing String Loadings and Strengths,
and Casing Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
7.2.3 The Design Principles of Casing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.3 Cementing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
7.3.1 Oil Well Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.3.2 Cement Properties and Performance Requirements . . . . . . . 420
7.3.3 Cement Additives and Mechanisms of Action . . . . . . . . . . 428
7.3.4 Cementing Design and Well Cementation Technology . . . . 441
7.3.5 Procedures to Improve Well Cementing Quality . . . . . . . . 463
7.3.6 Special Cement Slurry System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.4 Well Completion Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.4.1 Drilling Through Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.4.2 Principle of Well Completion and Types of Bottomhole
Structure in Oil–Gas Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.4.3 Common Methods for Well Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
7.4.4 Special Well Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
7.4.5 Wellhead Equipment for Completion Operation . . . . . . . . . 503
Contents xxi

8 Other Drilling Techniques and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

8.1 Handling of Complicated Downhole Conditions and Accidents . . . 509
8.1.1 Uncontrolled Blowout and the Handling Procedures . . . . . 510
8.1.2 Lost Circulation and the Handling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 512
8.1.3 Sticking and Its Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
8.1.4 Drilling Tool Accidents and the Handling Procedures . . . . 522
8.1.5 Junk Accidents and Their Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
8.2 Coring Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
8.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
8.2.2 Coring Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
8.2.3 Enhance Core Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
8.3 Casing Sidetracking Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
8.3.1 Sidetracking Through Casing by Whipstock . . . . . . . . . . . 550
8.3.2 Casing Sidetracking by Expanded Casing Mill Shoe . . . . . 552

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Engineering Geological Conditions
for Drilling Operations 1

Abstract
Fundamental concepts related on subsurface pressures are firstly introduced,
including hydrostatic pressure, in situ stress, formation pore pressure, and
formation fracture pressure. Based on them, the origin of abnormal pressures is
analyzed. After that, prediction and detection of abnormal formation pore
pressures, formation fracture pressure, and formation collapse pressure are
discussed in detail. In the second section, the rock engineering mechanical
characteristics are presented with respect to uniaxial strengths and triaxial
strengths, rock brittleness, rock hardness, rock drillability, rock abrasiveness.
Finally, the influencing factors of confining pressure on rock mechanical
properties are analyzed.

Engineering geological conditions for drilling operations refer to a combination of

geological factors associated with drilling engineering, including engineering
mechanical properties and types of rocks and soils, geological framework, forma-
tion fluids, and formation pressures. As is known to drilling engineers, drilling
operations are performed by continuously crushing bottomhole rocks and it is
necessary for them to fully understand engineering mechanical properties of rocks
which provide significant evidence for selecting bit types and optimizing drilling
parameters.
As the borehole comes into shape, the formation is exposed to the borehole face,
which is closely related to borehole stability and pressure balance between the
borehole and the formation. Improper solutions to these problems will lead to some
downhole troublesome situations or even severe accidents such as well kick, well
blowout, borehole collapse, and lost circulation, resulting in the obstruction in
drilling operations or even wells abandonment. Accordingly, drilling engineers are
supposed to comprehend engineering geological factors (such as engineering

© China University of Petroleum Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
Z. Guan et al., Theory and Technology of Drilling Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9327-7_1
2 1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations

mechanical properties of rocks, characteristics of the formation pressure) of the

target region before drilling processes, which lays a significant foundation for
efficient well planning and successful drilling operations.

1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures

Theories and evaluation techniques on the detection of subsurface pressures play a

guiding role in the exploration and development of oil and gas fields. Based on the
formation pore pressure, the formation collapse pressure, and the formation fracture
pressure in the drilling engineering, drilling engineers can scientifically perform
well planning and drilling operations, and it is firmly necessary to make accurate
evaluations for these pressures. This section will give specific introductions to
concepts and evaluations for subsurface pressures mentioned above.

1.1.1 Concepts of Various Subsurface Pressures

1.1.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Produced by the gravitation of the hydrostatic column itself, the hydrostatic pres-
sure can be expressed in terms of the fluid density and vertical depth of the
hydrostatic column.

ph ¼ 0:009 81qh ð1:1Þ

where
ph Hydrostatic pressure, MPa;
q Fluid density, g/cm3;
h Vertical depth of the fluid column, m.
As illustrated in Fig. 1.1, hydrostatic pressure shows a linear proportion to
vertical depth. Hydrostatic pressure per unit vertical depth, or hydrostatic pressure
gradient in terms of Gh , represents the changing hydrostatic pressure with the
vertical depth.

Gh ¼ ph =h ¼ 0:009 81q ð1:2Þ

where
Gh Hydrostatic pressure gradient, MPa/m.
The hydrostatic gradient is a function of the concentration of minerals and gases
dissolved in the drilling fluid. The hydrostatic pressure gradient varies significantly
because of the different types of drilling fluids used in oil and gas well drilling. For
example, the hydrostatic gradient is generally below 0.0034 MPa/m for gas drilling
fluids; 0.005–0.009 MPa/m for foam drilling fluids, and 0.01–0.025 MPa/m for
regular water-based or oil-based drilling fluids.
1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures 3

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of hydrostatic pressure versus vertical depth of fluid column

1.1.2 Underground Stress

The underground stress defined as the resistance of the formation matrix to com-
paction refers to the state of in situ stress at some point in the formation before the
drilling process, including overburden pressure (vertical compressive stress), the
maximum horizontal stress, and the minimum horizontal stress, respectively.
Overburden pressure
Overburden pressure at some formation point is caused by total gravitation of rock
matrix and fluids in porous rocks above the point.

matrix gravitation þ fluid gravitation

po ¼
Corresponding Area


po ¼ 0:00981Dqb ¼ 0:00981D ð1  /Þqm þ /qf ð1:3Þ

where
qo Overburden pressure, MPa;
D Vertical depth above the calculation point, m;
/ Formation porosity, %;
qb Bulk density, g/cm3;
qm Matrix density, g/cm3;
qf Fluid density, g/cm3.
The overburden pressure increases with depth due to compaction effects.
Specifically, the overburden pressure gradient is 0.0245 MPa/m if the average bulk
density of sedimentary rocks is 2.5 g/cm3. During drilling processes, the drill floor
4 1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations

is generally regarded as the base level for computing the overburden pressure.
Therefore, in the offshore drilling, the overburden pressure gradient is greatly
influenced by the distance from sea level to the drill floor, sea water depth and
unconsolidated submarine sediments. Technically, the actual overburden pressure
gradient is less than 0.0245 MPa/m.
As the bulk density of rocks increases along with the increase of burial depth, the
overburden pressure gradient needs to be calculated in the stratified sections, and
the section with similar density and lithology is used as an analysis section, i.e.,
P P
poi 0:00981qbi Di
Go ¼ P ¼ P ð1:4Þ
Di Di

where
Go Overburden pressure gradient, MPa/m;
poi Overburden pressure at the ith layer of the target formation, MPa;
Di Vertical depth of the ith layer of the target formation, m;
qbi Average bulk density at the ith layer of the target formation, g/cm3.

Horizontal stress
Horizontal stress is the result of lateral stress and tectonic stress caused by tectonic
movement. It is characterized by maximum and minimum horizontal in situ
stresses. As a result of the tectonic movement, these two horizontal stress com-
ponents are generally unequal

1.1.2.1 Formation Pore Pressures

Formation pore pressure refers to the pressure of the fluid in the pores of the rock,
also known as formation pressure expressed by pp . In all kinds of geological
deposits, formation pressure is divided into normal pressure and abnormal pressure.
The term normal formation pressure (in terms of pn) is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of continuous formation water from the surface to somewhere under-
ground. The value is related to the sedimentary environment and depends on the
density and environmental temperature of the fluid in the pore. If the formation
water is fresh water (density less than 1.02g/cm3), then the average formation
pressure gradient (expressed as Gp) is 0.01 MPa /m. If the formation water is saline,
the normal formation pressure gradient varies with the salinity of the formation
water. The typical brine concentration is 80000 PPM, the density is 1.07g/cm3, and
the pressure gradient is 0.0105 MPa/m. Formation water encountered in oil & gas
drilling is mostly brine.
The term abnormal formation pressure refers to the cases that the formation
pressure is higher or lower than the normal pressure. Abnormally high pressure or
super pressure is used to describe the formation pressure greater than the normal value,
while abnormally low pressure or subnormal pressure describes the formation pres-
sure lower than the normal value. The result of statistical data is illustrated in Fig. 1.2
for 100 wells located in the formation with abnormally high pressures in the USA.
1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures 5

Fig. 1.2 Supper pressure formation statistics of 100 wells in the USA

1.1.2.2 Matrix Stress

Matrix stress refers to the part of the overburden load sustained by the rock matrix,
symbolized by r. In terms of overburden pressure, matrix stress can be also defined
as effective overburden pressure or rock framework stress.
The relationship among stresses discussed above is illustrated in Fig. 1.3 and is
formulated in the Eq. 1.5.

po ¼ pp þ r ð1:5Þ

The overburden load is collectively supported by both the rock matrix and fluids
in porous rocks. Therefore, any factor causing decreased matrix stress will defi-
nitely lead to increased formation pressure.

1.1.2.3 Mechanisms for Abnormal Formation Pressure

Abnormally high/low formation pressures collectively refer to as abnormal for-
mation pressure. For the case of abnormally low formation pressure, the gradient is
6 1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations

Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram for the relationship among po, pp and r

usually under 0.01 MPa/m (or 0.0105 MPa/m), or even half of the hydrostatic
gradient. As demonstrated in the worldwide drilling operations, the cases for for-
mations with abnormally low pressure are less than those with abnormally high
pressure. It is generally believed that the reservoir developed for many years will
produce abnormal low pressure without sufficient energy supplement. Abnormal
low pressure also occurs in areas with low underground water levels. In such an
area, the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient begins at the surface of the ground.
Abnormal high-pressure strata exist widely in the world, from Cenozoic Pleistocene
to Paleozoic Cambrian and Sinian.
The mechanism of abnormal pressure formation is complex and may be different
in different regions. For sedimentary formations, the normal fluid pressure system
can be thought of as a hydraulic “open” system. This permeable, fluidable for-
mation allows for the establishment or re-establishment of hydrostatic pressure
conditions. In contrast, the pressure system in abnormal high-pressure formations is
1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures 7

essentially “closed.” There is a barrier between the abnormal pressure and the
normal pressure that prevents or at least greatly restricts the flow of fluid. In this
way, the upper rock gravity is partly supported by the fluid in the pores of the rock,
resulting in under compaction. It is generally believed that under compaction is the
most critical mechanism for the formation of abnormally high pressure. Figure 1.4
gives a simple model to simulate the compaction process. The container is filled
with fluid and spring. The fluid represents the pore fluid, the spring represents the
rock skeleton, and the force on the piston represents the overburden pressure. The
overburden pressure is assumed jointly by spring force and fluid pressure. There-
fore, the relationship between overburden pressure (po), matrix stress (r), and
formation pressure (pp) satisfies Eq. 1.5.
It is obvious to observe from the model that the increased overburden pressure
will result in both increased matrix stress and formation pressure. If the fluids
cannot escape from pore spaces (the valve shuts shown in Fig. 1.4b), the formation
pressure will exceed the normal value, and the system of abnormally high pressure
will form, showing that the additional overburden load will fall on the pore fluid
rather than the rock matrix due to the incompressibility of the fluid. If the pore fluid
can freely flow out of pore spaces (the valve opens showed in Fig. 1.4c), the rock
matrix will sustain the additional overburden load, and the formation pressure will
remain at the hydrostatic pressure, forming a system of normal formation pressure
we discussed above.
It is generally considered that the upper limit of abnormal high pressure is
overburden pressure. Although the abnormal pressure by no means exceeds the
overburden pressure on the basis of stability principle, formations with abnormal
pressure greater than the overburden pressure (even 1.4 times greater) are also
encountered in some countries and regions, including Pakistan, Iran, Barbier, and
the South margin of Junggar Basin in Xinjiang, the Uygur Autonomous Region in
China. This situation can be explained by the theory of pressure bridge (Fig. 1.5).
The tensile strength of overburden formations may help to offset part of the upward
huge force produced by pore fluids.
A system of abnormal pressures results from a variety of combined factors that
are closely associated with geological processes, tectonic movements, and sedi-
mentation rates. It is generally acknowledged at present that the abnormally high
pressure is associated with the sedimentary under compaction, hydrothermal
pressurization, permeation effects, and tectonic movements. Further descriptions for
the sedimentary under compaction will be given as follows on account of the fact
that the mechanism for the sedimentary under compaction lays a theoretical
foundation for subsurface pressures evaluation for the present.
The sedimentary compaction is a result of the overburden gravitation. With
continuous sedimentation, overburden sediments increase, and lower formations are
compacted gradually. As long as the pore fluid escapes from pore spaces as required
by the relatively low compaction rate, rock grains at sedimentary formations can
rearrange for the decreased porosity. In the case of an open geological environment,
the fluid squeezed out of pore spaces will flow along the direction with low
resistance or with low pressure and high permeability. In this way, the system for
8 1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations

Fig. 1.4 The sediment compaction model for the formation pressure system
1.1 Characteristics of Subsurface Pressures 9

Fig. 1.5 Pressure bridge

normal hydrostatic pressure is established where increased burial depth will lead to
increased rock density and reduced formation porosity. Four elements are pivotal
for balanced formation compaction.

• Overburden sedimentation rates;

• Formation permeability;
• Declining rates of formation porosity;
• Capability of squeezing out fluids from pores.

If the rate of sedimentation is relatively lower than that of other processes, the
process of normal compaction is formed, and the system for the normal hydrostatic
pressure is also maintained.
In the process of stable deposition, normal sedimentary balance will be
destroyed if any condition of equilibrium is affected. If the deposition rate is very
fast, the rock particles do not have enough time to arrange, the fluid discharge in the
pores is limited, and the matrix stress cannot be increased, that is, its supporting
capacity to the overlying strata cannot be increased. As the overburden continues to
accumulate and the support capacity of the underlying bedrock does not increase,
the fluid in the pores must begin to partially support the overburden that should be
supported by the rock skeleton, leading to the abnormal high pressure.
In a certain geological environment, a sealing medium is strongly necessary for a
trap of abnormal pressures. In sequentially deposited basins, strata with low per-
meability, such as pure shale, are the most common media. Shale formations can
efficiently restrict pore fluid dissipation, resulting in the under compaction and the
10 1 Engineering Geological Conditions for Drilling Operations

abnormal formation pressure. Compared with normally compacted formations, under

compacted formations show smaller rock density and larger formation porosity.
Rapid sedimentation is likely to happen in continental margins, particularly delta
regions where the sedimentation rate tends to exceed the value required by balance
conditions. Therefore, abnormally pressured formations are usually encountered in
such regions.

1.1.2.4 Pressure Transition Zone

Figure 1.6 illustrates the relationship between well depths and formation pressure
profile of a well in the Gulf of Mexico, USA. It is obvious that the upper formation
shows normal pressure system with hydrostatic gradient, while abnormally high
pressure happens at the lower formation featured by slightly less than the over-
burden gradient. The well section between normal and abnormal pressure systems is
typically defined as pressure transition zone, or transition zone for simplicity.
The pressure in the pressure transition zone and the abnormal high-pressure
stratum is significantly higher than that in the normal pressure stratum. The pressure

Fig. 1.6 Well depth versus pressure profile of a well in the Gulf of Mexico, USA
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Music by Eugene Bcrman, julien levy. It is true that

suggested form is more interesting than form finished to the last
detail, but such interpretation requires a more imaginative approach
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its surface, its values, its color, and the way it looks in
different kinds of light; Flesh, to look like flesh, musl be painted very
differently from the way we would paint a piece of wood which in
turn has its own characteristics. A cotton dress cannot be painted in
the same way we would paint one that was made of silk or satin.
Bach object has a characteristic color and texture as well as an
identifiable shape. To the layman form is merely shape and
material^To the arlisl form is also light, halftone, and shadow, in
subtle and refined relationships. The shape is there, but it underlies
everything else. An object in one light and in a certain location
cannot be transposed to another setting without a corresponding
change in light and space relationships. In order to paint form with
solidity we must seek out the planes and set them into the proper
sequence of values. The plane at right angles to the source of light
is the lightest and brightest. As the planes turn from this source they
change in value until they reach the shadow. Thus the solidity of the
form becomes evident. The shape" of the shadow identifies the
shape of the form, and the shadow cast on other surfaces relates
the form to its environment. In a diffused light, there is still the
change of plane, but being much more subtle and without cast
shadow, it must be related to its environment by the relationship of
its values to the values around it To return for a moment to the
question of idealized form, we must remember that by idealizing it
we may lose its inherent character, and that character actually may
be more beautiful than any "improved" or "slicked over" effect we
might add. Even if we paint only an impression, it should be an
honest one. Beauty may be found in idealization, but we must not
forget that it also is found in truth. But the idealization of form need
not mean "prettying" a subject up; it may merely involve die process
of simplification. Tt can mean the flattening of the round into planes;
it can mean stressing design or the elimination of nonessential and
distracting details so that the basic structure of a beautiful object is
properly revealed. This sort of idealization was carried out in Greek
and Roman sculpture. We call it "classic," which to me means the
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X. TEXTURE Texture, since it is a matter of surface, is more

closely related to character than it is to form. J' Light delineates
texture as it docs form, and its reflection on a surface creates color.
Without light there is no color. While color can always be applied in
smooth ilat tones on the canvas, the rendering of different textures
requires a variety of brushes and techniques. However, texture can
often be suggested rather than copied in a detailed manner. If we
follow the effect of a texture in light and color we can come very
close to rendering it, even on a smooth canvas. Thus texture in
painting does not necessarily mean that the surface has to be built
up with layers of paint. At times, however, undersurfacc painting can
greatly enhance certain lextural effects. Heavy underpainting usually
provides so-called "accidentals" which are textural rather than llat in
treatment, and which otherwise might have to be done very
painstakingly with small brushes to no better or less good effect.
The texture of the canvas itself may be transposed to the painting
and fairly well controlled by the way the paint is applied. In the parts
of a rough canvas where we want a smooth texture, as in the sky,
we simply fill in the grain of the canvas surface with thinner paint.
Thicker, drier pigment is used for heavy textural effects such as
might be needed for bushes or woodland foliage, and the paint must
be allowed to dry between layers of color. Some of the most
interesting textures in painting can be achieved by using a palette
knife. dragging the knife over the surface and letting the paint cling
to the high spots. Some artists feel that if a palette knife is used at
all, the whole picture should be done with a knife, for the sake of
consistency in the treatment, and, equally, that if a brush is used the
painting should be all with a brush. The idea is reasonable, but again
it seems to me that it places unnecessary limitations on individual
creativeness. There arc certainly great contrasts of texture in nature,
and I do not sec why we may not try to achieve this quality by any
means possible. 1 have known artists to put sand in the priming
medium while reprinting old canvases. The object of this was to vary
the grain of the canvas, and the beautiful effect in the final work was
astonishing. All sorts of textures may be prepared on the painting
surface. They may be built up by patting the underpainting medium
onto the canvas with a two- or three inch housepainter's brush,
lifting the brush, and allowing the textures created by the suction of
the brush to stay and dry that way. Should texture not be wanted in
some areas, the paint can be sanded down or scraped away with a
sharp knife. Modern artists often paint several layers of color on the
canvas ground, allowing each layer to dry before applying the next,
and then they scrape or sand the surface so that many subtle colors
show through. Frequently the resulting effect suggests an abstract
composition that can be developed into an interesting design. t 121
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-' Paysage du Midi by Andre" Dcrain, bignou gallery, new

York city. Some of the most interesting textures in painting can be
achieved by using a palette knife, dragging the knife over the
surface and letting the paint cling to the high spots i 122
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Les Mouettes by Henri Matisse, lewisohn collection ! r i 123

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'1'lV I 1 !V1' -M t * 1» « . it It'1 ' M-f: m«* FrH/7 D«/!, Gta

a/irf Newspaper by Juan Gris, the museum of modern art, new york
city Texture in painting docs not necessarily mean that the surface
has to be built up with layers of paint ... so the ground cannot show
through 124
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'cxture in painting is very much a matter of rsonal taste. In

this, as in every other aspect, individual artist must be prepared to
experiEnt Since each applies paint in his own par(cular way, so will
his method of building up jxture vary. ; Besides underpaying, the use
of different mes of brushes plays an important part in retoducing the
smooth and rough textures found nature. The over-all effect
produced by sable irushcs is quite different from that of bristle ishes,
and that of round brushes from that of it or square ones. Some
artists paint with the lat of the brush, often brushing sideways rather
ion off the tip to increase the area covered at [one time. Others
retain the blocky squareness left »y the square brush stroke.
Experiments with iany textures of paint and with all types of
TEXTURE brushes held at all possible angles and with different
manipulation of wrist and arm reveal the almost limitless textural
eilects that can be achieved with paint or canvas. When you find
yourself, your technical approach becomes more or less a habit. This
can be good, and it also can be bad. It is good in that it helps to
identify your work as you become known. It is definitely bad in that
painting habits too deeply ingrained can become monotonous and
be difficult to change when a fresh approach is needed. One remedy
lies in constant experiment and another in frequent if only
temporary| changes of locale, where new places and people and
collections of art can provide new inspiration and a fresh point of
view. This in turn may give birth to interesting new techniques and
uses of color. ■i 125
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XI. VALUES OF LIGHT The intrinsic quality of a painting,

taking everything into account, is chiefly determined by the quality
of the light. This quality, of course, is the result of a combination of
factors in the whole execution of the subject, but its importance lies
in the fact that it gives existence to the picture in relation to life
itself. When the light is right we never question a painting's reason
for being. In order to achieve such quality we must focus our
attention on light itself. This means thai we will not be painting the
objects before us so much as we will be painting light and the way it
falls on these objects or brings them into our vision. A fine painter
once said, "A head is something you choose for the light to fall
upon." He meant that a portrait is not a portrait until it exists in
light. The life-giving effects of light are far more important than
wrinkles in flesh. How few portraits really exist as people, rather
than as paintings? How few paintings of any kind exist as anything
but paintings? Vermeer must be credited with being one of the first
real painters of light. Though his work seems full of detail and
precision, close study reveals that all detail has been subordinated to
his one great aim, the interpretation of light. No detail exists where
its value might encroach upon the feeling of light on the surface.
Although color exists mostly in the light, it must never be allowed to
reduce the value of the lights Every lighted area in a picture bears a
scaled relationship of both value and color from the lightest area to
the darkest area appearing within the light. All else is shadow, and
all the shadows bear a sequence relationship to the lighted areas.
When an area in the light is lowered in value, the shadow must be
lowered correspondingly. Thus both the light areas and the shadow
areas arc painted in sequence from lightest to darkest. These two
sequences are separated by a degree of contrast determined by the
brilliancy of the light itself. Thus contrast makes evident the
separation of the whole set of lights from the whole set of shadows.
In a dim light this separation may be only one or two tones. In a
strong light the lights may be separated from the shadows by three
or four tones. So we must analyze our subject in order to determine
the over-all or general relationship of light to shadow. How much
darker is the shadow area on that object than the light area? If we
decide it is two, three, or even four values darker we accept this as
our light-to-shadow scale throughout the picture. Thus all shadows
will be the same number of values darker than the value in the light.
Since we are limited to eight or at most ten values in our pigment,
we may find that some shadows reach the bottom of the scale
before we have reached the full scale of values in the lighted areas;
that is, we may have a value in the light so low in tone that we
cannot produce a value three or four tones lower. Thisis what is
meant by "sacrificing at the low end of the scale." It really does not
matter, since we cannot see below black. Once the over-all
relationship is established, 126
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VALUES OF LIGHT The Pearl Necklace by Jan Vcrmeer,

national gallery of art, Washington, d. c. Vermeer must be credited
with being one of the first real painters of light. Though his work
seems full of detail and precision, close study reveals that all detail
has been subordinated to his one great aim, the interpretation of
light 127
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THE BASIC VALUES OF THE LANDSCAPE 1. When you are

looking 2. Sidelight: sky is the 3. Looking with the light: into the
light, the sky is lightest, the ground next, sky lowered for
brightpainted as light as pos- uprights next. Paint light- ness of
clouds. Ground is sible. All other values are cd areas somewhat
lighter slightly lower in tone than painted a tone or two low- and
shadows just a "bit sky. The values are closer, er than you see them.
darker than seen. softer. We must remember that our pigment range
of light to dark is very much less than the range we. see in life. Our
only chance to retain the brilliancy and contrast of the lights to the
darks is to drop the middle tones and darks in value. In Number I
the ground plane lightens as it recedes. In Number 2 it lightens from
right to left. In 3 the ground lightens as it comes forward. This is
important in landscape. ff Working against the light produces strong
contrast. Working with the light produces close -values within the
patterns. However, the patterns may contrast. 1. When while areas
such as buildings, roads, rocks, sand, or clouds exisl in your subject,
all other values will usually have to be lowered in order to provide
enough contrast. 2. In a side lighting the sky is lighter than when
the source is behind you. The shadows are darker than the sky or
ground. The values are painted about 3. Against the light the white
drops below the sky in tone. Study carefully to establish the whole
relationship of the sky to the rest of your subject. "Skies make the
picture." as you see them. Acquainting oneself with the changes of
value that come to the same material on different days, or even
within the same day, becomes a fascinating study. When we
manipulate values, we are seeking the larger truths within our
pigmentary limitations, just as wc stop down a camera lens for
values. 128
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Portrait of an Old Man by Andrew Loomis

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The Cove by Andrew Loomis

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fc- * t VALUES you will begin to see your painting take on

light. T should perhaps qualify my statement that the degree of
difference between light and shadow will be the same for all
shadows, for there is an exception in the case of reflected light
thrown back into the shadow, The original separation would be
correct if we were to take away the source of the reflected light. But
the value of a shadow on which light is reflected is of course higher
than that of the other shadows. It is very important to study how
much the value has been raised. Also, has the whole value of the
whole shadow been raised? Most often traces of the original value
are left at the edges, between the lighted area and the shadow. This
is what artists call the "hump" (the turning point of the form), which
the reflected light may not be able to reach-. To most artists,
reflected light on shadow is a delight to paint, for it gives great
luminosity to the shadow. If we paint reflected light too light, it cuts
down the brilliance of the neighboring area of light. Sometimes
reflected light in a warm light is even warmer in the shadow than it
is in the light, for it is color reflected back upon itself. This is what
makes the shadows in a flower so brilliant. The pink of a rose seems
more brilliant in the shadows between the petals than it does in the
light on the petals. This is a perfect example of color radiances, and
we should strive to include a similar effect around the lighted areas
of our paintings. Values can be analyzed by comparison. Look. for
the lightest area in the light, then for the next lower value, and on
down the scale. Then look for the degree of contrast between the
lightest area and its shadow. Set the value of this shadow down
beside the lightest area. It is at the top of the value scale for the
shadows, and all other shadows are lowered in the same ratio with
the scale of values in the light, keeping the same degree of contrast.
If this is not clear, some comparisons may help. On the piano the
relationship of E to G is the same as that of D to F; both are two
notes apart, OF LIGHT but the latter is lower in scale. The number 3
has the same relationship to 5 as 2 has to 4; they are both two units
apart, but the latter are less in amount. If you number the areas in
your drawing, making the lightest 1, and the next 2, the scale would
run like this: Shadow (two tones Light darker than the light) 1.
Highest value 3. Lightest value 2. Next 4. Next 3. Next 5. Next 4.
Next 6. Next 5. Next 7. Next 6. Next 8. Next It is a good idea to mix
a black-and-white scale along a flat stick and use this alongside your
color palette to determine what the values of the various colors are
in terms of black-and-white. In this manner you build the value
scales in your picture according to the black-and-white scale, or as
they would appear in a black-and-white photograph, and then
transpose the correct value to color by means of your value stick.
Color can be very deceptive as to value. Because it is vivid, we arc
inclined to think it lighter than it really is. That is why tlie black-and-
white value scale is so helpful. If you compare your value scale to
nature you will no doubt And that the whole range of the scale is
lower than the colors appear in actual light. That is what is meant by
the limitation of pigment values. Our white is not as bright as
sunlight. All we can do is to try to find the relationships from lightest
to darkest and paint them in that order, even if a value has to be
painted lower than we see it to keep it in scale. Much painting lacks
quality because the artist docs not fully understand the value
limitations of his pigments. Instead of arranging his values in proper
sequence, he gets some lighter than nature, some like nature, some
darker than nature, and so produces incorrect degrees of contrast in
his work. His picture appears dull, and he does not 129
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:■-■'■■: . ■■' THREE TONES ON WHITE SHIS 1 i \ W&3 :

mm IV ■ * I -.■.■ S. ■ . * - " " ► 4- — — . THREE TONES ON
LIGHT GRAY THREE TONES ON DARK GRAY THREE TONES ON
BLACK THE FOUR BASIC TONAL ARRANGEMENTS Consider your
subject as made up of four basic patterns of light, light gray, dark
gray, and dark. One of these values should dominate the rest. In the
simple diagrams above, four values in combination with four
different backgrounds arc shown, in each case with a different value
predominating. The four arrangements can be varied infinitely
according to subject, area, and distribution of pattern and pattern
shapes. The extreme lights and darks may be reserved for highlights
and dark accents. You can experiment with toned papers, chalk, and
charcoal, to develop your sense of values and pattern arrangement.
130 ■
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