THE POLYTECHNIC

DETERMINING THE LEVEL OF POLLUTANTS AFTER RENOVATION OF SEWER

LINES ALONG MUDI RIVER

BY

TRACY CHASIMA

RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

November, 2012
ABSTRACT

Polluted rivers pose a threat to the health of the public users as well as to the environment. After
finding out that the Mudi River was highly polluted, the sewer lines that were spilling
wastewater into the river were repaired and this study aimed at assessing the impact of these
interventions.

Samples were collected and analyzed using standard methods. Sampling was done at five
different points depending on suspected pollution source. Sampling was done at source, three
points as the river passes through industrial site and in the outskirts of the city. Water samples
were collected by grab sampling technique. pH ranged from 6.23 to 7.45. Conductivity and
Temperature ranged from 276.15 to 848.67 µS and 24.7 to 26.33°C respectively. Turbidity and
Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 11.83 to 61.37 NTU and 92.4 to 418 ppm respectively.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) was 6.43mg/l at the source and was beyond the detectable
limits in the rest of the sampling points. Faecal coliforms were 11.33 and 94.67/100ml at the
source and behind PVHO respectively and were too numerous to count in the rest of the
sampling points

In comparison with the previous study, results have shown that despite the renovation of some of
their sewer lines that were major pollutants to the river, the river is still registering high
concentrations of pollutants than the previous study.
DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to my Mum (Nyamoyo) and my Dad. They rendered both financial and
moral support for this project to be completed and I can’t thank them enough.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Am extremely grateful to my parents and my family for the financial and moral support. Many
thanks should go to Mr. K kalulu for supervising me throughout the project and Dr S Taulo the
research coordinator for offering their valuable suggestions.

Mr F. kunkundi and Mr M. Adams, laboratory attendants deserve special thanks for the
assistance during analysis of samples.

Am also thankful to my friends and classmates especially Asimenye and Flora for their
encouragement and support.

Above all, I thank the all mighty God for the healthy life and his abundant Grace throughout the
study period.
ABBREVIATIONS

UN-United Nations

WHO- World health organization

BOD - Biochemical oxygen demand

NSO-National statistical office

HMIS- Health management information system

PBCs-Polychlorinated biphenyls

PVHO-Private Vehicle Hire Organization

TDS-Total dissolved solids

pH-Power of hydrogen

MBS-Malawi bureau of standards

EMA-Environmental management act

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Abstract

CHAPTER 1

1.0 Introduction

1.1Background Information

1.2Problem Statement

1.3Justification

1.4Objectives

1.4.1Main objectives

1.4.2Specific Objectives

1.5Hypothesis

1.6Research Questions

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

CHAPTER 3

3.0 Methodology

3.1Study Type

3.2Study Population

3.3Sampling

3.4Study Area

3.5 Data Collection

3.6 Data Analysis

3.7 Ethical Consideration

3.8 Limitation of the Study

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Results

4.2 Discussions

4.3 Conclusion and recommendations

APPENDICES

List of figures

Appendix-A

Appendix-B

Appendix-C

Appendix-D
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Pollution refers to any direct or indirect alteration of the physical, thermal, chemical, biological,
or radioactive properties of the environment caused by the discharge, emission or deposit of
waste or a pollutant into the environment in such amounts and for such duration and under such
conditions as to cause an actual or potential danger to the environment; Pollution has proved to
be the major cause of loss of water quality in many water sources. Every day, 2 million tons of
sewage, industrial and agricultural waste is discharged into the world’s water and the UN
estimates that the amount of wastewater produced annually is about 1,500 km3, six times more
water than that exists in all the rivers of the world. (UN WWAP, 2003)

Pollution is one of the most underreported and underfunded global issues yet, it is one of the
biggest and most pressing global problems and it affects over 100,000,000 people. The total
volume of water on Earth is about 1.4 billion km3. The volume of freshwater resources is around
35 million km3, or about 2.5 percent of the total volume (World Water Day brochure, UN-Water
2010). River pollution is a form of water pollution that refers to the contamination of rivers.
River pollution occurs when waste and different other pollutants are discharged into river
without being properly treated.

Rivers are being highly affected with the rate at which they are being polluted. This has brought
a lot of problems such as water shortage since a lot of underprivileged people depend on rivers
and underground water. Worldwide, people are taking 54 percent of all the open freshwater
contained in rivers, lakes and underground aquifers. Lack ofadequate sanitation contaminates
water sources worldwide and is one of the most significant forms of water pollution.
Approximately, 2.5 billion people live without improved sanitation UNICEF/WHO 2008) .Sub-
Saharan Africa is slowest of the world’s regions in achieving improved sanitation: only 31
percent of residents had access to improved sanitation in 2006. 18% of the world’s population, or
1.2 billion people (1 out of 3 in rural areas), defecate in the open. Open defecation significantly
compromises quality in nearby water bodies and poses an extreme human health risk. (UNICEF/
WHO 2008)
Access to clean water is a problem throughout Africa. Dirty water is the world's biggest health
risk, and continues to threaten both quality of life and public health. In developing countries, 70
percent of industrial wastes are dumped untreated into waters where they pollute the usable water
supply. This results in diseases like typhoid, cholera, and diarrhea that come from contaminated
water. Water pollution is the reason for many infant mortality rates and health problems of
people of all ages.

Malawi is a least developed, landlocked and highly indebted country situated in Southern-
Central Africa and entirely lies in the tropics south of the equator. It is bordered by Mozambique
to the east, south and southwest, Zambia to the west and northwest, and United Republic of
Tanzania to the north and northeast. It covers an area of 118,484 square kilometers of which
Lake Malawi, Africa’s third largest lake, occupies an area of 24,240 square kilometers and land
area is 94,276 square kilometers. Its population is estimated at 13.1 million people and 80 per
cent of them live in rural areas. 60 per cent live below the poverty line (NSO, 2008). The country
is divided into Southern, Central and Northern regions which are further divided into 28 districts;
6 located in the northern region, 9 in the central region and 13 in the southern region. The capital
city is Lilongwe.

Blantyre city, the main commercial and industrial city in Malawi, is situated in the Shire
highlands in the Southern region of the country. Bordered by five districts; Chiradzulu, Zomba,
Thyolo, Chikwawa and Mwanza. The city has the largest urban settlement with an approximate
population of 1,116,350 people and it covers an area of some 228 square kilo metres (HMIS,
Blantyre district health office). The population of the city of Blantyre has grown rapidly over the
past few years without keeping pace with the national economy. The most visibly affected areas
of this increase in population are access to adequate clean water, solid waste collection and
disposal, sanitary and sewerage facilities.

Water services in many urban areas are provided by a centralized system. However, this
centralized system in a majority of urban areas is unable to cope with the rapid increase in
population, fast growth of industries, ageing and deterioration of infrastructure, over-extraction
and also inability to recover the actual cost of managing the system. The failure has led to a great
deal of pressure on the limited available water resources; consequently, some residents,
particularly the urban poor, have no access to basic safe water and may even use river water for
domestic purposes (Phiri, 2005).

Due to the pressure created on water, most people have resorted to the use of ground water in
form of wells and surface water in form of river water. This has become a challenge due to the
increase in the pollution of the rivers as well as the ground water. The major pollutants are
industries, agricultural practices, open defaecation, dumping of wastes in the rivers which results
in high chemical, biological and physical pollution of water

All the industrial areas in this city are located along the banks of the main rivers or streams of
Blantyre city. Makata industrial area lies between Mudi and Nasolo 2 streams whilst Ginnery
corner industrial area is along Mudi River. Maselema industrial area exists along the Naperi
River and Chirimba stream hosts Chirimba industrial area. There are several rules for treatment
of wastes in the industries (Local Government Act, 1982; Blantyre City Assembly, 1999) but
disposal of untreated wastewater into drains and subsequently into the city’s major streams is
very common, thus posing a potential health and environmental risk to the people living in the
city of Blantyre and downstream. Other sources of water pollution in the city such as run-offs
from domestic and agricultural activities and also vehicular emissions have been identified
(Lakudzala et., al, 1999).

Pollution matters because it harms the environment on which people depend. The environment is
not something distant and separate from our lives, it is everything that surrounds us that gives us
life and health. Destroying the environment ultimately reduces the quality of our own lives and
that, most self-interestedly, is why pollution should matter to all of us.

Mudi river is located at the Latitude: -15.85844 and at the Longitude: 34.88184. Domestic
effluent emanating from residential areas and storm water and the effluent from Blantyre works
is discharged into the Mudi River and this has contributed in the transformation of the levels of
pollution of this river.
1.2PROBLEM STATEMENT

Over the years, pollution is increasing at a high rate in Blantyre. Mudi River in Blantyre is one of
the rivers that are showing signs of practices that affect the quality and quantity of water in the
river. Water is important to health and it is a requirement that every person gets enough water for
daily upkeep. The UN suggests that the daily drinking water requirement per person is 2-4 Litres
and that each person needs 20-50 Litres of water a day to ensure their basic needs for drinking,
cooking and cleaning. However due to the pressure on water as a result of water shortage in the
city, most people living near this river have been forced to use the polluted water from the Mudi
river for bathing, cleaning and irrigation thus posing a threat to their health.

Mudi River flows through the center of the Blantyre city and it is showing characteristics of
heavily polluted water, there is a strong odour that comes from the river and this causes nuisance
to the people in town as well as areas that are near the river. This is one of the reasons that lead
to the sweeping of the Mudi River campaign which was funded by the rotary club whose
members spend a lot of time at the Blantyre sports club lawns playing Golf and they are equally
affected with the odour from this river.

The condition of the river is being worsened as most people with small businesses tend to dump
their waste in the river and not only that, sewage from the industries is dumped in this river and
this has resulted in discolouration of the water. Also, the wastes that are dumped result in the
river end up blocking the flow of the water leading to production of the odours. This can also
enhance the breeding of insects in the river

Kumwenda et., al, (2011) found that the Mudi River was not in a good condition as most
parameters were higher than European Commission Standards of 1994 for maintenance of
aquatic life, irrigation and domestic use. Most parameters were lower at source as compared to
other sampling points. Total bacterial count ranged from 1433 to 1800+ colonies per
100ml.Except for the source which had 59,266 coliform colonies, all the other sampling points
showed coliforms to be Numerous to Count (NC) colonies per 100ml. Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) ranged from 29.20 to 89.20mg/l. This shows that the river was highly polluted
and it was harbouring a lot of microorganisms of which some are potential pathogens. This leads
to a lot of health effects such as skin rashes, diarrhoeal diseases as well as exposing people to
causative organisms that may lead to development of other diseases

The pH found in the river ranged from 7.02 to 8.23. Conductivity and Temperature ranged from
148.77 to 542.67Ns and 21.13 to 23.67 0C respectively. Turbidity and Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) ranged from 28.93 to 130.37 NTU and 69.17 to 271.67 ppm respectively.

Lead ranged from 0.21 to 0.93 mg/l, cadmium ranged from 0.00 to 0.02 mg/l, chromium ranged
from 0.10 to 0.46 mg/l, zinc ranged from 0.05 to 0.18 mg/l, copper ranged from 0.04 to 0.12 mg/l
and nitrates ranged from2.56 to 15.64 mg/l. These heavy metals are very toxic to the health of
people when they have been exposed. Even at minimum concentrations, repeated exposure still
remains a serious issue. With the presence of the heavy metals in the Mudi River, the people
using this river are exposed to chemicals and this puts the river users to be exposed to diseases
such as cancer, skin rashes as well as development of new diseases (kumwenda et., al, 2012).

After the findings of the study were presented, the Press Corporations in conjunction with the
Blantyre City Council made several efforts in reducing the levels of pollution in Mudi River.
Most of the sewer lines that were damaged and resulted to the spillage of wastewater into the
river were renovated and these included; the sewer line at the Mudi Estate which was renovated
late 2011, unblocking the manholes behind Leopard Matches in August 2011, as well as the
sewer line in Namiwawa in March 2012.

Therefore, this study aims at finding out the impact of the renovation of the sewer lines in the
reduction of the level of pollutants in the Mudi River.

1.3JUSTIFICATION
Due to the rate at which the population is increasing, there is a need in the improvement of
services being offered to the public in order to maintain a healthy life for all. Services like
provision of clean and safe water as well as sewage and sanitation projects must be priotised in
any population.
As it is the case now, Mudi River is so far being used by the general public for several purposes.
This river has been used for irrigation for those who have farms and flower gardens along the
banks and mostly, vegetables are the type of crops being grown in these areas. This poses a big
threat since when the vegetables are being watered with contaminated water, they become
contaminated with the pollutants from the water and this may lead to the development of
diseases if the consumers do not safely clean and prepare the vegetables before consumption.
Therefore, in order maintain these agricultural activities and also protecting consumers, the river
should be well protected from pollutants.

Again, the pollution of the rivers may also result in the pollution of ground water which may
affect the water reservoirs thus posing a threat to the communities. This poses a threat to the
communities as the pollution may cause water shortage in their areas.

Furthermore, it is important to always make sure that the water being used by the public is safe
in order to protect the people from diseases thus reducing the morbidity as well as the mortality
rates. Due to water shortage and low income levels, the Mudi River still remains a source of
water to other people nearby. As seen from the Map(figure 1), the Mudi River flows through
settlement areas and the people use water from this river for domestic, irrigation and also earn a
living from this river through extracting and selling sand. The generally poor quality water
results in the users resulting from debilitating effects of waterborne diseases like cholera,
diarrhoea, bilharzias, gastroenteritis and those that may not be easily related to water
contamination due to chronic intake of toxic chemicals .

For the reasons mentioned above, it is the purpose of this study to be carried out so that the
quality of the Mudi River after carrying out the renovations is known. This will be important
because it will help the public know how the condition of the river and it will also come up with
some sources of pollution to the river other than the sewer lines. This information will be used in
reducing the levels of pollution in the river and it will also help the authorities in coming up with
policies and in the decision making on how best they can deal with the sources of pollution to the
river.
1.4 OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 Main Objective

Determining the level of pollutants after renovation of sewer lines along Mudi River

1.4.2Specific objectives

 To assess the effectiveness of the interventions put in place.

 To determine the extent at which the river is polluted
 To determine the risk to public health users of the river.

1.5 HYPOTHESIS

 High pollution levels of the river will lead to high cases of illness.
 The sewer pipes were the major pollutants of the Mudi River

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 What change has the interventions brought in?

 What can be the effects of the current state of the River to the users?
 What could be the causes of the presence of the pollutants in the river apart from the
sewer lines?
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Pollution of water masses is one of the concerns globally. With the advancement in technology
and changes in the world economy, water is being polluted at a fast rate posing an environmental
and health threat. “Around 80% of the pollution in seas and oceans comes from land-based
activities. In one week, a typical cruise ship generates 210,000 gallons of sewage; 1,000,000
gallons of "gray water" from showers, sinks, dishwashers and clothes washers; 37,000 gallons of
oily bilge water; more than eight tons of solid waste; toxic wastes from onboard operations like
dry cleaners and photo processing laboratories.

Each year, plastic waste in water and coastal areas kills up to: 100,000 marine mammals, 1
million sea birds, and countless fish.Pollution of freshwater (drinking water) is a problem for
about half of the world's population. Each year there are about 250 million cases of water-related
diseases, with roughly 5 to 10 million deaths due to diseases caused by the ingestion of water
contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites such as; cholera, typhoid,
schistosomiasis, dysentery and other diarrheal diseases”
(http://www.grinningplanet.com/2005/07-26/water-pollution-facts-article.htm)

River pollution is form of water pollution that refers to the contamination of rivers. River
pollution occurs when waste and different other pollutants are discharged into river without
being properly treated. River pollution has negative effect on aquatic ecosystems. The negative
impact on plants and animals often leads to decline in species, and sometimes even to extinction
of entire species (Yangtze River dolphin).

River pollution also leads to decrease in freshwater resources because rivers are among most
important sources of freshwater in the world. This means that the excessive river pollution could
easily lead to global water shortage. Signs of River pollution include floating fish, discoloured
water and strong smells. Mostly these are the major causes of river pollution:
a) Fertilizers

If large amounts of fertilizer or farm waste drain into a river the concentration of nitrate and
phosphate in the water increases considerably. Algae use these substances to grow and multiply
rapidly turning the water green. This massive growth of algae, called eutrophication, leads to
pollution. When the algae die they are broken down by the action of the bacteria which quickly
multiply, using up all the oxygen in the water which leads to the death of many animals.

b) Industrial Waste

Chemical waste products from industrial processes are sometimes accidentally discharged into
rivers. Examples of such pollutants include cyanide, zinc, lead, copper, cadmium and mercury.
These substances may enter the water in such high concentrations that fish and other animals are
killed immediately. Sometimes the pollutants enter a food chain and accumulate until they reach
toxic levels, eventually killing birds, fish and mammals.

Occasionally poisonous substances are deliberately dumped into rivers.

c) Oil Pollution

If oil enters a slow-moving river it forms a rainbow-coloured film over the entire surface
preventing oxygen from entering the water. On larger stretches of water the oil contaminates the
feathers of water birds and when they preen the oil enters the gut and kills them. Only 12% of the
oil that enters the oceans comes from tanker accidents; over 70% of oil pollution at sea comes
from routine shipping and from the oil people pour down drains on land. Estimates of the marine
animals killed in the spill vary from approximately 1000 sea otters and 34,000 birds to as many
as 2800 sea otters and 250,000 sea birds. Several billion salmon and herring eggs are also
believed to have been destroyed.

d) Warm Water

Industry often uses water for cooling processes, sometimes discharging large quantities of warm
water back into rivers. Raising the temperature of the water lowers the level of dissolved oxygen
and upsets the balance of life in the water.

e) Alien species

Most people's idea of water pollution involves things like sewage, toxic metals, or oil slicks, but
pollution can be biological as well as chemical. In some parts of the world, alien species are a
major problem. Alien species (sometimes known as invasive species) are animals or plants from
one region that have been introduced into a different ecosystem where they do not belong.
Outside their normal environment, they have no natural predators, so they rapidly run wild,
crowding out the usual animals or plants that thrive there. Common examples of alien species
include zebra mussels in the Great Lakes of the USA, which were carried there from Europe by
ballast water (waste water flushed from ships). The Mediterranean Sea has been invaded by a
kind of alien algae called Caulerpataxifolia. In the Black Sea, an alien jellyfish called
Mnemiopsisleidyi reduced fish stocks by 90% after arriving in ballast water. In San Francisco
Bay, Asian clams called Potamocorbulaamurensis, also introduced by ballast water, have
dramatically altered the ecosystem. In 1999, Cornell University's David Pimentel estimated that
alien invaders like this cost the US economy $123 billion a year.
f) Plastics

plastic is one of the most common materials, used for making virtually every kind of
manufactured object from clothing to automobile parts; plastic is light and floats easily so it can
travel enormous distances across the oceans; most plastics are not biodegradable, which means
that things like plastic bottle tops can survive in the marine environment for a long time. (A
plastic bottle can survive an estimated 450 years in the ocean and plastic fishing line can last up
to 600 years.)

While plastics are not toxic in quite the same way as poisonous chemicals, they nevertheless
present a major hazard to seabirds, fish, and other marine creatures. For example, plastic fishing
lines and other debris can strangle or choke fish. (This is sometimes called ghost fishing.) One
scientific study in the 1980s estimated that a quarter of all seabirds contain some sort of plastic
residue. In another study about a decade later, a scientist collected debris from a 1.5 mile length
of beach in the remote Pitcairn islands in the South Pacific. His study recorded approximately a
thousand pieces of garbage including 268 pieces of plastic, 71 plastic bottles, and two dolls
heads

g) Chemical waste

Detergents are relatively mild substances. At the opposite end of the spectrum are highly toxic
chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). They were once widely used to
manufacture electroniccircuit boards, but their harmful effects have now been recognized and
their use is highly restricted in many countries. Nevertheless, an estimated half million tons of
PCBs were discharged into the environment during the 20th century. In a classic example of
trans boundary pollution, traces of PCBs have even been found in birds and fish in the Arctic.
They were carried there through the oceans, thousands of miles from where they originally
entered the environment. Although PCBs are widely banned, their effects will be felt for many
decades because they last a long time in the environment without breaking down.

Another kind of toxic pollution comes from heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury.
Lead was once commonly used in gasoline (petrol), though its use is now restricted in some
countries. Mercury and cadmium are still used in batteries (though some brands now use other
metals instead). Until recently, a highly toxic chemical called tributyltin (TBT) was used in
paints to protect boats from the ravaging effects of the oceans. Ironically, however, TBT was
gradually recognized as a pollutant: boats painted with it were doing as much damage to the
oceans as the oceans were doing to the boats.

The best known example of heavy metal pollution in the oceans took place in 1938 when a
Japanese factory discharged a significant amount of mercury metal into Minamata Bay,
contaminating the fish stocks there. It took a decade for the problem to come to light. By that
time, many local people had eaten the fish and around 2000 were poisoned. Hundreds of people
were left dead or disabled.

h) Waste water

A few statistics illustrate the scale of the problem that waste water (chemicals washed down
drains and discharged from factories) can cause. Around half of all ocean pollution is caused by
sewage and waste water. Each year, the world generates 400 billion tons of industrial waste,
much of which is pumped untreated into rivers, oceans, and other waterways. In the United
States alone, around 400,000 factories take clean water from rivers, and many pump polluted
waters back in their place. However, there have been major improvements in waste water
treatment recently. For example, in the United States over the last 30 years, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has spent $70 billion improving treatment plants that now serve about
85 percent of the US population.

Factories are point sources of water pollution, but quite a lot of water is polluted by ordinary
people from non-point sources. A lot of toxic pollution also enters waste water from highway
runoff. Highways are typically covered with a cocktail of toxic chemicals thus everything from
spilled fuel and brake fluids to bits of worn tires and exhaust emissions. When it rains, these
chemicals wash into drains and rivers. It is not unusual for heavy summer rainstorms to wash
toxic chemicals into rivers in such concentrations that they kill large numbers of fish overnight.
It has been estimated that, in one year, the highway runoff from a single large city leaks as much
oil into our water environment as a typical tanker spill. Some highway runoff runs away into
drains; others can pollute groundwater or accumulate in the land next to a road, making it
increasingly toxic as the years go by.
I) Sewage

Sewage is a completely natural substance that should be broken down harmlessly in the
environment: 90% of sewage is water. In practice, sewage contains all kinds of other chemicals,
from the pharmaceutical drugs people take, paper, plastic, and other wastes they flush down their
toilets. When people are sick with viruses, the sewage they produce carries those viruses into the
environment. It is possible to catch illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and cholera from river
and sea water.

With billions of people on the planet, disposing of sewage waste is a major problem. According
to 2004 figures from the World Health Organization, some 1.1 billion people (16% of the world's
population) don't have access to safe drinking water, while 2.6 billion (40% of the world's
population) don't have proper sanitation (hygienic toilet facilities); the position hasn't improved
much since. Sewage disposal affects people's immediate environments and leads to water-related
illnesses such as diarrhea that kills 3-4 million children each year. (According to the World
Health Organization, water-related diseases could kill 135 million people by 2020.) In developed
countries, most people have flush toilets that take sewage waste quickly and hygienically away
from their homes

Yet the problem of sewage disposal does not end there. When you flush the toilet, the waste has
to go somewhere and, even after it leaves the sewage treatment works, there is still waste to
dispose of. Sometimes sewage waste is pumped untreated into the sea. Until the early 1990s,
around 5 million tons of sewage was dumped by barge from New York City each year. The
population of Britain produces around 300 million gallons of sewage every day, some of it still
pumped untreated into the sea through long pipes. The New River that crosses the border from
Mexico into California carries with it 20-25 million gallons (76-95 million Litres) of raw sewage
each day. Even in rich nations, the practice of dumping sewage into the sea continues. In early
2012, it was reported that the tiny island of Guernsey (between Britain and France) has decided
to continue dumping 16,000 tons of raw sewage into the sea each day.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

Polyethylene (PE) and glassware bottles were used for sampling. The parameters that were
analyzed include BOD, conductivity, temperature, pH, total dissolved solids, turbidity, cadmium,
faecal coliforms and lead.

PARAMETER ABBREVIATION METHOD UNITS

Biochemical Oxygen BOD 5 day BOD test mgO2l-1
Demand
conductivity Cond Conductometry μmhocm-1
(Ns)
Temperature Temp Potentiometry °c
pH pH Potentiometry pH units
Total Dissolved Solids TDS Drying at ppm
180℃/weighing
Turbidity TURB Potable turbidity meter NTU
Cadmium Cd Spectrophotometry mg/l
 (AAS)
Faecal coliforms Fc Membrane filtration Per 100ml
Lead Pb Spectrophotometry mg/l
(AAS)

Table 1: shows a summary of the parameters that were analyzed and techniques used for
analysis.

3.1 Study type

This study is an experimental descriptive study. Samples were collected and analyzed in the
laboratory.

3.2 Study population

The study population is the Mudi River

3.3 Sampling procedure and Sample size.

Mudi River flows in a North to South direction through Makata industrial area which is
suspected to contribute to high levels of minerals in the river. Although some industries treat
their effluent others are suspected of discharging residues into the river therefore, Five sampling
points were located depending on suspected pollution source in an effort to isolate the polluting
sources.

These included the source, Escom power house, Private Hire Vehicle Organization (PVHO),
Blantyre Market (BT Market) and Namiwawa. Sampling was done for three weeks on every
Friday. During each day, three samples were collected from each sampling point. In total fifteen
(15) samples were analyzed for each parameter, three (3) per sampling point for five (5)
sampling points.

3.4 Study Area

Blantyre city in Malawi lies within the Shire Highlands, with a topography ranging from 800 -
1600 m, in the southern part of Malawi. Malawi lies between latitudes 9 and 17 degrees South
and between longitudes 33 and 36 degrees East (Malawi Government, 2007). The city has the
largest urban settlement with an approximate population of 1,116,350 people and it covers an
area of some 228 square kilometers (HMIS, Blantyre district health office).

Mudi river is located at the Latitude: -15.85844° and at the Longitude: 34.88184°

Figure 1: Map of Blantyre and the flow of Mudi River

3.5 Data Collection, Management and Quality Control

Data was obtained by analyzing samples from the Mudi River in the laboratory.
3.6 Data Analysis

Raw data obtained will be analyzed using several technics. Microsoft excel will be used to
analyze the data to be presented in graphs and tables.

3.7 Ethical consideration

Authorization to carry out this study was obtained from the Blantyre District Commissioners
(DCs), the Blantyre City council (BCC) and the District Health Officer (DHO).

The data collected has been treated with confidentiality and this information has been used for
academic purposes only.

3.8 Limitation of the study

The main challenge is that there was lack of resources when this study was being carried out.
The study was partially funded by the department of environmental health. This left the
researcher with no choice but to finance for the remaining areas. The other challenge is that some
equipment necessary for the study was not available in time.

The previous study done in March 2011 was carried out during the rainy season and this study
has been carried out in the dry season. This may lead to differences in the results since the season
will have an effect on the concentration of the water.

Again, this study has been carried out for a short period of time. This did not give the researcher
enough time to carry out the study.

CHAPTER 4

4.1RESULTS

Parameter Mean Standard Deviation

pH 6.28 ±0.398
Temperature 25.06°c ±0.205
conductivity 684.422 µS ±251.06
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 340.4ppm ±124.293
Turbidity 32.04NTU ±17.277
Lead
cadmium 0 0

Table 2: overall means of parameters

The mean parameters for all sampling points indicates that TDS is above standard for freshwater
quality for the maintenance of aquatic life, drinking, domestic use and for fishing

Sampling Conductivity(µS) Temperature(°c) pH TDS(ppm) Turbidity(NTU)

Points
Source 184.1 (±5.37) 25.33 (±1.40) 6.88(±0.4 92.4(±2.12) 11.83(±1.02)
1)
Behind 848.67 (±87.45) 25.13 (±1.32) 6.23(±0.3 418(±38.64) 61.37 (±4.26)
PVHO 7)
Escom 791.67 (±5.56) 25.03 (±1.19) 7.00(±0.0 394.33(±4.1 36.4(±0.49)
Power 6) 1)
House
BT 789.67 (±15.46) 25.1 (±1.14) 7.08(±0.0 395(±7.12) 32.83(±0.65)
Market 1)
Namiwaw 808 (±22.69) 24.7 (±0.12) 7.45(±0.1 402.33(±12. 17.76(±0.97)
a 2) 5)

Table 3: means (standard deviations) for specific sampling points of parameters

 30

25

20

15 pH
Temperature (°c)
10

0
source Behind PVHO Escom power Blantyre Namiwawa
house Market

Figure 2: variations among temperature and pH among sampling points

From the figure above, pH is lowest behind PVHO (6.23) compared to other sampling
pointswhereas temperature is stable among the rest of the sampling points.

900

800

700

600

500
Conductivity (µs)
400 TDS (ppm)
Turbidity (NTU)
300

200

100

0
source Behind PVHO Escom power Blantyre Namiwawa
house market

Figure 3: shows variations in conductivity, turbidity and total dissolves solids among
sampling points.
Conductivity is lowest at the source (276.15µS) and highest behind PVHO(848.67 µS) and
stable at the rest of the sampling points. Turbidity is lowest at the source (11.83NTU) and high in
the rest of the sampling points. Also, total dissolved solids (92.4ppm) are lowest at the source
than the rest of the sampling points.

Sampling Points BOD (mg/l) Faecal Coliforms (per 100ml)

source 6.43 11.33
Behind PVHO BDL 94.67
Escom power house BDL NC
Blantyre market BDL NC
Namiwawa BDL NC
NC: numerous to count BDL: beyond detectable limits

Table 3: shows the biological indicators for the sampling points

From the table above, BOD was found only at the source, and it was beyond the detectable levels
in the rest of the sampling points. Faecal coliforms at the source at behind PVHO were 11.33 and
94.67/100ml respectively. The levels of the faecal coliforms were too numerous to count in the
rest of the points.

For the heavy metals, lead and cadmium were analyzed in the samples that were collected.
Cadmium was not present in all the sampling points. (The lead results have not been obtained yet
due to failure of the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer)
4.2 DISCUSSIONS

800

700

600

500

400

300
Previous study
200 New study

100

0
ity e ity s
pH ur lid iu
m
ctiv r at r bid so m
u pe d d
nd m Tu lve ca
Co e o
T iss
ld
ota
T

Figure 4 showing the comparisons between the previous and new study

Based on the results from the previous study, some of the parameters have shown an increase in
their concentrations whilst other parameters have shown reduced concentrations.

From the previous study, pH ranged from 7.02 to 8.23. This study has found out that the pH of
the river ranges from 6.23 to 7.45. This shows that the pH of the river has decreased from the
previous study. This change in the pH may be as a result of the wastes that are dumped in this
river from the industries. pH was found to be lowest behind PVHO (6.23±0.37), a sampling point
just after the area where many industries are located and tend to dump their wastewater in the
river.

This change in pH may have several effects on the health of the people as well as the ecosystem
of the river. The decrease in the pH of this river may lead to synergistic effects. This refers to
the process whereby two or more substances combine and produce effects greater than their sum.
This happens in such a way that when waters with low pH values come into contact with certain
chemicals and metals, they often make them more toxic than normal. As an example, fish that
usually withstand pH values as low as 4.8 will die at pH 5.5 if the water contains 0.9 mg/L of
iron (http://www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm). Although this river have their water at a good range,
the continuous reduction of the pH as well as repeated exposure will result in some health effects
such as eye and skin irritations to users of this water.

With the reference to the results from the previous study and the study conducted, the pH of the
river is within the common range as in most rivers. A study conducted in Nigeria on Challawa
River found the levels of pH to be 8.12±0.10 to 9.23±0.32 and a study conducted in Lilongwe
found the levels of pH in the Lilongwe river to be 7.51-7.71.Overall, the concentrations of pH in
the Mudi river at all sampling points expect for the point behind PVHO were within WHO
guidelines range (6.5-9.5) set by WHO, (2006) and MBS.

In comparison with the previous study, conductivity and temperature ranged from 148.77 to
542.67µsS and 21.13 to 23.67 °C respectively whilst in this study, conductivity and temperature
ranges from 276.15 to 848.67 µS and 24.7 to 26.33°C. The conductivity and temperature of the
river has increased as shown in the results. Temperature increase in this study may be attributed
to the fact that this study was conducted in the dry season. On the same, the increase in the
ranges of conductivity can also be due to wastewater from the industries as well as the refuse that
is being dumped in this river

An increase in the temperature of water has an adverse impact on the eco-system of the water.
Most species in water are sensitive to temperature and an increase in the temperature may lead to
the ecological imbalance and a lot of species may end up dying.

Results have also shown an increase in the conductivity levels of the water. Conductivity in
water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chlorides and nitrates.
Temperature also affects the conductivity of the water. High temperatures lead to an increase in
the conductivity of water. In this case, it means that the river is highly concentrated with the
inorganic dissolved solids hence an increase in the conductivity readings. These inorganic
dissolved solids pose a threat to the people when they are in high concentration although the
concentration of each element of the inorganic dissolved solids may be low, repeated exposure
causes these chemicals to be dangerous to people and the surrounding environment.

Again, results from the previous study showed that Turbidity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
ranged from 28.93 to 130.37 NTU and 69.17 to 271.67 ppm respectively. In this study the results
have showed that Turbidity and Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranges from 11.83 to 61.37 NTU
and 92.4 to 418 ppm. There has been a decrease in turbidity levels. This could be due to the
rehabilitation of the sewer lines or else, the absence of rains that cause soil erosion and end up
depositing the soil in the river leading to an increase the levels of turbidity. Higher turbidity
levels are often associated with higher levels of disease-causing microorganisms such as viruses,
parasites and some bacteria. These organisms can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps,
diarrhea, and associated headaches

The increase in the levels of total dissolved solids is another change that has been found from the
two studies. The increase in the levels of the total dissolved solids in this study could be from the
industries that do not fully treat their wastes when discarding their wastewater in the river. The
total dissolves solids are comprised of the organic and inorganic dissolved solids and these
include phosphates, arsenic, fluorides, etc. These have effects on the users of the polluted, the
environment as well as organisms in the water. The increase in the concentration of the total
dissolved solids may lead to development of Skin damage or problems with circulatory systems,
and may have increased risk of getting cancer and many other diseases.

From the results for the heavy metals, it shows that there has been a decrease in the concentration
of cadmium in the river. From the previous study, cadmium ranged from 0.10 to 0.46 mg/l and
this study found that cadmium was not found in all the points and this can be as a result of the
renovation done on the sewer pipes along this river. This is a good indication since cadmium can
have several negative effects on a person’s health. If a person comes in contact with cadmium for
a long period of time, or a lifetime of exposure, it could result to damage in the blood, kidney,
liver and bones

BOD levels from the previous study ranged from 29.20-89.20mg/l. This study found that the
BOD levels in the river were recorded only at the source which was 6.43mg/l and the rest of the
points had the BOD levels beyond the detectable limits. Results obtained from other studies on
streams in Blantyre shows the following BOD levels Limbe upstream point (13:010:90mg/L) and
Naperi stream where farthest upstream and downstream points registered 16:502:10mg/L and
16:602:0mg/L respectively. This shows that the river is continuously exposed to many organic
compounds as the levels of the BOD are still increasing despite the efforts put in place to reduce
the level of pollutants. BOD is commonly used in water quality management. It is the amount of
oxygen required for biochemical decomposition process. It measures the amount of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms as they breakdown of organic matter (Chiras, 1998).The BOD
level in the Mudi River is exceeding the Malawi Bureau of Standard limit of 20mg/L (MBS,
2005).

The faecal coliforms in the Mudi River were found at the source and behind PVHO at 11.33 and
94.67/100ml respectively and the rest of the sampling points were too numerous to count. A
study conducted in Lilongwe on Lilongwe river showed that faecal coliforms levels recorded a
highest concentration of 3350 counts per 100ml whilst. The mean value was above the
recommended WHO guidelines (0-200 counts per 100ml) for the water to be used for drinking
and other domestic purposes i.e. lowest level for drinking. This poses a health hazard to the
people who uses the water from this river. Presence of faecal coliform indicates the high chances
of presence of pathogens that may cause dangerous diseases such as cholera, dysentery and
diarrhoea.

4.3 CONCLUSIONS

From the results found, even after making some improvements on the river, a lot has not change.
Most of the parameters are still registering high concentrations showing an increase in the level
of pollutants on the river than the required standards set by the WHO and the MBS.

The river is still a threat to the environment as well as its users, the renovations that were carried
out have managed to reduce the level of cadmium in the river, also it has managed to reduce the
level of turbidity at some sampling points. For example, previous study showed that turbidity
levels at source and Namiwawa were 51.98 and 130.37NTU respectively and this study have
found the turbidity levels at this point have reduced to 11.83 and 17.76NTU respectively.
Also, the level of faecal coliforms have reduced at the source as well as at behind PVHO. From
the previous study, faecal coliforms were too many to count behind PVHO, but this study
managed to count the coliforms at this point, this shows a reduction in the number of the faecal
coliforms.
4.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

For the level of pollutants to be reduced in the river, there has to be multsectoral cooperation and
there has to be involvement of the general public in trying to reduce the level of the pollutants in
the river. This is so because the major polluters of this river are the industries and not the
humans. Therefore, it is important that the duty of taking care of the river is not only left to the
government but also the private sector such as the industries themselves should be entirely
involved. This will help in making sure that the people polluting the river and affecting the
people who have no access to safe water pay for the damages they are causing.

The law enforcers should also make sure that the industries are dumping waste that is treated to
the requirements since this study has shown that the river is highly polluted by the industrial
effluent. Each industry should make sure that it treats its wastewater before disposal.

Again, the building of toilets by people should be observed carefully, this is so because people
mostly around Blantyre market are building paying toilets but this must be done carefully
because during the rainy season, the rains will cause surface runoff and waste from the toilets
will be washed down to the river hence polluting the river.
REFERENCES:

1. WHO, (2006); Guide Lines for Drinking Water Quality;16th Edition; Washington DC;
USA.
2. Chiras, D.D. (1998); Environmental Science. A System approach to sustainable
development; 5th Edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company; New York; USA.
3. APHA, 1998; Standards methods for the examination of water and waste waters;
APHA-AWWA-WEF, 20th Edition, Method 4500-O; New York;USA.
4. Water quality assessment in streams and wastewater treatment plants of Blantyre
Malawi. www.sciencedirect.com retrieved on Saturday,7th July 2012
5. Lakudzala, D., Tembo, K.C., Manda, I.K., 1999. An investigation of Chemical
pollution in Lower Shire River, Malawi. Malawi Journal of Science and Technology,
5, 87-94.
6. Phiri, O., Mumba, P., Moyo, B.H.Z and Kadewa, W (2005). Assessment of the impact
of industrial effluents on water quality or receiving rivers in urban areas of Malawi.
International Journal of Science and Technology, 2(3): 237-244.
7. Local Government Act, 1982. CAP 22: 01, City of Blantyre (Trade effluent) Bye-
Laws.
8. Kuyeli S.M., Masamba W.R.L., Fabiano E., Sajidu S.M., Henry E.M.T. (2009).
Temporal and spatial physicochemical water quality in Blantyre urban streams.
Malawi journal of science and technology, 9(1) 5-10
9. Kumwenda S., Tsakama M., Kalulu K., Kambala C (2012). Determination of
Biological, Physical and Chemical Pollutants in Mudi River, Blantyre Malawi. Journal
of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2(7) 6833-6839.
10. Akan J.C., Ogugbuaja V.O., Abdulrahman F.I., and Ayodele J.T., (2007).
Determination of Pollutant Levels in Water of River Challawa and in Tap Water from
Kano Industrial Area, Kano State, Nigeria. Research Journal of Environmental
Sciences, 1: 211-219.
11. Nkhoma T, (2008). Impact Of River Bank Development Activities On Selected Water
Quality Parameters: A case study of Lilongwe flea market.
12. Hach Company's H20 University, Environmental and Water Science
Education.www.h2ou.coretrieved on Wednesday, 24th October 2012
13. Water-bornediseases.http:==www.infoforhealth.org=pr=m14 =m14chap5􀀀1: html
Water-borne diseases.
14. Malawi Bureau of Standards, 2005. Drinking water specifications, 1st revision, MS
214: 2005.
15. A manual on analytical techniques, wildlife institute of India.
16. National statistical office of Malawi, (2008)
17. Health management information systems, Blantyre district health office (2010)
18. World water quality facts and statistics, World Water Day brochure, UN-Water 2010
19. River Pollution, Environmental Facts, Young People's Trust for the Environment
retrieved on Friday 28th September 2012.
20. (http://www.grinningplanet.com/2005/07-26/water-pollution-facts-article.htm)
APPENDICES

Appendix A: Procedures for the Parameters

1. MEMBRANE FILTRATION

Collect about 200 ml water sample in 250 ml universal sterile sampling bottles. Keep the
samples in a cool condition and transfer the sample to the laboratory for analysis within 6 hours
of sampling.

Sterilize the inside of metal filtration funnel by passing it through the flame for several times
then cool it by applying the sterile distilled water.

Flame the tip of metallic forceps, allow to cool, then remove the membrane filter 0.45µm pore
size from the sterile pack and transfer to sterile filter holder and pass 100 ml volume of water
through the filter. If the supply is known or is expected to contain more than 100 coliform bacilli
per 100 ml, use 10 ml of water diluted with 90 ml of sterile water or quarter ringer’s solution.

Place sterile whatman No 17 absorbent pads in sterile Petri-dishes 47mm diameter and pipette
about 1.5 ml of sterile Lauryl Sulphate Broth over the surface.

Using the sterile forceps, remove the membrane filter and place it face up on each pad. Ensure
that no air bubbles are trapped between the membrane filter and the pad then incubate as follows:

Chlorinated water samples:

(a) One membrane at 25oC for 6 hour s followed by 35oC for 18 hours for presumptive
count.
(b) One membrane at 25oC for 6 hour s followed by 44 ± 0.2 oC for 18 hours for
Escherichia coli count.
Unchlorinated water samples:

(a) One membrane at 30oC for 4 hour s followed by 35oC for 14 hours for
presumptive count.
(b) One membrane at 30oC for 6 hour s followed by 44 ± 0.2 oC for 14 hours for
Escherichia coli count.
These incubation periods will allow ‘resuscitation’ of coliform.

Counting

Count all colonies present as presumptive Coliform and yellow colonies only as Escherichia coli
per 100 ml of water.

include all organisms present in the sample.

2. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The biochemical oxygen demand test measures the ability of naturally occurring microorganisms
to digest organic matter, usually in 5 day incubation at 20c by analyzing the depletion of oxygen.
This measures biodegradable organic matter. This is normally expressed as o2 mg/l.

The biochemical oxygen demand test provides a quantitative measure of the amount of oxygen
required to maintain the growth and activities of the biological organisms responsible for the
aerobic digestion of the organic and putrescible matter in the liquid at a set temperature for a set
amount of time in the dark.

The do is measured at the beginning and recorded. After five days the do is again determined.
The bod is then calculated on the basis for the reduction of do and the size of the sample.
Measurement of do then was done by using the Winkler titration.

Reagents

 Phosphate buffer solution

 Magnesium Sulphate
 Calcium chloride solution
 Ferric chloride solution
 Potassium hydrogen phthalate standard
 Glucose glutamic acid
 Dilution water
 Manganous Sulphate solution
 Alkaline-iodide sodium azide solution
 Sulfuric acid concentrated
  Starch indicator solution
 Sodium thiosulfate solution

Bod 5 procedure

 Fill a 300ml bod bottle with sample and dilution water and close it with a stopper (taking
special care to avoid adding air to the liquid being collected).
 Remove the stopper and add 1ml of the Manganous sulfate solution at the surface of the
liquid.
 Add 1ml of the alkaline-potassium iodide –sodium azide solution at the surface of the
liquid
 Replace the stopper; avoid trapping air bubbles and shake well inverting the bottle
several times. Repeat shaking after floc has settled halfway. Allow floc to settle a second
time.
 Add 1ml of concentrated sulfuric acid by allowing the acid to run down the neck of the
bottle above the surface of the liquid.
 Restopper and shake well until the precipitate has dissolved
 pour a volume of treated sample which corresponds to 200ml of the original sample from
the bod bottle to the Erlenmeyer flask
 PAO until the solution is a pale yellow(straw) colour. Record the amount of titrant used.
Add a small quantity of the starch indicator and proceed to titration
 if the solution has no reddish brown, or it is slightly coloured, add a small quantity of
starch indicator. If no blue colour develops, there is no dissolved oxygen
 Titrate against 0.0250N PAO to the first disappearance of the blue colour. Record the
total number of ml of sodium thiosulfate or PAO used.

3. TEMPERATURE

A thermometer was used to determine the temperature of the sample.

4. pH

The pH of the water was measured with the help of a pH meter, using a glass combination
electrode saturated with KCl.
Reagents

Potassium chloride

Buffer pH (4, 7 and 9; dilute the respective ampoules according to the manufacturer’s
instructions)

Procedure

 Calibrate pH meter using buffer before measuring pH of the sample

 Take a 50ml of sample in 100ml flask, dip the electrode and read the pH of the solution.
5. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND CONDUCTIVITY

A conductivity meter measures the ionic conductivity (or conversely, the resistance) of a liquid

6. LEAD AND CADMIUM

This uses an atomic absorption spectrometer to determine the heavy metals.

Procedure

Standards of concentrations 0,0.5,1,5 and 10 were made and they were used to calibrate the
machine and coming up with the readings.

7. TURBIDITY

Turbidimeters (bench models) were used. The meter was calibrated usingTurbidity free water =
zero (0 NTU) standardwhich is recommended by USGS which involves filtering either sample
water or deionized water through a 0.2 um or smaller filter to remove particles. The standard
measurement is Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

Appendix B: Budget

A) CHEMICALS

Number Item Price (MWK)

1 Ammonium Chloride (500g) 7,500.00
2 Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate
3 di-potassium Hydrogen Phosphate
4 di-sodium Hydrogen Phosphate
5 Magnesium Sulphate (500g) 6,500.00
6 Calcium Chloride 15,500.00
7 Ferric Chloride
8 Sodium Hydroxide (500g) 9,500.00
9 Hydrochloric Acid (5 Litres) 10,500.00
10 Sodium Sulphate Solution 7,500.00
11 Pyridine
12 Glucose 3,500.00
13 Glutamic Acid
14 Sodium Azide
15 Manganous Sulphate (500g) 8,520.00
`16 Sulphuric Acid ( 5 Litres) 12,500.00
17 Sodium/Potassium Iodide (300g) 48,500.00
18 Potassium Chloride (500g) 6,850.00
19 Buffer Tablets (pH 4 & 7) 8,000.00
20 Cadmium Standard
21 Lead Standard
22 Filter Papers (NO 41)
23 Sampling Bottles
24 Petri dishes (pack of 500) 87,000.00
25 Membrane Filters 25,300.00
26 Membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth
27 Spirit (2.5 Litres) 7,000.00
TOTAL

B) TRANSPORT

DESCRIPTION OF ITEM UNITS UNIT COST TOTAL AMOUNT (k)

(K)

STATIONARY

Ream 1 1000.00 1,000

Folders 2 400.00 800.00

Flash disk 1 4500.00 4500.00

Subtotal
6300.00

SECRITARIAL SERVICES

Final concept copies printing 1 100.00 100.00

Printing of project proposal 5 1,000.00 5,000.00

Questionnaire printing 60 20 1200.00

Project proposal binding 2 450.00 900

Project final report printing 5 850 4,250.00

Project final report binding 5 600.00 3,000.00

Internet services 3,500.00 2,000.00

subtotal
16,450.00

Transport 3days 5,000.00 15,000.00

Phone calls (air time) 10 150.00 15,000.00

subtotal
30,000.00
TOTAL 52,750.00

Appendix C: Proposed Work Plan

ACTIVITY START FINISH

Seeking access and consent of participants th th

5 July 2012 10 July 2012

Data Generation th th
12 July 2012 25 August 2012
Data Analysis th th
27 Aug 2012 10 Sep 2012

Report Writing th th
12 Sept 2012 20 Sept 2012