1

Structural Principles for Landscape Architects

(Draft for use and comment to Andrew Charleson, School of Architecture)

Introduction
Each structure illustrates the application of certain structural principles in its dual role, of first
supporting, spanning or retaining, and secondly relating to as well as contributing to its landscape
context. As we critique the effectiveness with which a structure plays this second role we reflect on
how the application of different structural principles can change the stories these structures tell.
Exploration of alternative structural configurations is part of the design process, and the challenge
designers face is tell the stories associated with the landscape context through their structures with
an intensity and clarity within their landscape setting.

Landscape structures fulfil many purposes, usually utilitarian. They enable people to access, view and
appreciate the landscape. But they can also serve the landscape, perhaps by protecting certain areas,
such as river banks against scouring during floods, or fencing to exclude introduced mammals
threatening endangered species. Whatever their function they must satisfy many design criteria, such
as aesthetic, economic and longevity. But above all else, structures need to be structurally-sound ‒
able to resist loads acting upon them from natural forces and human activities.

Every structure must satisfy three structural criteria: stability, strength and stiffness. If any one of this
triad is missing, a structure could collapse or be too shaky to serve its purpose. Each criterion needs
to be met for various code-specified loads. Factors of safety, included in structural engineers’
calculations, ensure an extremely low probability of failure. Methods of achieving these three basic
criteria are elaborated upon below.

Stability
Each structure requires stability against horizontal loads, such as those arising from movement of
people, wind and earthquake. Under these conditions a structure must not move excessively in any
horizontal direction. Structure to prevent instability must be strong and stiff against horizontal forces.
It usually takes one of the following forms; bracing or shear walls, diagonal bracing or frames or vertical
cantilever posts. A following section discusses these structural systems in detail.

Strength
Structural members need sufficient strength to resist the loads they support. Posts and compression
braces need sufficiently large cross-sections to prevent buckling or crushing. Beams need to be large
enough to span between posts without breaking. Combining the choice of structural material with an
adequately sized cross-section achieves adequate strength. The strength of a beam is particularly
sensitive to its depth.

Stiffness
Because people can be scared or irritated by structural movement or vibration, caused either by
people or wind, stiffness, the opposite of flexibility, is required. A stiff structure will not drift sideways
or sag unduly under load. Structure providing stability must be stiff enough. For example, the cross-
sections of diagonal braces need to be sized to prevent horizontal movements during wind gusts
alarming people. Inadequate stiffness is most commonly experienced in beams. Obvious sagging as
well as liveliness when walking over them, are signs of insufficient stiffness. The usual solution involves
designing sufficiently deep beams. Beam stiffness is even more sensitive to depth than is strength.
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Forces
Force is a measure of the interaction between bodies. Force is known as a vector quantity, as it has
both direction and magnitude.

Loads
Load is the force exerted on a surface or body. Every structure is subject to various loads it must
withstand in order to maintain its form. The most fundamental load is gravity load – the load arising
from self-weight. It is given the term ‘dead load’. This load always acts on a structure, a dead weight.
The magnitude of dead load depends on the volume of structural materials and their density. The dead
load of a concrete bridge exceeds by far that of a wooden bridge with the same cross-sectional
dimensions.

But there are other loads as well for which structures must be designed. The next most common load
is called live load. This load fluctuates over time. Loads arising from people, moveable furniture,
exhibits, or equipment necessary to maintain a structure are examples. Live loads come and go. At
certain times just several people might load a structure such as a platform or bridge, but on other
occasions a crowd could put structural capability to the test. Imagine a platform intensely loaded by
people pressed closely together straining to see something of interest. As well as combined weight of
the people causing a large vertical live load to act upon the structure, the crowd will also lean against
and push sideways on the balustrades surrounding the platform. The need to withstand this type of
live load was alluded to in the discussion of Monet’s arched bridge. There, short diagonal braces
provide the bottom of the balusters with sufficient strength.

Significantly greater horizontal loads act upon structures during wind gusts and earthquakes. Wind
simultaneously applies a positive pressure on walls facing the wind and negative pressure, or suction,
on other surfaces. Although roofs attract some horizontal load during wind, suction, acting normal to
the roof surfaces is the most severe loading. It tends to lift a roof off its supports. The intensity of wind
load depends on the wind speed and the surface area the wind acts upon. Because wind blows in every
direction, structures need to be designed accordingly. Earthquakes also act multi-directionally with
the ground shaking in all directions. The intensity of earthquake load depends on factors beyond the
control of designers, such as the magnitude of an earthquake, its distance to its epicentre and the site
soil conditions. However physical characteristics of the structure itself, especially its weight, also
affects the load it sustains. A lighter structure experiences less inertia forces during earthquake
shaking so less bracing is needed to resist earthquake loadsi.

Three other types of horizontal loads can affect structures. Snow building up against a structure exerts
horizontal pressure upon it (as well as snow elsewhere loading it vertically). But loads from water and
soil pressure are more common. Dams are designed to resist water pressure that could cause sliding
or toppling. Retaining walls, such as basement walls extending beneath the water table also need to
resist water pressure which is additive to pressure from the soil. When making a vertical cut in soil,
the soil tends to slip into the excavation. A retaining wall which prevents that scenario must be
designed for horizontal soil pressure.

Many different loads can act upon structures. Some, like dead load are predictable, but others are less
so, such an explosive blast or an impact from a vehicle. Designers need to consider all potential loads
that might affect a structure and after weighing up the likelihood of their occurrence, design
accordingly. Table 3.1 summarizes the more common load types structures are designed for. Note that
several loads can act simultaneously. For example, dead loads act with all other loads. But some
combinations of load, such as wind and earthquake are considered improbable. Codes of Practice
specify the intensity of loads to be designed for to ensure a uniform and high standard of structural
safety.
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Table 3.1. Loads which structures are commonly designed to resist.

Load type Direction of Comment

action
Dead load Downwards The self-weight of
structure or a permanent
load like a turf roof usually
uniformly distributed
along its length.
Live load Downwards A temporary load, such as
and from people or
horizontal maintenance equipment
acting as one or more
point loads or a uniformly
distributed load.
Wind load Horizontal The total horizontal wind
except for force is the addition of the
roofs positive and negative
subject to forces.
suction

Water pressure At right Water pressure increases

angles to linearly with depth and
the surface acts at right angles to the
subject to surface. Basement slabs
pressure are subject to upwards
pressure causing the
basement to float.
Soil pressure Horizontal Horizontal pressure causes
walls to fail and vertical
pressure may help with
stability.

Snow load Downwards Both loads depend on the

but also depth of the snow either
horizontal on roofs or pressing
against walls.

Earthquake load Mainly Structures are more

horizontal vulnerable to horizontal
but vertical shaking. Earthquake loads
as well. increase with building
weight.
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Structural actions and forces

Before beginning to design structural members, even at conceptual stage, designers need to
appreciate that members resist loads and experience internal forces in completely different ways.
Each of the four ways are outlined below.

Tension
Figure 3.1 shows four structures where members resist loads in pure tension.

Figure 1 In (a) the hanging weight induces tension force and stress within the vertical hanger. A horizontal load
in (b) is resisted by tension force in the diagonal brace while in the truss (c), vertical loads acting upon the truss
induce tensions as shown. A catenary cable spans in tension in (d).Tensions are illustrated by two arrows
pointing in opposite directions in the middle of the member to express that the tension force is stretching the
member.

Two design criteria apply for tension members. The first is strength. The combination of material
strength and cross-sectional area needs to provide member strength greater than the tension force.
For a given tension force a steel member, in the order of ten times stronger than a timber member,
will be far more slender. Elongation is the second design criterion. Will the tension member stretch
too much? Its stretch is proportional to three factors. First, the stiffness of its material. Steel, for
example, which is approximately twenty times stiffer than timber will stretch far less than timber. The
final two factors are the cross-sectional area of the member, and its length. The larger the area, the
less the stretch, but a longer member will stretch further.

Steel is the most commonly-used material for tension members. If tension forces are low, such as in
domestic-scale structures, timber members may be suitable. Tension membrane structures utilize the
tensile strength of their woven polyester or glass fibre material.

Compression
Where members are in tension, usually members nearby experience compression. Figure 3.2
illustrates structures with members subject to compression force.
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Figure 2 Compression in the post (a) is equal to the weight supported. The post is compressed by the combined
forces from the weight at the top and the reaction at its base. As illustrated in (b), compression forces can act
at any angle. The horizontal load induces compression in the beam which is resisted by the horizontal
component of tension force in the tie. Simultaneously, the vertical component of the tie tension force induces
compression in the right hand post. If the tie is replaced by a diagonal strut (capable of resisting compression)
(c), then only the strut experiences compression and tension is induced in the left hand post. The dead load (not
shown) of the beam causing compression in the post, always acts.

If overloaded, compression members can fail in one of two ways (Figure 3.3). Since most compression
members are considered long, buckling is the more important failure mode to avoid and it always
occurs before crushing. Buckling occurs in a direction at right angles to the compression member
(Figure 3.4). Because of the relatively large cross-sectional areas required to prevent buckling, the
degree of shortening of compression members is small and usually neglected.

Figure 3 Overloaded short compression members crush (a) while longer members become unstable and buckle
(b).

Figure 4 If the cross-sectional shape is square or circular, buckling has an even chance of occurring in the X- or
Y- direction (a), but if the section is rectangular it will always buckle at right angles to the longer dimension.
The section in (b) will buckle in the X-direction and in (c), the Y-direction.

The load at which buckling occurs depends on three factors. The buckling force increases with the
stiffness of the member material and the cross-sectional dimensions of the member. A steel post is
ten times stronger than a timber post of the same cross-sectional area. However, unlike tension
members whose strengths are unaffected by length, long compression members are more prone to
buckling than shorter members. Buckling is very sensitive to length. A 2 m post is 4 times stronger than
a 4 m long post, and 9 times stronger than a 6 m long post all with the same cross-section.
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Where a compression member is particularly long, say over 5 m, it requires a large cross-section to
prevent buckling (Figure 3. 5). A designer hoping for a more slender member will be disappointed.
However, there is another solution — providing points of restraint along the compression member.
Points of restraint are very effective at increasing post buckling strength. With constant cross-sections,
post (b) with a point of restraint at half height is 4 times stronger than post (a) while post (c) is 9 times
stronger than post (a).However, as seen in this example, a point of restraint needs additional (in this
case) horizontal structure. It requires sufficient stiffness, and its strength at right angles to the post
must exceed 2.5% of the compression force. Figure 3.6 presents examples of different types of
restraint structure to achieve more slender posts.

Figure 5 An alternative to a long post requiring a large cross-section to prevent buckling (a) is to provide points
of lateral restraint (b) and (c). The member is forced to buckle over the shorter distances between the points of
restraint so it is stronger and its cross-sectional dimensions can be reduced.

Figure 6 To achieve more slender posts a point of restraint is provided by struts braced by ties to the top and
bottom of the post (a). In (b) points of restraint are formed where the post is braced back to a strong wall.
Short horizontal struts and ties prevent the post from buckling away from the wall, while struts and diagonal
braces provide restraint in a direction parallel to the wall.
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Bending and shear

This is the most common type of structural action. The purpose of every structural member that
supports a surface, be it a floor, roof or even a wall, is to resist the loads and in bending and shear
transfer them to supports at each end of the span (Figure 3.7). Take a timber floor beam as an example
(Figure 3.8). We are aware of how it bends especially when we see a beam sagging. You can observe
fibres shortening and stretching if you load a flexible beam, say cut from plastic foam. The tension and
compression stresses are maximum at the bottom and top of the beam and zero at mid-height (Figure
3.9). The intensity of stress also changes along the length of the beam. Just as the maximum deflection
for a symmetrically laden beam occurs at mid-span, so also the maximum stresses. A similar profile
that maps the intensity of bending stress, is called a bending moment diagram. It illustrates the
magnitude of bending occurring along the length of the beam (Figure 3.10). Little bending (and
bending stress) occurs at the ends of the beam, whereas maximum bending occurs at mid-span where
a beam will break if loaded symmetrically.

Figure 7 Floor joists supporting flooring (a) and wall studs that support cladding (b) transfer load loads to
supports by bending and shear (B&S).

Figure 8 As a beam bends and sags, its bottom fibres stretch in tension while fibres on its top edge compress.

Figure 9 A bending beam and the distribution of compression and tension stress acting on the left-hand half of
the beam from the right-hand half. The right-hand half applies equal and opposite stresses on the left-hand
half.
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Figure 10 A beam carrying a uniformly distributed load and its bending moment diagram. Maximum bending
(and bending stress) occurs at mid-span.

A beam that bends also experiences shear. First, horizontal shear stresses exist in response to the
equal tension and compression forces that act in opposite directions up the height of a beam cross-
section. Maximum horizontal shear stress occurs at the mid-height of the beam near the support.
When a timber beam fails in shear, horizontal sliding occurs along this plane (Figure 3.11). Vertical
shear stresses are also present, and they also reach their peak at the ends of the beam where the
shear force is greatest. Figure 3.12 shows a beam carrying two types load. If the total load is W, then
the reaction at each support is W/2.That support reaction is the same as the shear force in the beam
at that point. Shear forces and stresses are maximum at the ends of the beam and zero at mid-span if
the load is uniformly distributed (a). The plot of shear force against beam length is called a shear force
diagram. As a beam extends from mid-span towards a support, the beam resists more and more load
and the shear force keeps on accumulating, reaching its maximum at the support. If the beam is laden
by a single point load W at mid-span the shear force diagram has a different shape. The beam
experiences a constant shear force W/2 along its length (b).

Figure 11 When bending, equal and opposite horizontal compression and tension forces cause horizontal shear
forces along a beam (a). When horizontal shear stresses exceed the shear strength of the timber, horizontal
sliding occurs (b).
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Figure 12(a) A uniformly laden beam, its maximum vertical shear force W/2 and its shear force diagram. (b)
The shear force diagram for a beam with a point load at mid-span.

When designing a beam for bending and shear all three of the stability, strength and stiffness criteria
need to be satisfied. First, the beam must be stable. Because the top half of a beam cross-section
experiences compression, that area can be compared to a horizontal post. It is susceptible to buckling
(Figure 3.13). For most beams supporting dead and live loads, buckling of the top edge of the beam is
prevented by the horizontal stiffness and strength of flooring. However, roof beams supporting
lightweight roofs are particularly susceptible to buckling. Wind suction, often more severe than roof
dead load, causes the beam to hog (the opposite of sag) and the compression edge of the beam is
often unsupported. Such beams, just like posts, can either be enlarged to prevent buckling or provided
with points of lateral restraint (Figure 3.14). Secondly, beam strength must be checked. Tensile and
compression bending stresses as well as the shear stresses should not exceed those allowed by design
codes. Finally, the beam needs to be stiff enough. Engineers calculate the beam deflection so that it is
less than typically span/300 under dead and live load. For example, a 3 m long beam can deflect up to
10 mm. The depths of beams are often determined by the need to restrict deflections. Bending
strength may be the critical criterion, but rarely does shear govern beam cross-sectional dimensions.

Figure 13 The compression area in a beam which can cause sideways buckling under dead and live loads.
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Figure 14 A beam hogging due to wind suction and a possible point of lateral restraint (a), and (b), three
strategies to avoid buckling beginning with a widened beam with no points of lateral restraint to a thinner
beam with two points of lateral restraint.

Torsion
Take a pen or pencil in both hands twist it. You are applying a torsional moment. The pen is
experiencing torsion. Occasionally, some elements of a structure are in torsion. Almost always torsion
acts simultaneously with bending and shear. Figure 3.19 provides a simple example of a public seat.
Cantilever beams that support the seat are fixed to a torsion-resistant beam. Each person’s weight is
first resisted by a beam acting in bending in shear. The maximum bending in the cantilever is equal to
weight x distance. This same moment, is then transferred into the torsion beam, twisting it and
simultaneously inducing bending and shear. The torsion beam transfers that torsional moment and
shear to end buttresses. They are strong enough to prevent the beam from rotating and causing
people to slide off their seats. Note that the torsion beam has a tubular cross-section. Circular or
square tubular sections are the most efficient to resist torsion (together with bending and shear). If a
structural member is likely to experience torsion then avoid deep thin beams and even I-sections
which are both relatively flexible and weak in torsion. Solid square and circular cross-sections may be
used.

Figure 19 A plan and section of a public seat supported by cantilever beams welded to a torsion beam.

Structural materials
During the conceptual design stage of a structure thought must be given to its materials. Many factors
require consideration. What environmental conditions will the structure be subject to? If the site
conditions include high rainfall or an aggressive marine environment perhaps steel may not be the
most suitable material if exposed. What types of forces do structural members need to resist? Stone,
masonry and plain concrete should be avoided if tension forces occur. But depending on the
magnitude of force, steel, aluminium, reinforced concrete or wood might be suitable.
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Table 3.2 summarises the capabilities of common structural materials. Designers consider the
strengths and weaknesses of materials when making choices. Less common materials such as glass,
aluminium, fabrics and carbon fibre may be suitable in certain situations.

Table 3.2. Common structural materials, their capabilities in compression and tension, and typical
usage.

Material Environmental Capability in Capability Typical Comment

performance compression in tension structural
member and
forms
Soil Depends on Varies from Very low Embankments, Can be formed into
nature of soil very high to to none support to masonry units as in
which ranges no capacity foundations sun dried earthen
from rock to blocks
peat
Stone or Very high High Very low Foundations, Compression strength
masonry arches, vaults affected by the type
and low walls of mortar between
masonry units
Concrete Very high High Very low Mass Low tension strength
foundations, and cracking during
simple paving hardening limits
applications
Reinforced High Very high High Columns, Combines the high
concrete suspended compression strength
floors, roofs, of concrete with the
moment very high tensile
frames, walls strength of steel.
and beams Concrete protects the
steel reinforcement
from corrosion and
fire.
Steel Medium Very high Very high Tension ties, Surface coatings
columns, protect steel
posts, beams, members and
braces, connections from
moment corrosion and fire.
frames
Timber Medium - low Medium Medium Tension ties, Available as sawn
columns, timber or as
posts, engineered timber,
beams, such as plywood or
braces, laminated veneer
bracing lumber. Joints
panels, between timber
trusses and members are
moment vulnerable to
frames deterioration from
moisture.
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Structural form and systems

This section summarises the range of structural forms and systems available to the designers of
landscape structures. There are numerous ways to classify structural systems. For example, Angus
Macdonaldii orders them in order of their structural efficiency which is related to their form. Daniel
Schodek distinguishes between line and surface elements and their degree of rigidityiii. The approach
taken here draws upon other classification methods but separates systems that primarily resist dead
and live loads (Table 3.3) from systems that are particularly effective at resisting horizontal loads, like
from wind and water pressure (Table 3.4).

Table 3.3 Structural forms and systems suited to resisting dead and live loads

Structural Structural system

form
Linear and Beam
planar

Slab

Wall

Post and beam

Frame
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Pitched/curved Portal frame

(2D)

Triangulated

Truss

Arch

Cable

Curved form Tension membranes

(3D)

Shells

Ribbed
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Each structural system is now discussed in more detail to help designers use it appropriately, efficiently
and with more confidence

Beam
Beams resist loads by bending and shear and transfer them to their supports. They are a one-way
system because they transfer loads along their length. Beams are variously named depending on their
position in a structure. A roof beam probably supports rafters which support purlins, all of which are
beams. Floor beams support floor joists, which support flooring ‒ each element functions as a beam.
Wall elements, such as studs and mullions, also function as beams when wind acts on the claddings
they support.

The three types of beams are simply supported beams, continuous beams and cantilever beams. A
simply supported beam spans between two supports to which it is pin jointed. A continuous beam
spans across three or more supports. Its continuity makes it stiffer and stronger than a series of simply
supported beams so it can be shallower. Cantilever beams require a rigid joint from which to
cantilever. Either provide a back span or rigidly connect the beam to structure strong enough to resist
the bending from the beam. Cantilever beams are often tapered in recognition of the bending stresses
diminishing towards the tip of the cantilever.

Slab
A slab can be considered as a wide shallow beam. If it is supported along two sides it functions as a
one-way slab. If spanning between four sides or corner supports it span in two directions like a waffle
slab with its grillage of ribs underneath. Most slabs are constructed from reinforced concrete. Slabs
can be supported by beams or columns or walls.

Wall
Load-bearing walls are common structural elements. When loaded by roof and floor members, walls
act in compression. The reaction of walls to horizontal loads depends on the direction of the loads. If
a load acts parallel to the length of the wall the wall may be strong enough. However, a wall is
vulnerable to loads acting at right angles to its length. If a wall is unsupported at the top it acts as a
vertical cantilever, and is prone to toppling. Walls higher than one storey almost always need
horizontal support at right angles to their lengths at suspended floor and roof levels, provided that
these levels themselves are stabilized by structural systems able to resist horizontal loads (Table 3.4).

Post and beam

A simple system for resisting dead and live loads. The beams is simply supported and transfers its load
to the posts. The beam-to-post connection can be simple pin joint (Figure 3.20). A post and beam
structure is inherently unstable and needs structural support against horizontal loads.

Frame
A frame, sometimes called a moment frame, is a column and beam structure where at least one of the
beam-column joints is rigid. The beam shares some of its bending with the column. It now acts both
in compression and bending and shear. This frame is termed a three pin frame. If the second upper
joint is also rigid the frame becomes stiffer and since two columns help share bending of the beam, it
can become shallower. If the bottom two pins are fixed or made rigid then the frame is termed a rigid
frame. Unlike a post and beam structure, a frame can resist horizontal as well as vertical loads. Frames
can be aggregated vertically and horizontally to form multi-storey and multi-bay frames.
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Portal frame
More interesting frame shapes are possible with the beam being pitched (or curved). A portal frame
has two pitched beams, both rigidly connected to the columns with the mid-span joint often pinned.
The pitch enables the beam depths to be minimized while increasing bending stress in the columns.
Columns are often pinned at their bases to simplifying that connection and the foundation beneath
since there is no need to provide a rigid column base.

Triangulated
A triangulated framework is inherently stable and potentially strong and stiff. Two pitched beams prop
each other together with a connecting foundation tie beam. Beam depths are approximately half that
of a straight beam spanning the whole distance. As propped beams, they act in compression as well
as in bending and shear. Joints at the ends of members are usually pinned.

Truss
A truss is an aggregation of pin jointed structural triangles. Almost any configuration of triangulation
is possible, leading to many different truss forms. Essentially a beam, a truss transfers all its loads in
bending and shear to its supports, with each member of the truss acting in tension or compression.
Continuous, yet pin-connected chords that may be kinked, resist bending moments and the
triangulated web members resist shear.

Arch
Like the arches of antiquity, modern arches transfer their load in compression. Their symmetrically
curved (often parabolic) profile minimizes bending and shear. Their curved shape coupled with strong
foundations gives them their strength. The flatter an arch, the greater its internal compression stress
as well as the need for stronger foundations to resist the inclined thrusts at their bases. Often tie
beams that act in tension connect the bases of an arch. An arch is usually pinned at its base and may
also be pinned at its crest.

Cable
Where a cable spans a gap supporting a uniformly distributed load its shape is a catenary. The central
span of a suspension bridge is another example. The curved main cables act in tension while vertical
cables support the deck. Cable structures usually require masts that act in compression to create high
points. The degree of sag in the cable affects its diameter. A small sag results in high tension forces,
large cable diameters and strong cable anchorages.

If a cable withstands one or more point loads, its shape will be determined by those loads. A sagging
cable straightens and stretches under tension. Straight cables are used in structures such as cable-
stayed bridges

Tension membranes
Tension membranes or fabric structures, rely heavily on both straight and catenary cables to provide
their stability, strength and stiffness. The key structural requirement for a membrane is for tautness.
Flapping causes the fabric to fail prematurely. Taut fabric is achieved by providing anticlastic or
reversed curvature over its entire surface .The fabric, usually woven polyester fibre coated with PVC
or Teflon coated glass fibre (higher quality) must be draped and stressed between high and low points.
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Every square metre requires anticlastic curvature. Masts and flying struts provided with caps to
prevent puncturing the fabric provide high points, while perimeter catenary cables inside sleeves
tension the fabric down to low points. As for catenary cables, a tension membrane needs sufficient
sag between high points to avoid overly thick and strong fabric and supporting structure, like masts
and ties.

An air-supported membrane avoids the need for masts and ties by relying entirely upon internal air
pressure to keep it inflated. A low level of pressure is all that is needed support these structures. An
air-locked entry and exit, a sealed perimeter tied down to foundations and a backup air pump ensure
adequate performance. Rather than inflating the whole volume, inflated tubes of fabric can form
arches and other structural members.

Shells
Like tension membranes, shell structures are also known as surface structures because loads acting
on them are resisted by a combination of compression and tension stresses within the thickness of
the shell. An absence of bending means a shell is very thin for its span. A shell structure is strong due
to its form which may adopt one of many possible geometries.

Shell structures are often constructed from reinforced concrete however timber planks can form a
ruled shell surface, like that of a hyperbolic paraboloid. Shells can also be triangulated, or rely on ribs.

Ribbed
If an intended shell structure is asymmetrical, has areas of different curvature, or point loads acting
on it, bending is induced that a surface structure can not withstand. In such cases of irregular surface
geometry a series of curved ribs can provide the necessary framework. The ribs are designed as curved
beams as their non-arch-like geometry prevents them transferring load through compression. They
will be so much deeper than the thickness of a shell structure.

Cross section
Observing typical beam cross-sections and elevations provides further insight into the structural
behaviour of beams. Most steel beams are I-sections, carefully engineered to minimize the volume of
steel. Their relatively thick flanges resist bending tension and compression stresses, and because shear
is not usually critical, thin webs can resist shear force. Timber I-sections are becoming more prevalent,
serving as a reminder of how solid rectangular sections are often wasteful of material yet still cost
effective (Figure 3.15). A beam can be designed with any potential cross sectional shape but the
further it departs from an I-section the less its structural efficiency and its choice will be justified by,
say, aesthetic criteria (Figure 3.16). Beams usually have a constant depths. Although that is the easiest
way to saw, roll or cast a beam, it does not use material most efficiently. The most structurally-efficient
beam profile is one which corresponds to the bending moment diagram (Figure 3.17). In such beams,
where their depths reduce towards the supports, bending stresses remain consistently high along their
entire lengths, optimizing of material usage.

Figure 15 (a) A steel I-section, (b) a timber I-beam and (c), a solid timber beam.
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Figure 16 Examples of different steel beam (and post) cross sections.

Figure 17 A parabolic beam profile mirrors the bending moment diagram for a uniformly loaded beam (a) while
a tapered beam reflects the bending moment diagram of a beam with a point load.

The most efficient type of beam takes the form of a truss. Think of it as a beam with all unnecessary
material removed. Its chords resist bending moments by acting in tension and compression, and
diagonal web members, also in tension or compression resist shear force (Figure 3.18). Although no
individual member may experience bending and shear due to its pin joints at each end, due to its
overall configuration a truss is very effective in resisting bending and shear. It is the most lightweight
and transparent form of beam. However, it may be more costly due to its relative complexity and the
time-consuming nature of its fabrication. Trusses are fabricated with many different materials and
profiles.

As a rule-of-thumb, for conceptual or preliminary design purposes the depth of a beam spanning
between two or more supports is span/15. If the beam is cantilevered, its maximum depth should be
at least span/7.

Figure 18 A simple truss consisting of chords and web members with the axial forces in each member indicated.
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Structural connections
Although structural connections can be detailed in many different ways, structural connections are
classified as either pinned or rigid. A pinned joint is the default option, the outcome unless extensive
effort transforms a simple connection into one that is rigid. The simplest pinned joint is formed when
a beam sits on top of a post (Figure 3.20). Perhaps two bolts secure it in position. Under load, the
beam deflects and it rotates at its end, like it would if the joint was a real pin. No bending is transferred
from beam to post. If however the beam is fully welded to the post then the joint is rigid. The flanges
of the beam must be welded to those of the post. Now the beam cannot rotate freely at the post.
When the beam, due to the load upon it, rotates at the support, the joint as a whole rotates, causing
the post to bend. The rotation of the rigid joint will be less than that of a pinned joint due to the post
resisting being bent. If a beam spans a long distance and is subject to significant thermal expansion
and contraction a pin joint may take the form of a roller or sliding joint.

Figure 20 In (a) and (b) a beam is pin and rigidly jointed respectively to a post. At a pin joint members rotate
relative to each other (c), whereas a rigid joint rotates as a whole and bending occurs in both members.

Figure 21 Two rigid joints between timber columns and beams.

Pinned joints are simple and easy to fabricate, but rigid joints are more complex and difficult. If
working with timber, rigid joints are uncommon due to their difficulty of fabrication (Figure 3.21).
Reinforced concrete rigid joints are readily achievable with horizontal and vertical reinforcing steel
running through the joint and then the whole joint cast in concrete. Steel rigid joints require significant
amount of welding and or large numbers of bolts. When forming a pinned joint between steel I-
sections it is only necessary to connect the webs of the members, possibly by two bolts. However a
rigid joint depends on the flanges of both members welded or bolted together to transfer the bending
moment in one member to the other.
 19

The complexity of rigid joints raises the question – why not avoid them and make every joint pinned?
In some structural systems like trusses, every joint can be pinned. But other systems, like moment
frames, rely on rigid connections for their stability and strength. Also, frame structures consisting of
columns and beams are stronger and stiffer with rigid joints. Rigid joints enable beams to become
shallower although column depths increase. When the beam is laden and deflects, rigid joints cause
the columns to bend and so they need to be stronger.

To conclude this explanation of these two types of structural joints, note how two pinned joints form
a rigid joint. This situation applies where connecting trusses to columns (Figure 3.22).

Figure 22 A rigid joint between column and truss formed with two pin joints.
 20

Structural systems and horizontal loads

Since every structure must remain stable under horizontal loads, designers have to implement at least
one of the systems listed in Table 3.4 and discussed below. Table 3.4 considers a simple post and beam
platform. A light breeze or the horizontal forces of people upon its deck could cause collapse. Two
approaches can provide stability. First, the platform can be braced or tied to the ground by new
structural members, or the platform structure itself can be modified and enhanced to that it has
inherent ability itself to withstand horizontal loads and therefore maintain its own stability.
Table 3.4 Elevations of systems to resist horizontal loads

System Examples
Tie to
ground

Diagonal
bracing

Vertical
cantilever

Bracing
wall

Frame

Tie to ground
A strong pier, a rock outcrop or even a strong existing building can brace the structure. Horizontal or
inclined struts and ties provide stability in one direction. In the direction normal to the page horizontal
bracing is also required (Table 3.4). External diagonal ties from the level of the beam to ground are
another alternative. Note that if diagonal members are on just one side of the structure, then they
need to be resist tension and compression.
 21

Diagonal bracing
Braced frames are formed when diagonal members are brought into the structure. The members can
be designed for compression (in which case they are also capable of resisting tension), or just tension,
in order to achieve small cross-sections. Many different bracing geometries are possible provided the
system is fully triangulated.

Vertical cantilever
The second set of stability systems act primarily in bending and shear. Vertical cantilevers utilize the
same structural principles as fence posts which are embedded in the ground. At ground level they are
“fixed” or rigidly connected to the ground. Under horizontal load, the post will bend sideways and
experience bending and shear stresses. In order to bend without breaking the cross-sectional
dimensions of posts need to be significantly larger than if the posts were just resisting vertical loads.
If the ground is too hard or soft to implement the strategy of embedment, a footing may be a suitable
alternative. Stability against overturning is provided by the dimensions and weight of the footing when
the post resists horizontal load. The weight of a mass structure coupled with its base dimension
provides stability. These last two systems are often used as retaining walls. The vertical posts are
replaced by a wall that cantilevers from its footing.

Bracing wall
Bracing walls or shear walls act as vertical cantilevers, albeit with different cross-sections, when they
resist horizontal loads. The combined weight of wall and footing, together with the footing dimensions
prevent bracing walls from overturning.

Frame
Moment frames can provide stability. The more rigid (or fixed joints at ground level), the stiffer the
frame. The simplest method of creating a rigid joint (particularly in timber construction) is to introduce
a knee brace near a beam-to-column joint. The moment frame is a structural system well able to
withstand horizontal loads by bending and shear occurring in its beams and bending and shear plus
tension or compression in the columns.

Since horizontal loads, such as wind, can both act in any direction and cause the structure as a whole
to twist, designers must satisfy the structural principles illustrated in Figure 3.23. Be aware that it is
preferable for only one system be used in each orthogonal direction. For example the platform
discussed in Table 3.4 might be braced by two moment frames in one direction and two braced frames
in the other.

Figure 23 Wind and earthquake loads occur in all directions (a). A system capable of resisting horizontal loads
must be placed in each plan orthogonal direction (X- and Y-direction) in order to resist these loads. In one
direction, and preferably two, two identical systems be placed apart in plan to prevent twisting (c)
 22

Foundations
Each structure needs foundations to transfer forces from relatively strong structural members and
materials to often far softer and weaker soils. The softer the soil, the larger the foundation surface
area necessary to prevent soil failure or excessive settlement (Figure 3.24). Some soils are too soft or
compressible to support a structure and piles are needed to transfer forces into stronger material at
greater depth. Figure 3.25 shows some typical foundation systems.

Figure 24 A footing spreads out the load from its own weight and that of the structure above so that the soil
pressure does not exceed the soil strength (a). If the footing area is too small for the load and the soil, soil failure
occurs (b).

Figure 25 Typical foundation systems.

The foundations of structural systems resisting horizontal forces need special attention. As well as
resisting gravity loads, foundations are subject to horizontal forces, additional vertical forces, and
most importantly, upwards or tension forces. Unless counterbalanced by the weight of the structure
and foundation, tension forces are necessary to prevent all structural systems, except embedded
vertical cantilevers, from overturning. (Figure 3.26). The shorter a length of bracing wall or the spacing
between the columns of a braced or moment frame, the greater the tensions and additional
compression required for stability (Figure 3.27). Figure 3.28 summarizes common types of tension-
capable foundation systems.
 23

Figure 26 If the weight of a bracing wall multiplied by the distance d is less that the overturning moment from the
load times the wall height the wall will overturn (a). Stability of an embedded post is achieved by areas of horizontal
soil pressure being activated just under the ground surface and near the post base. The greater the embedment, or
vertical distance between the areas of opposing soil pressure h, the stronger the foundation to resisting overturning.

Figure 27 For a square wall, neglecting its weight, the foundation must provide a tension force T, equal to the
horizontal load to avoid overturning (b). If the wall length is reduced to one third, the tension and compression
at the wall base increase by a factor of 3 times.

Figure 28 Typical tension-resistant foundations.

i
Charleson, A. W. 2008. Seismic design for architects: outwitting the quake. Architectural Press, Oxford.
ii
Macdonald, A. J. (2000). Structure & Architecture (2nd Edn), Architectural Press, Oxford, p. 46.
iii
Schodek, D. L. (1980). Structures, Prentice-Hall International, London, p. 7.