THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

NATIONAL HIGHER DEPARTMENT OF

POLYTECHNIC CIVIL ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE AND ARCHITECTURE

COURSE TITLE: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I

COURSE CODE: CVLE4103
FIRST SEMESTER

Instructors: Engr. Tengim Eric Z.

Engr. Ngu Princewill M.

2023/2024 Academic year

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Mobility is a basic human need. Beyond memory, everyone travels either for food or leisure. A
closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished goods for
consumption. Transportation fulfills these basic needs of humanity.
Transportation plays a major role in the development of the human civilization. For instance, one
could easily observe the strong correlation between the evolution of human settlement and the
closeness of transport facilities. Also, there is a strong correlation between the quality of transport
facilities and standard of living, because of which society places a great expectation from
transportation facilities.
In other words, the solution to transportation problems must be analytically based, economically
sound, socially credible, environmentally sensitive, and practically acceptable and sustainable.
Alternatively, the transportation solution should be safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical,
and eco-friendly for both men and material.
Transportation engineering is a very diverse and multidisciplinary field, which deals with the
planning, design, operation and maintenance of transportation systems. Good transportation is that
which provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of both goods and people. This profession carries a distinct societal responsibility.
Transportation planners and engineers recognize the fact that transportation systems constitute a
potent force in shaping the course of regional development. Planning and development of
transportation facilities generally raises living standards and enhances the aggregate of community
values.
1.1 Importance of transportation
1.1.1 Role of Transportation
Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any
country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every commodity
produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transport at all stages
from production to distribution. In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw
materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage, transportation is required from
the production centres viz.; farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and
the consumers for distribution. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-
economic development of the country. The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates
its economic and social development.
1.1.2 Economic Activity and Transport
The economic activities are the processes by means of which the products are utilized to satisfy human
wants. Two important factors well known in economic activity are:
i. Production or supply and
ii. Consumption for human wants or demand.

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Man and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance of transportation
in economic activity is to be found in its effects on both human wants for goods and satisfaction
through production and distribution. While discussing the general effects of transportation, it may be
said that the increased productivity and its efficient transportation can lower the cost of the products.
The transportation cost is always an influencing factor on consumer price of commodities.
1.1.3 Social Effects of Transportation
Progress follows the lines of transportation. Population have always settled along the river shores,
road sides and near railway stations. In the present concept of transportation network, this kind of
ribbon development is greatly discouraged. Attempts are being made to decentralize the population
centres away from the sides of the main transportation routes. Thus, town planning patterns are
rapidly changing. To avoid congestion around the populated areas suburban living and industrial
enterprises are developing. These suburbs and satellite towns, acting as counter-magnets should be
linked up with rapid transit systems. The various social effects of transportation may be further
elaborated as follows:
Sectionalism and transportation: Improved transportation has important implication in reducing
sectionalism within the country and also outside the country. Under-developed colonies and tribes
are improving their living conditions since the distances have apparently been reduced with reduction
in travel time. More-frequent travels in other parts of the country and outside the country tend to
increase knowledge of the people from other sections of the society. The international understanding
for better peace and order also improves with efficient network of transportation.
Concentration of population into urban area: The improved transportation network brings
prosperity to the urban population. The prosperity and employment opportunities of urban area attract
the population from other areas resulting in enhanced economic activities. Adequate mass
transportation facilities are needed to cater the internal movements in urban area such as daily
movements to and from factories, offices, schools, hospitals and other social needs. Efficient rapid
transit facilities are necessary for sub-urban and inter-city long distance travel for business needs,
social visits and tourist activities. This also encourages the people to live in places away from their
work centres, thus helping to decrease the growth of slums in urban areas. In general the transportation
facilities are essential for the well being of the community.
Aspect of safety, law and order: Transport facilities are essential for rushing aids to areas affected by
an emergency. To maintain law and order at home, it is required to have an efficient system of
transport network. To defend the territory of the country against the external aggression and to guard
the borders with the foreign territories, transport facilities are needed connecting the farthest border
area from the headquarters or capitals. At times, this alone may be a sufficient reason to develop a
transport network which may not involve any economic and social benefit directly.
All the advantages of transportation may now be summarized:
i. Transportation is for advancement of the community.
ii. Transportation is essential for the economic prosperity and general development of the
country, and

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 iii. Transportation is essential for strategic movement in emergency for defence of the
country and to maintain better law and order.
1.2 Analysis for road conception and design
The analysis for the conceptional choice of any road depends on, one or more of the following
reasons:
• Economically
• Politically and
• Socially
1.2.1 Economically:
When an individual, the society or the states thinks about designing any road the following economic
factors must be considered:
i. The cost to study the project
ii. The type and nature of traffic (past, present and future)
iii. The cost of construction (Expenses)
− Who finances the work before and who control after?
− His benefits, present and future
iv. Maintenances, who takes care of the maintenances of the road, prior to reception of the project
and hence forth
v. The influence of the population (Production, Output and Expectation)
vi. Exploitation of the road; some of the benefits of road construction economical and socially
include:
− Salaries of workers for control purposes (government taxes for road users)
− Check points (toll gates collection)
− Weighting point (for defaulters, payer to the state controllers)
− Publicity (state sign boards for publicity, payable to the state)
− Telephones (state telephone stations along the road, benefit to the state)
− Restaurants (state owned restaurants, along the road to save its citizen and tourists,
benefit to the state) Garage (state owned garages or parastatal garages, for road safety
and to a certain extend vehicles maintenance)
− Pomp attendant (state, parapublic and private fuel stations along the road for road safety,
in case of unforeseen fuel shortages)
vii. One of the most advantages, of road design and construction is the level of cash-flow during
and after any road, for it boost the economic activities of the area.
viii. One of the most disadvantages economical is the text limiting building construction along any
major high way, due to long term enlargement. expansion, beatification and or modification
of the road, including other social environmental factors.
1.2.2 Politically
The political activities of towns do influence the design of road construction, for example:

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 i. The nature of the population of the town or links areas, this is because towns are classified
into political or administrative, socio-cultural agricultural, touristic, educational, commercial
and industrial towns. This is due to the main activities of the town/area in question, due to
their political affiliations.
ii. The influence of the political history of the town (Past, present and future).
iii. The influence of the local masses etc.
1.2.3 Socially:
The impact on the environment greatly affects the design of any road construction in the following
ways:
i. The destruction made during the project’s phases (before, during and after), who pays for the
damages?
ii. The influence of natural blessing areas like touristic, natural springs, natural lakes, waters fall
etc. who takes care of them.
iii. Culture effect, like the transfer of graves, god’s houses, traditional monuments and shrines as
worships homes. All the above problems, if proper environmental impact assessments (EIA)
are not done the said area remain an area for underground conflict. Physical effects or
observation like: accidents, street fighting and all types of mallets spots.
In conclusion, in most cases, if the disadvantages are more than the advantages for any road concept,
the project should be drop, except otherwise.

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CHAPTER 2: TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
In the last couple of decades transportation systems analysis has emerged as a recognized profession.
More and more government organizations, universities, researchers, consultants, and private
industrial groups around the world are becoming truly multi-modal in their orientation and are opting
a systematic approach to transportation problems.
2.1 Different modes of transportation
Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given scope for development of
road and rail transport. Water and air have developed waterways and airways, respectively. The roads
or the highways not only include the modern highway system but also the city streets, feeder roads
and village roads, catering for a wide ran of road vehicles and the pedestrians. Railways have been
developed both for 5 distance transportation and for urban travel. Waterways include oceans, rivers,
ca. and lakes for the movement of ships and boats. The aircraft and helicopters use the airways.
Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipe lines, elevators, belt
conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used for the transportation of
water, other fluids and even solid particles.
The four major modes of transportation are:
• Roadways or highways
• Railways
• Waterways
• Airways
The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air travel also provides more comfort
apart from saving in transportation time for the passengers and the goods between the airports.
Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes; but this mode needs minimum energy
to haul unit load through unit distance. The transportation by water is possible between the ports on
the sea routes or along the rivers or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the stations
both for the passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances. These railway tracks could serve
as arteries for transportation by land and the roads could serve as feeder system for transportation to
the interior parts and to the intermediate localities between the railway stations. The energy
requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by the railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one
sixth) of that required by road. Therefore, full advantage of this mode should be taken for the
transportation of bulk goods along land where the railway facilities are available.
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all. This
mode has also the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and speed
of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle. It is possible to provide door to door service only by
road transport. The other three modes, viz., airways, waterways and railways have to depend on
transportation by roads for the service to and from their respective terminals, airports, harbours or
stations. The road network is therefore needed not only to serve as feeder system for other modes of

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transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide independent facility for road by a well-
planned network of roads throughout the country.
Though co-ordination between different modes of transportation is desirable, it is also necessary to
permit a healthy competition between the different modes, as each one has widely varying
characteristics.
The branch of transportation engineering which deals with the planning, design, construction and
maintenance of airports and other facilities for the operation of aircrafts is termed Airport
Engineering. The development of terminal facilities for ships and boats, their harbouring, repairs etc.
are covered under Harbour Engineering. The design and laying of railway tracks and yards, their
maintenance and the safety and control of train movements are dealt in Railway Engineering. The
planning, design, construction and maintenance of road and roadway facilities to cater to the needs
of road traffic are covered under Road Engineering or Highway Engineering.

Modes of transport
2.1.1 Characteristics of road transport
It is an accepted fact that of all the modes the transportation, road transport is the nearest to the people.
The passengers and the goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway station
or a port or an airport. The road network alone could serve the remotest villages of the vast country
like ours.
The characteristics of road transport are briefly listed here.
i. Roads are used by various types of road vehicles like passenger cars, buses, trucks, two and
three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. But railway tracks are used
only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by only ships and boats.

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 ii. Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor vehicles are
much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers.
Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than that of railway tracks, docks,
harbours and airports.
iii. Road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to
another and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of
changes in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not available to other modes of
transport.
iv. In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop s junctions and main
stations for comparatively longer time.
v. Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road safety decreases
with increasing dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to a high degree of accidents
due to the flexibility of movements offered to the road users Derailment of railway locomotives
and air crash of air planes are also not uncommon. They are in fact more disastrous.
vi. Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community alike.
Task: Bring out the advantages and disadvantages of the various mode of transport.
2.1.2 Road classification
The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and accessibility is the
most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road increases the speed reduces (Figure 2.1)
Accordingly, the roads can classified as follows;
• Freeways
• Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds (120 km/hr
is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade
separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is
not allowed on expressways.
• Highways
• Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually on
a continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially controlled
access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated.
Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
• Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence,
business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it
allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.
• Collectors streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and from
local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided
on these streets . There are few parking restictions except during peak hours.

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Figure 2.1: Speed vs accessibility
2.1.2.1 Based on usage
This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during different seasons of the year.
• All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain extent are called all weather
roads.
• Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called fair weather
roads.
2.1.2.2 Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
• Paved roads with hard surface : If they are provided with a hard pavement course such roads are
called paved roads.(e.g. stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), Bituminous macadam (BM),
concrete roads)
• Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM layer they is
called unpaved roads. Thus, earth and gravel roads come under this category.
2.1.2.3 Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and unsurfaced
roads.
• Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called surfaced roads.
• Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.
2.1.2.4 Other criteria
Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported through that
road, or location and function of that road.

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• Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic
roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class may be expressed as vehicles
per day.
• Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be classified as class I, class
II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be expressed as tonnes per day.
• Location and function: The classification based on location and function should be a more
acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly. Classification of roads by Nagpur
Road plan is based on the location and function.

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CHAPTER 3: HIGHWAY LOCATION SURVEY
To determine the geometric features of road design, the following surveys must be conducted after
the necessity of the road is decided.
A variety of survey and investigations have to be carried out by Road engineers and multidiscipline
persons.
A. Transport Planning Surveys
• Traffic Surveys
• Highway inventories
• Pavement Deterioration Study
• Accident study
B. Alignment and Route location surveys
• Map study
• Reconnaissance

• Preliminary Survey

• Final location survey and detailed

C. Drainage Studies

• Surface run- off: Hydrologic and hydraulic

• Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage

• Cross–drainage: Location and waterway area required for the cross-drainage
structures.

D. Soil Survey
• Desk study
• Site Reconnaissance
E. Pavement Design investigation of Soil properties and strength, Material Survey
3.1 Alignment and Route location surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be carried
out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. The first three stages consider all possible alternate
alignments keeping in view the various requirements of highway alignment as discussed in Art. 3.1.2.
The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey of the selected alignment.
The stages of the engineering surveys are
• Map study
• Reconnaissance

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• Preliminary surveys
• Final location and detailed surveys.
3.1.1 Map study
If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the road.
The main features like rivers, hills valleys etc. are also shown on these maps. By careful study of such
maps, it is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes so that further details of these
may be studied later at the site. The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following
details available on the map.
• Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
• When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain pass
• Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if any.
• When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on the foot of
the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the
ruling gradient. Refer to the figure below. Suppose the scale of the contour map is known, then
from the counter intervals it is possible to decide the length of road required between two
consecutive contours, keeping the gradient within allowable limits. In this case, the contour
interval is 15 meter and if the ruling gradient is fixed as 1 in 20, the road length between two
consecutive contours has to be 15 x 20 = 300 meter. With the known scale of the map, the various
possible alternate routes may be drawn by drawing arcs of the above (300 meter) length between
the consecutive contour lines.
Let A and B be two stations to be connected by a road, see figure below. AB is the shortest route
(straight line) APQB is a steep route in which the gradient positively exceeds 1 in 20 as the distance
between the contour interval is only about 200 meter (assuming the scale to be 1 cm = 150 meter).
APLMNB is a route with an approximate slope 1 in 20 of whereas APEFGB is an alternate alignment
with the same gradient

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Thus, from the map study alternate routes can be suggested. It may be possible from map study to
drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable obstruction or undesirable ground, enroute. Map study
thus gives a much guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.
3.1.2 Reconnaissance
The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the general
character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party
may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field.
Only very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer, barometer etc. are used by the
reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly (not accurately). All relevant details not
available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below:
• Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along
the route which are not available in the map.
• Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate alignments.
• Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water
level along the probable routes.
• Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological features.
• Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.

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• When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding the
geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to
decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment.
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult, may be done
by an aerial survey.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after map study may be
altered or even changed completely. As a result of the reconnaissance a few alternate alignments may
be chosen for further study based on practical considerations observed at the site.
3.1.3 Preliminary survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all the
necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction aspects and to work out the
cost of alternate proposals.
• To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information which are necessary in
connection with the proposed highway alignment. The preliminary survey may be carried out by any
one of the following methods:
a. Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required field
equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and carrying out soil
survey.
b. Modem rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by
photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the necessary
topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology.
The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps:
i. Primary traverse: The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse,
following the line recommended in the reconnaissance. For alternate alignments either
secondary traverses or independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses
are open traverses no adjustment of errors is possible later, so the angles should be very
accurately measured by the theodolite. The length of the center line should be measured by
using very good and accurate chaining methods or by tacheometry or by modern instruments.
ii. Topographical features: After establishing the center lines of preliminary survey, the
topographical features are recorded. All geographical and other man-made features along the
transverse and for a certain width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width to be
surveyed is generally decided by the survey party, but the absolute minimum width is the land
width of the proposed alignment.

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iii. Levelling work: Levelling work is also carried out side by side to give the center line profiles
and typical cross sections. The levelling work in the preliminary survey is kept to a minimum
just sufficient to obtain the approximate earth work in the alternate alignments. To draw
contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section levels should be taken at suitable
intervals, generally 100 to 200 meter in plain terrain, up to 50 meter in rolling terrain and up
to 30 meter in hilly terrain.
iv. Drainage studies and Hydrological data: Drainage investigations and hydrological data are
collected so as to estimate the type, number and approximate size of cross drainage structures.
Also, the vertical alignment of the highway, particularly the grade line is decided based on
the hydrological and drainage data, such as HFL (highest flood level), ponded water level,
depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, etc.
v. Soil survey: Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of the
proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey
conducted at this stage also helps in working out details of earth work, slopes, suitability of
materials, subsoil and surface drainage requirements and pavement type and the approximate
thickness requirements. All these details are required to make a comparative study of alternate
proposals.
At this stage a detailed soil survey is not necessary. Post hole auger or any other suitable type
of hand augers depending on the soil type, may be used to collect the soil sample up to a depth
of to 3 meter below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level, whichever is
lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over an embankment, the depth of
exploration should extend up to twice the height of embankment from the ground level.
During the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground
surface is also noted.
When the work has to be done rapidly, geophysical method of soil exploration are best suited
as accuracy is not very important during the preliminary survey. The electrical resistivity
method is commonly used in road projects. The method is based on the principle that the earth
and rock materials may be identified by the different values of the resistance to flow of a direct
current.
The soil samples collected during the field work are subjected to identification and
classification test in the laboratory. Soil profile is obtained by drawing the longitudinal section
along the proposed road alignment up to the depth of exploration. The types of soils
encountered along the route up to the depth under consideration are marked on the soil profile
either symbolically or by suitable colour coding.
vi. Material survey: The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates, soft
aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also, availability of
manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their locations may be ascertained.
vii. Traffic survey: Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number
of traffic lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of highway

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 project. Traffic volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing
roads in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and surveys are
very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be carried out on a suitable
sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition, the required traffic data may also be collected
so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 years period.
viii. Determination of final center line: After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting
the comparative studies of alternative alignments the final center line of the road is to be
decided in the office before the final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps
consisting of plans, longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should
be prepared and carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering aesthetic
and economical requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn
and the geometric elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed.
Aerial photographic surveys are very suited for preliminary surveys, especially when the distance
and area to be covered are vast. The survey may be divided into the following steps:
a. Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required longitudinal and
lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
b. The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for establishing
the traverses of the alternate proposals. The control points located on the maps.
c. Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour lines may be obtained.
Also, from the stereo pairs the topographical details may be noted down on the maps.
d. Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions, drainage
requirements etc.
3.1.4 Final Location and Detailed Survey
The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located on the
field by establishing the center line. Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the
information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.
3.1.4.1 Location
The center line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be translated on the ground during the
location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The location
of the center line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalised after the preliminary
surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the ground and center pegs are driven,
checking the geometric design requirements. However, modifications in the final location may be
made in the field, if found essential. The center line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50
meter intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at 20 meter in hilly terrain.
3.1.4.2 Detailed survey

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Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 meter and at all drainage and under pass
structures. Levels along the final center line should be taken at all staked points. Levelling work is of
great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and drainage details are to be
worked out from the level notes. The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals
of 50 to 100 meter in plain terrain, 50 to 75 meter in rolling terrain, 50 meter in built-up areas and 20
meter in hilly terrain. The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and
where there is abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in
detail up to considerably distances on either side.
All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs. Adequate
hydrological details are also collected and recorded.
A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth upto which soil
sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 meter below the ground line of finished grade line of the
road whichever is lower. However, in case of high embankments, the depth should be up to twice the
height of the finished embankment. The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil
type and its variations. CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the
pavement.
The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing detailed plans,
design and estimates of the project.
3.2 Drawings and report
3.2.1 Drawings
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project:
i. Key map
ii. Index map
iii. Preliminary survey plans
iv. Detailed plan and longitudinal section
v. Detailed cross-section
vi. Land acquisition plans
vii. Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
viii. Drawings of road intersections
ix. Land plans showing quarries etc.
Key map should show the proposed and existing roads, and important places to be connected. The
size of the plan generally should not exceed 22 x 20 cm. The scale of the map is chosen suitably
depending upon the length of road.
Index map should show the general topography of the area. The details are symbolically represented.
The index map should also be of suitable scale, the size being 32 x 20 cm.

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Preliminary survey plans showing details of the various alternate alignments and all information
collected should be normally drawn to scale of 10 cm = 1 km to 25 cm = 1 km.
Detailed plans show the ground plan with alignment and the boundaries, contours at intervals of 1 to
2 meter in plain country a scale of 1/2400 and in close country, a scale of 1/1200 may be adopted for
detailed plans. The size of the drawing may be A2 size or 60 x 42 cm approximately.
Longitudinal sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the ground as in detailed plan.
Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale. The longitudinal section should
show the details such as datum line, existing ground surface, vertical profile of the proposed road and
position of drainage crossings.
Detailed cross sections are generally drawn to natural scale of 1 cm = 2 to 2.5 m. Cross section should
be drawn every 100 m or where there are abrupt changes in level. In hill roads the cross sections
should be drawn at closer intervals. The cross-section drawings should extend at least up to the
proposed right of way. The cross-section number, the reduced distances and the area of filling and or
cutting should be shown on cross section drawings.
Land acquisition plans and schedules are usually prepared from the survey drawings for land
acquisition details. These plans show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of gradients
and other details required for assessing the values. The scale adopted may be 1 cm = 40 m or less.
Detailed design for cross drainage and masonry structures are usually drawn to scale of 1 cm = 1
m. For details of any complicated portion of the structure enlarged scales up to 8 cm 1 m or up to half
full size may be employed. However, the size of drawing should not exceed the standard size. Cross
sections of streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm = 10 m.
Drawings of road intersections should be prepared showing all details of pavement, shoulders,
islands etc. to scale.
Land plans for quarries. Where quarries for construction materials are to be acquired for new
projects, separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these maps and scales may be similar to
those suggested under land acquisition.
3.2.2 Estimates
The project estimates should consist of general abstract of cost and detailed estimates for each major
head. If the project work is proposed to be executed in stages, the estimate should be prepared for
each stage separately.
3.2.3 Project report
The project report forms an important part of the project document. It should contain information
such as
i. General details of the project and its importance
ii. Feature of the road including selection of the route, alignment, traffic, etc.
iii. Road design and specifications
iv. Drainage facilities and cross drainage structures

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 v. Materials, labour and equipment
vi. Rates
vii. Construction programming and
viii. Other miscellaneous items like diversion roads, traffic control, road side amenities, rest
houses, etc.

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CHAPTER 4: HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Importance of Geometric Design
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as alignment, sight distances and intersections. The geometrics of highway should be
designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The designer may be exposed to either planning of new highway network or improvement of existing
highways to meet the requirements of the existing and the anticipated traffic. It is possible to design
and construct the pavement of a road in stages; but it is very expensive and rather difficult to improve
the geometric elements of a road in stages at a later date. Therefore, it is important to plan and design
the geometric features of the road during the initial alignment itself taking into consideration the
future growth of traffic flow and possibility of the road being upgraded to a higher category or to a
higher design speed standard at a later stage.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements:
1. Cross section elements
2. Sight distance considerations
3. Horizontal alignment details
4. Vertical alignment details
5. Intersection elements
Highway geometrics are greatly influenced by the topography, locality and traffic characteristics and
the requirements of design speed. The factors which control the geometric design requirements are
speed, road user and vehicular characteristics, design traffic, traffic capacity and benefit-cost
considerations. However, speed is the factor which is important governing most of the geometric
design elements of roads, as may be seen from the subsequent articles of this chapter.
4.1.2 Design Controls and Criteria
The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The important of these factors
which control the geometric elements are:
(i) Design speed
(ii) Topography
(iii)Traffic factors
(iv) Design hourly volume and capacity
(v) Environmental and other factors.
4.1.2.1 Design Speed
The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways.
The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the highway. Further the
design speed standards are modified depending upon the terrain or topography. Similarly urban roads
have a different set of design speeds.

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Design of almost every geometric design element of a road is dependent on the design speed. For
example, the requirements of the pavement surface characteristics, the cross section of the road such
as width and clearance requirements, the sight distance requirements, the horizontal alignment
elements such as radius of curve super-elevation, transition curve length and the vertical alignments
such gradient, summit and valley curve lengths. All these depend mainly on the design speed of the
road.
4.1.2.2 Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway significantly.
The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the alignment, as plain
rolling, mountainous and steep terrains. The design standards specified for different classes of roads
are different depending terrain classification. For example, the design or ruling speed of NH (National
Highway) and SH (State Highway) on plain terrain with general cross slope upto 10% is 100 kmph
whereas the speed on rolling on the terrain with general cross slope of 10 to 25% is 80 kmph and that
on mountainous terrain with cross slope 25 to 60% is 50 kmph. As the speed standards affect every
geometric design element, topography also affects the geometric design of roads. Further in hilly
terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to the
construction problems.
4.1.2.3 Traffic Factors
The factors associated with the traffic that affect geometric design of roads are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the design vehicle or
the standard traffic lane under the mixed traffic flow condition prevalent especially on urban roads of
developing countries. This is a complex problem. The different vehicle classes such as passenger
cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles, etc. have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart from
having different dimensions and weights. However, it is often necessary to consider some standard
vehicle as the design vehicle. The important human factors which affect traffic behaviour include the
physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.
4.1.2.4 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity
The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off- peak hours to
the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for
the peak traffic flow or the highest hourly traffic volume. Therefore, a reasonable value of traffic
volume is decided for the design and this is called the design hourly volume. This value is to be
determined from extensive traffic volume studies. The ratio of volume to capacity affects the level of
service of the road.
4.1.2.5 Environmental and Other Factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due consideration in the design on road geometrics. Some of the
arterial high speed highways and expressways are designed for higher 'speed standards and
uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing grade separated intersections and controlled access.

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4.2 HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
4.2.1 Pavement Surface Characteristics
The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on the availability of
materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, subgrade, and conditions, construction
facilities and cost considerations. The important surface characteristics of the pavement are the
friction unevenness, light reflecting characteristics and drainage of surface water.
4.2.1.1 Friction
The friction between vehicle tyre and pavement surface is one of the factors determining the operating
speed and distance requirements in stopping and accelerating the vehicles. When a vehicle negotiates
a horizontal curve, the lateral friction developed counteracts the centrifugal force and thus governs
the operating speed. Frictional force is an important factor in the acceleration and retardation abilities
of vehicles. The coefficient of friction or the skid resistance offered by the pavement surface under
various driving and surface conditions is important with reference to the safety. The maximum
coefficient of friction comes into play only when the braking efficiency is high enough to partially
arrest the rotation of the wheels on application of brakes, at low speeds.
4.2.1.2 Pavement unevenness
Higher operating speeds are possible on even pavement surfaces with less undulations than on uneven
and poor surfaces. Pavement surface should hence be maintained with minimum possible unevenness
so that the desired speed can be maintained in conformity with other geometric standards. Pavement
unevenness also affects vehicle operation cost. comfort and safety. Fuel consumption and wear and
tear of tyres and other moving parts increases with increase in pavement unevenness. Loose road
surfaces increase the tractive resistance and hence causes increase in fuel consumption. Uneven
surfaces also increase fatigue and accidents.
4.2.1.3 Light reflecting characteristics
Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface.
The glare caused by the reflection of head lights is considerably high on wet pavement surface than
on the dry pavement. Light colored or white pavement surface give good visibility at night
particularly during rains, and they produce glare and eye strain during bright sunlight. Black top
pavement surface on the other hand provides poor visibility at nights, especially when the surface is
wet.
4.2.2 Cross Slope or Camber
Cross slope or chamber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain
off the rain water from the road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water from the pavement
surface by providing cross slope is considered important because of three reasons:
• To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil through pavement; the stability,
surface condition and the life the pavement is adversely affected if the water enters in the subgrade
and the soil gets soaked.

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• To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact with
water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregates and results in deterioration of the pavement
layer.
• To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow the
pavement to get dry soon after the rain; the skid resistance of the pavement gets considerably
decreased under wet condition, rendering it slippery and unsafe for vehicle operation at high
speeds.
Usually, the camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the center of the carriageway with
respect to the edges, forming a crown or highest point on the center line. At horizontal curves with
superelevation, the surface drainage is effected by raising the outer edge of pavement with respect to
the inner edge while providing the desired superelevation. The rate of camber or cross slope is usually
designated by 1 in n which means that the transverse slope is in ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal. Camber
is also expressed as a percentage. If the camber is x%, the cross slope is x in 100.
The required camber of a pavement depends on:
• The type of pavement surface, and
• The amount of rainfall
A flat camber of 1.7 to 2.0% is sufficient on relatively impervious pavement surface like cement
concrete or bituminous concrete. In pervious surface like water bound macadam or earth road which
may allow surface water to get into the subgrade soil, steeper cross slope is required. Steeper camber
are also provided in areas of heavy rainfall.
The minimum camber needed to drain off surface water may be adopted keeping in view the type of
pavement surface and the amount of rainfall in the locality. Too steep cross slope is not desirable
because of the following reasons:
• Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and a drag on the steering of
automobiles. Also the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more causing unequal
wear of the tyres as well as road surface.
• Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing the crown operations.
• Problems of toppling over of highly laden bullock carts and trucks.
• Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
• Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the center line
4.2.2.1 Shape of cross slope
The camber is given a parabolic elliptic or straight-line shape in the cross section. Parabolic or elliptic
shape is given so that the profile is flat at the middle and steeper towards the edges, which is preferred
by fast moving vehicles as they have to frequently cross the crown line during overtaking operation
on a two lane highway

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Figure 4.1: Different types of camber
4.2.2.2 Providing camber in the field
For providing the desired amount and shape of camber, templates of camber boards are prepared with
the specified camber. These are used to check the lateral profile of finished pavement during
construction. Depending on the shape of the camber chosen, the camber board may be prepared.
Forming a straight line camber is very simple. In the case of parabolic camber, the general equation
y = x2/a may be adopted.
Here a = nW/2 for a pavement of width W and cross slope 1 in n.
2𝑥 2 Equation 4.1
𝑦= 𝑛𝑊
Table 4.1: Recommended values of Camber for different types of road surfaces

Example 5.1
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide, and a
state highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be constructed. What should be
the height of the crown with respect to the edges in these two cases?

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4.2.3 Width of Pavement or Carriageway
The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The
carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a traffic lane. The lane width is
determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance which may be
provided for the safety. When the side clearance is increased (up to a certain limit) there is an increase
in operating speed of vehicles and hence an increase in capacity of the traffic lane. Keeping all these
in view, a width of 3.75 m is considered desirable for a road having single lane for vehicles of
maximum width 2.44 m. For pavements having two or more lanes, width of 3.5 m per lane is
considered sufficient.
The number of lanes required in a highway depends on the predicted traffic volume and the design
traffic volume of each lane.

Figure 4.2: Lane width for single and two lane roads
In some highways, traffic separators or medians are provided between two sets of traffic lanes
intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. In such highways the road width depends
on the pavement width (or the lane widths and number of lanes) and the width of traffic separators.
The width of carriageway for various classes of roads standardised by Indian Roads Congress are
given in Table 5.2.

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Figure 4.3: IRC Specification for carriage way width
Traffic separators or medians
The main function of traffic separator is to prevent head-on collision between vehicle moving in
opposite directions on adjacent lanes.
The separators may also help to
• Channelize traffic into streams at intersections
• Shadow the crossing and turning traffic
• Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
4.2.4 Kerbs
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder; or sometimes islands or foot path
or kerb parking space. There are a variety of kerb designs. Kerbs may be mainly divided into three
groups based on their functions.
(i) Low or mountable type kerbs: This type of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic
to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which
allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes
and also helps in longitudinal drainage
(ii) Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their
height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking
vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
(iii) Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They
are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height
of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.

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Figure 4.4: Different types of kerbs
In rural roads submerged kerbs are sometimes provided at pavement edge between edge and
shoulders. These kerbs provide lateral confinement and stability to the granular base course and
flexible pavements.
4.2.5 Road Margins
The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder, parking lane, frontage road,
driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope.
Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle compelled to
be taken out of the pavement or roadway. Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that have
broken down. Refer Fig. 4.4, which gives cross section details of roads in embankment and cutting.
The width of shoulder should be adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the
edge of adjacent lane. It is desirable to have a minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck
stationed at the side of the shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge. The
minimum shoulder width recommended by the IRC is 2.5 m.

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Figure 4.5: Cross section details
The shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to support loaded trucks even in wet
weather. The surface of the shoulder should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles are
discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular traffic lane. The colour of the shoulder should preferably
be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because it is
safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in
the case of parallel parking.
Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they do not
obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters away from
the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways and
expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and access
to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion
in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.
Cycle track

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Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high. Minimum width of
2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.
Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided for
the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum
width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth
as the pavement or more smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.
Guard rails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. They serve
to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the fill
exceeds 3 m.
4.2.6 Width of formation
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way including
separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The values
suggested by IRC are given in Table 12:3.
Table 4.2: Width of formation for various classed of roads

4.2.7 Right of way

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It
should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways, control
lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits of
future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line represents a line on either side
of the road, between which and the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way
width is governed by:

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• Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and road
margins.
• Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
• Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type and several
other considerations including aesthetics.
• Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
• Sight distance considerations: On horizontal curves, there is restriction to the visibility on the
inner side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
• Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating future
developments like widening of the road.

Figure 4.6: Obstruction to visibility at horizontal curves

Figure 4.7: Typical right of way

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4.3 SIGHT DISTANCE
The safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, among other factor on the road length
at which an obstruction, if any, becomes visible to the driver in the direction of travel. In other words,
the feasibility to see ahead, or the visibility is very important for safe vehicle operation on a highway.
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, which a driver from
a specified height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects. In other words,
sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.
Restrictions to sight distance may be caused at horizontal curves, by objects obstructing vision at the
inner side of the road or at vertical summit curves or at intersections. These are shown in Fig. 5.8.

Figure 4.8: Restrictions to sight distance

Sight distance required by drivers applies to both geometric design of highways and for traffic control.
Three sight distance situations are considered in the design:
(i) Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance
(ii) Safe overtaking or passing sight distance, and

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(iii)Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections
The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions:
• Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road visible ahead
to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead, without collision.
• Driver traveling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake, at reasonable intervals, the
slower vehicles without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of opposite direction.
• Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly unsignalised intersection) has sufficient
visibility to enable him to take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle.
Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight distances are considered by the
IRC in highway design:
Intermediate sight distance - This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When overtaking
sight distance cannot be provided, intermediate sight distance is provided to give limited overtaking
opportunities to fast vehicles.
Head light sight distance - This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of the vehicle head lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the
ascending stretch of the valley curves.
4.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop
a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction. The absolute
minimum sight distance is therefore equal to the stopping sight distance, which is also sometimes
called non-passing sight distance.
The sight distance available on a road to a driver at any instance depends on
(i) Features of the road ahead,
(ii) Height of the driver's eye above the road surface.
(iii) Height of the object above the road surface.
The features of the road ahead which affect the sight distance are the horizontal alignment and vertical
profile of the road, the traffic condition and the position of obstructions. At vertical summit curves
the height of driver's eye and the object above road level are more important factors affecting the
visibility. The height of an object to be considered for stopping a vehicle depends on what might be
a source of danger to the moving vehicle. For the purpose of measuring the stopping sight distance
or visibility ahead. IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the height of the
object as 0.15 m above the road surface.
Hence the stopping distance available at a summit curve is that distance measured along the road
surface at which an object of height 0.15 m can be seen by a driver whose eye is at a height of 1.2 m
above the road surface. Refer Fig. 5.8 (b). The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped
depends upon the factors listed below:
• Total reaction time of the driver
• Speed of vehicle

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• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres and
• Gradient of the road, if any
4.3.1.1 Total reaction time
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the
instant the brakes are effectively applied. The amount of time gap depends on several factors. During
this time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the original speed or the design speed. Thus, the
stopping distance increases with increase in reaction time of the driver. The total reaction time may
be split up into two parts.
• Perception time
• Brake reaction time
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. It is the
time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realises that
the vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to driver and also depends on
several other factors such as speed of the vehicle, distance of object and other environmental
conditions.
The brake reaction time also depends on several factors including the skill of the driver, the type of
the problems and various other environmental factors. Often the total brake reaction time of the driver
is taken together.
PIEV Theory: According to this theory the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts,
viz., time taken by the driver for:
(i) Perception
(ii) Intellection
(iii)Emotion, and
(iv) Volition
Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be transmitted
to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord. In other words, it is the time required to
perceive an object or situation.
Intellection time is the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the time required for
comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations.
Emotion time is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear, anger or
any other emotional feelings such as superstition etc. with reference to the situation. Therefore, the
emotion time of a driver is likely to vary considerably depending upon the problems
Volition time is the time taken for the final action.
It is also possible that the driver may apply brakes or take any avoiding action by the reflex action,
even without thinking. The PIEV process has been illustrated in Fig. 5.9.

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Figure 4.9: Reaction time and the PIEV Process
The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors such as physical and psychological
characteristics of the driver, type of the problem involved, environmental condition and temporary
factors (e.g. motive of the trip, travel speed, fatigue, consumption of alcohol, etc.). The total reaction
time of an average driver may vary from 0.5 second for simple situations to as much as 3 to 4 seconds
or even more in complex problems.
4.3.1.2 Speed of vehicle
The stopping distance depends very much on the speed of the vehicle. First, during the total reaction
time of the driver the distance moved by the vehicle will depend on the speed. Second, the braking
distance or the distance moved by the vehicle after applying the brakes, before coming to a stop
depends also on the initial speed of the vehicle. Hence it is evident that higher the speed, higher will
be the stopping distance.
4.3.1.3 Efficiency of brakes
The braking efficiency is said to be 100 percent if the wheels are fully locked preventing them from
rotating on application of the brakes. This will result in 100 percent skidding (sliding) which is
normally undesirable, except in utmost emergency. Also skidding is considered to be dangerous, as
it is not possible to control a skidding vehicle. Hence to avoid skid, the braking forces should not
exceed the frictional force between the wheels and tyres.
4.3.1.4 Frictional resistance between road and tyres
The frictional resistance developed between road and tyres or the skid resistance depends on the type
and condition of the road surface and the tyres. The braking distance increases with decrease in skid
resistance. IRC has specified a design friction coefficient of 0.35 to 0.4 depending upon the speed to
be used for finding the braking distance in the calculation of stopping sight distance. This value, apart
from having sufficient safety factor, permits a rate of retardation which is fairly comfortable for
passengers.

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4.3.1.5 Gradient of the road.
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop
immediately. Therefore, sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity also
comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will be
more in that case.
4.3.1.6 Analysis of stopping distance
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of:
• The distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time known as lag distance and
• The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes, to a dead stop position
which is known as the breaking distance
Lag distance
During the total reaction time or PIEV time the vehicle may be assumed to proceed forward with a
uniform speed at which the vehicle has been moving and this speed may be taken as the design speed.
If v is the design speed in m/s, and time t is the total reaction time of the driver in seconds, them the
lag distance will be v.t metres.
If the design speed is v km/h, then the lag distance works out to
1000 Equation 4.2
𝑑=𝑣𝑥 = 0.278𝑣𝑡
60𝑥60

The total reaction time of driver depends on a variety of factors and a value of 2.5 secs is considered
reasonable for most situations. The IRC has also recommended the value of reaction time t = 2.5 secs.
for the calculation of stopping distance.
Braking distance
The coefficient of friction f depends on several factors such as the type and condition of the pavement
surface and tyres. Also, the value of f decreases with increase in speed. IRC recommends the
following f-values for design:

Speed, km/h 20 to 30 40 50 60 65 80 100

Longitudinal coefficient of friction, f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35

Assuming a level road, the braking distance may be obtained by equating the work done in stopping
the vehicle and the kinetic energy.
If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l, then work done against
friction force in stopping the vehicle is
Fl = fWl
where W is the total weight of the vehicle
The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be

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Therefore, the SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:
Equation 4.3

If speed is in km/h,
𝑣2 Equation 4.4
𝑆𝑆𝐷 (𝑚) = 0.278𝑣𝑡 + 254𝑓

Where:
v is the design speed in m/sec,
t is the reaction time in sec,
g is the acceleration due to gravity and
f is the coefficient of friction.
Stopping distance at slopes
When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds to braking action and
hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which
adds to the braking force is equal to

Equating kinetic energy and work done:

Similarly, in descending gradient of -n%, the braking distance increases as the component of gravity
now opposes the braking force. Hence the equation is given by;

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Hence the general equation 5.3 for stopping distance may now be modified for n% gradient and
maybe written as:
Equation 4.5

When the ground is level, n = 0, equation 5.5 reduces to equation 5.3

Equation 5.5 maybe re-written as follows where the design speed v is in km/h and the gradient is n%
Equation 4.6

As the Stopping Sight Distance SSD required on descending gradient is higher, it is necessary to
determine the critical value of the SSD for the descending gradient on the roads with gradients and
two way traffic flow.
The minimum stopping sight distance hence should be equal to the stopping distance in one-way
traffic lanes and also in two-way traffic roads when there are two or more traffic lanes. On roads with
restricted width or on single lane roads when two-way movement of traffic is not permitted, the
minimum stopping sight distance should be equal to TWICE the stopping distance to enable both
vehicle coming from opposite directions to stop. The SSD should invariably be provided throughout
the length of all roads and hence this is also known as absolute minimum sight distance. When the
stopping sight distance for the design speed is not available on any section of a road, the speed should
be restricted by a warning sign and a suitable speed-limit regulation sign. However, this should be
considered only as a temporary measure and wherever possible, the stretch of the road should be re-
aligned or the obstruction to visibility removed so as to provide atleast stopping sight distance for the
design speed.
The safe stopping distance values calculated in the similar manner for various design speeds and
recommended by IRC are given in Table 4.5. Table
Table 4.3: Stopping sight distance values for different speeds

Example 5.2
Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50 km/h for
a) Two way traffic on a two lane road.
b) Two way traffic on a single plane road.
Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37 and reaction time of driver as 2.5 seconds
Example 5.3

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Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head-on collision of two cars approaching
from the opposite directions at 90 and 60 km/h. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient of
friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case
Example 5.4
Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed
of 80 km/h. Assume other data as per IRC recommendations.
Example 5.5
Calculate the values of
(i) Head light sight distance and
(ii) Intermediate sight distance for a highway with a design speed of 65 km/h. Assume suitably all
the data required.
4.3.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
If all the vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically there should be no need for
any overtaking. In fact, all vehicles do not move at the designed speed and this is particularly true
under mixed traffic conditions. In such circumstances, it is necessary for fast moving vehicles to
overtake or pass the slow moving vehicles. It may not be possible to provide the facility to overtake
slow moving vehicles throughout the length of a road. In such cases, facilities for overtaking slow
vehicles with adequate safety should be made possible at frequent distance intervals. The minimum
distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with
safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance
(OSD) or the safe passing sight distance available.
The overtaking sight distance OSD is the distance measured along the center of the road which a
driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the
road surface. Refer Fig. 4.13.

Figure 4.10: Measurement of Overtaking Sight Distance.

Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight distance required for the safe
overtaking manoeuvre are:

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(a) speeds of
(i) overtaking vehicle
(ii) overtaken vehicle and
(iii)the vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.
(b) distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum spacing depends on the
speeds.
(c) skill and reaction time of the driver
(d) rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
(e) gradient of the road, if any
4.3.2.1 Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
Figure 5.11 shows the overtaking manoeuvre of vehicle A traveling at design speed and another slow
vehicle B on a two-lane road with two-way traffic. Third vehicle C comes from the opposite direction.
The overtaking manoeuvre may be split up into three operations, thus dividing the overtaking sight
distance into three parts, d1, d2 and d3
(i) d1 is the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t sec of the driver
from position A1 to A2.
(ii) d2 is the distance travelled by the vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the overtaking operation, in time
T sec.
(iii) d3 is the distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during overtaking operation of
A, i.e. T secs.

Figure 4.11: Overtaking Manoeuvre

Certain assumptions are made in order to calculate the values of d1, d2 and d3.
In Fig. 5.11, A is the overtaking vehicle originally traveling at design speed v m/sec or V km/h; B is
the overtaken or slow moving vehicle moving with uniform speed vb m/sec or Vb km/h; C is a vehicle
coming from opposite direction at the design speed v m/sec or V km/h. In a two-lane road the
opportunity to overtake depends on the frequency of vehicles from the direction and the overtaking
sight distance available at any instant

Prepared by Engr. Ngu Princewill M. 38

(i) It may be assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to the speed v b of the slow
vehicle B and moves behind it allowing a space s, till there is an opportunity for safe overtaking
operation. The distance travelled by the vehicle A during this reaction time is d1 and is between
the positions A1 and A2. This distance will be equal to
vb x t metre
where 't' is the reaction time of the driver in second. This reaction time 't' of the driver may be
taken as two seconds as an average value as the aim of the driver is only to find an opportunity to
overtake. Thus,

(ii) From position A2, the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining lane. overtakes the
vehicle B, and shifts back to its original lane ahead of B in position A3 in time T sec. The straight
distance between position A2 and A3 is taken as d2. The minimum distance between position A2
and B1 may be taken as the minimum spacing 's' of the two vehicles while moving with the speed
vb m/sec. The minimum spacing between vehicles depends on their speed and is given by
empirical formula:
s = (0.7 vb +6), m
The minimum distance between B₂ and A3 may also be assumed equal to s mentioned above. If the
time taken by vehicle A for the overtaking operation from position A2 to A3 is T second, the distance
covered by the slow vehicle B traveling at speed of vb m/sec. = b =vbT m.
Now the time T depends on the speed of the overtaken vehicle B and the acceleration of the overtaking
vehicle A. This time T may be calculated by equating the distance d2 to (vbT + aT2/2), using the
general formula for the distance travelled by a uniformly accelerating body with initial speed vb m/sec
and a is the acceleration in m/sec2

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 Equation 4.7

In km/h units, equation 5.7 works out as:

Equation 4.8

In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle vb is not given, the same maybe assumed as 16 km/h.
The acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is to be specified. Usually this depends on the state of the
vehicle, its condition, load and the speed. As a general guide Table 5… maybe used for finding the
maximum acceleration of vehicles at different speeds. The average rate of acceleration during
overtaking manoeuvre may be taken corresponding to the design speed.
Table 4.4: Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds

Note that:
• On divided highways, d3 need not be considered

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• On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to provide the
OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
4.3.2.2 Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the length of the highway.
These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide roads. The desirable length of
overtaking zones is 5 times OSD and the minimum is three times OSD (Figure 13:2).

Figure 4.12: Overtaking zones

Example 5.6
The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 km/h respectively on a two way traffic
road. If the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/s2,
a) Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance
b) Mention the minimum length of overtaking zone and
c) Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and show the positions of the sign posts
4.3.3 Sight distance at intersections
At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either sides. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the
vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.
The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each
other. This is illustrated in the figure 5.13. Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on
three possible conditions:
• Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
• Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
• Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road

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Figure 4.13: Sight distance at intersections

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4.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
4.4.1 Overview
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and safety of a
highway. A poor design will result in lower speeds and resultant reduction in highway performance
in terms of safety and comfort. In addition, it may increase the cost of vehicle operations and lower
the highway capacity. Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects
such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles. The horizontal curve design
elements include design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design of transition
curve, and set back distance. These will be discussed in this chapter and the following two chapters
4.4.2 Design Speed
The design speed as noted earlier, is the single most important factor in the design of horizontal
alignment. The design speed also depends on the type of the road. For example, the design speed
expected from a national highway will be much higher than a village road, and hence the curve
geometry will vary significantly.
The design speed also depends on the type of terrain. A plain terrain can afford to have any geometry,
but for the same standard in a hilly terrain requires substantial cutting and filling implying exorbitant
costs as well as safety concern due to unstable slopes. Therefore, the design speed is normally reduced
for terrains with steep slopes.
For instance, Indian Road Congress (IRC) has classified the terrains into four categories, namely
plain, rolling, mountainous, and steep based on the cross slope as given in table 14:1. Based on the
type of road and type of terrain the design speed varies. The IRC has suggested desirable or ruling
speed as well as minimum suggested design speed and is tabulated in table 5.5.

Table 4.5: Terrain classification

Terrain classification Cross slope (%)

Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Mountainous 25-60
Steep > 60

The recommended design speed is given in Table 5.6.

Table 4.6: Design speed in km/hr as per IRC (ruling and minimum)

Type Plain Rolling Hilly Steep

National and State Highways 100-80 80-65 50-40 40-30
Major District Roads 80-65 65-50 40-30 30-20
Other District Roads 65-50 50-40 30-25 25-20
Village Roads 50-40 40-35 25-20 25-20

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4.4.3 Horizontal curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a reactive force acting outward
on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the horizontal curve and
is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre and pavement surface. On
a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to slide outward from the centre of
road curvature. For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces acting on a vehicle
taking a horizontal curve is necessary. Various forces acting on the vehicle is illustrated in the figure
14:1. They are the centrifugal force (P) acting outward, weight of the vehicle (W) acting downward,
and the reaction of the ground on the wheels (RA and RB). The centrifugal force and the weight is
assumed to be from the centre of gravity which is at h units above the ground. Let the wheel base be
assumed as b units.

Figure 4.14: Effect of horizontal curve

The centrifugal force P in kg/m2 is given by
Equation 4.9

Where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/sec, g is the acceleration
due to gravity in m/sec2 and R is the radius of the curve in m. The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor
is given by:
Equation 4.10

The centrifugal force has two effects:

• A tendency to overturn the vehicle about the outer wheels and
• A tendency for transverse skidding
Overturning effect
Taking moments of the forces with respect to the other when the vehicle is just about to override is
give as:

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At the equilibrium over turning is possible when

and for safety the following condition must satisfy:

Equation 4.11

Transverse skidding effect

The second tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding. i.e. When the the centrifugal force P
is greater than the maximum possible transverse skid resistance due to friction between the pavement
surface and tyre. The transverse skid resistance (F) is given by:

where FA and FB are the fractional force at tyre A and B, RA and RB is the reaction at tyre A and B, f is
the lateral coefficient of friction and W is the weight of the vehicle. This is counteracted by the
centrifugal force (P), and equating:

At equilibrium, when skidding takes place (from equation 5.10)

and for safety the following condition must satisfy:

Equation 4.12

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Equation 5.11 and 5.12 give the stable condition for design. If equation 5.11 is violated, the vehicle
will overturn at the horizontal curve and if equation 5.12 is violated, the vehicle will skid at the
horizontal curve
4.4.4 Analysis of super-elevation
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal curve to counteract
the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge,
throughout the length of the horizontal curve. When the outer edge is raised, a component of the
curve weight will be complimented in counteracting the effect of centrifugal force. In order to find
out how much this raising should be, the following analysis may be done. The forces acting on a
vehicle while taking a horizontal curve with superelevation is shown in figure 5.15

Figure 4.15: Analysis of super-elevation

Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius R m at a speed of v m/sec are:
• P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center of gravity,
• W the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of gravity, and
• F the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface inward.

where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of friction, θ is the
transverse slope due to superelevation.
Dividing by W cosθ, we get:

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 Equation 4.13

We have already derived an expression for P/W equation 5.10. By substituting this in equation 5.13,
we get
Equation 4.14

This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, f = 0.15 and θ < 4o, 1−f tanθ ≈ 1 and

for small θ, tanθ ≈ sinθ = E/B = e, then equation 5.14 becomes:

Equation 4.15

where, e is the rate of super elevation, f the coefficient of lateral friction 0.15, v the speed of the
vehicle in m/sec, R the radius of the curve in m and g = 9.8 m/sec2.
Three specific cases that can arise from equation 5.15 are as follows:
1. If there is no friction due to some practical reasons, then f = 0 and equation 5.15 becomes

.
This results in the situation where the pressure on the outer and inner wheels are same; requiring
very high super-elevation e.
2. If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical reasons, then e = 0 and equation 5.15
becomes

.
This results in a very high coefficient of friction.
3. If e = 0 and f = 0.15 then for safe traveling speed from equation 5.15 is given by

where vb is the restricted speed.

Example 5.7
The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m. the design speed is 50km/h and the design
coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a) Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop
b) Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided
c) Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels should be equal
4.4.5 Guidelines on superelevation
While designing the various elements of the road like superelevation, we design it for a particular
vehicle called design vehicle which has some standard weight and dimensions. But in the actual case,
the road has to cater for mixed traffic. Different vehicles with different dimensions and varying speeds
ply on the road. For example, in the case of a heavily loaded truck with high centre of gravity and
low speed, superelevation should be less, otherwise chances of toppling are more. Taking into
practical considerations of all such situations, IRC has given some guidelines about the maximum
and minimum superelevation etc. These are all discussed in detail in the following sections.

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4.4.5.1 Design of super-elevation
For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering coefficient of friction
is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the weight of the vehicle or superelevation. For
slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation considering coefficient of friction is safe, i.e.
centrifugal force is counteracted by superelevation and coefficient of friction. IRC suggests following
design procedure:

Step 1 Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f,

Step 2 If e1 ≤ 0.07, then , else if e1 > 0.07 go to step 3

Step 3 Find f1 for the design speed and then

the maximum e = 0.07 is safe for the design speed, else go to step 4.
Step 4 Find the allowable speed va for the maximum e = 0.07 and f = 0.15, i.e from equation 5.15
If va ≥ v then the design is adequate, otherwise use speed adopt control
measures or look for speed control
4.4.5.2 Maximum and minimum super-elevation
Depends on
a) slow moving vehicle and
b) heavy loaded trucks with high CG.
IRC specifies a maximum super-elevation of 7 percent for plain and rolling terrain, while that of hilly
terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent. The minimum super elevation is 2-4 percent for
drainage purpose, especially for large radius of the horizontal curve.
4.4.5.3 Attainment of super-elevation
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
(a) rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is rotated about
the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
(b) shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal crown method.
Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing the width
of the inner half of cross section progressively.

Figure 4.16: Elimination of the crown of the cambered section

2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by: There are two methods of
attaining superelevation by rotating the pavement
(a) rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed
and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E/2 with
respect to the centre.

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 (b) rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as
the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of superelevation with respect
to the inner edge.

Figure 4.17: Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation
4.4.6 Radius of Horizontal Curve
The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric design. The
maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of the curve. Although it is
possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation and coefficient of friction, it is not
desirable because re-alignment would be required if the design speed is increased in future. Therefore,
a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming maximum superelevation and coefficient
of friction from equation 5.15.
Equation 4.16

Ideally, the radius of the curve should be higher than Rruling. However, very large curves are also not
desirable. Setting out large curves in the field becomes difficult. In addition, it also enhances driving
strain.
4.4.7 Extra widening
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a curved section of a
road over and above that required on a straight alignment. This widening is done due to two reasons:
• The first and most important is the additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal
curve and
• The second is due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the edge of the carriageway as
they drive on a curve.
The first is referred as the mechanical widening and the second is called the psychological widening.
These are discussed in detail below.
4.4.7.1 Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear
wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as shown in figure 5.18. This phenomenon
is called offtracking, and has the effect of increasing the effective width of a road space required by
the vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same clearance between vehicles travelling in opposite direction
on curved roads as is provided on straight sections, there must be extra width of carriageway
available. This is an important factor when high proportion of vehicles are using the road. Trailor
trucks also need extra carriageway, depending on the type of joint. In addition, speeds higher than
the design speed cause transverse skidding which requires additional width for safety purpose.

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Figure 4.18: Extra-widening at a horizontal curve
The expression for extra width can be derived from the simple geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal
curve as shown in figure 5.18. Let R1 is the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel, R2 is the
radius of the outer track line of the front wheel l is the distance between the front and rear wheel, n is
the number of lanes, then the mechanical widening Wm (refer figure 5.18) is derived below:

Therefore, the widening needed for a single lane road is:

Equation 4.17

If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each lane. Therefore, the extra
widening of a road with n lanes is given by,
Equation 4.18

Note that for large radius, R2 ≈ R, which is the mean radius of the curve, then Wm is given by:
Equation 4.19

4.4.7.2 Psychological widening

Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a tendency for
the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra space is to be provided
for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on curves. IRC proposed an empirical
relation for the psychological widening at horizontal curves Wps:
Equation 4.20

Therefore, the total widening needed at a horizontal curve We is:

Equation 4.21

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Example 5.8
A two lane road with design speed of 80 km/h has horizontal curve of radius 480 m. design the rate
of superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised
with respect to the centre line, if the pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line and the width
of the pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5 m.
Example 5.9
Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500 m and speed 100 km/h
Example 5.10
The design speed of a highway is 80 km/h. there is a horizontal curve of radius 200 m on a certain
locality. Calculate the superelevation needed to maintain this speed. If the maximum superelevation
of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it
is not possible to increase the radius. Safe limit of the transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15.
Example 5.11
A Major District Road with thin bituminous pavement surface in low rainfall area has horizontal
curve of radius 1400 m. if the design speed is 65 km/h, what should be the superelevation? Discuss.
Example 5.12
Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve of a
National Highway in plain terrain. Assume ruling design speed and minimum design speed values as
100 and 80 km/h respectively.
Example 5.13
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7 m on a horizontal curve of radius
250 m if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7 m. design speed is 70 km/h.
compare the value obtained with the IRC recommendations.
Example 5.14
Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new National Highway to be aligned
along a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

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4.4.8 Horizontal Transition Curves
Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to circular curve
gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the
desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point) There are five objectives for
providing transition curve and are given below:
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of the
circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of passengers.
2. To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security,
3. To provide gradual introduction of super elevation,
4. To provide gradual introduction of extra widening,
5. To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
4.4.8.1 Type of transition curve
Different types of transition curves are spiral or clothoid, cubic parabola, and Lemniscate. IRC
recommends spiral as the transition curve because:
1. It fulfills the requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;
(a) rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is consistent (smooth) and
(b) radius of the transition curve is ∞ at the straight edge and changes to R at the curve point

and calculation and field implementation is very easy

Figure 4.19: Different types of transition curves

4.4.8.2 Length of transition curve
The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the following three
criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change of superelevation, and an empirical
formula given by IRC.
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration is zero. At the end of the
transition, the radius R has minimum value R. The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should
be adopted such that the design should not cause discomfort to the drivers. If c is the rate of change
of centrifugal acceleration, it can be written as:

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Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is
Equation 4.22

where c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration given by an empirical formula suggested by
by IRC as below:
Equation 4.23

Rate of introduction of super-elevation

Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by E = eB = e(W + We). The rate of
change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually with a gradient of 1 in N over the length of the
transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150). Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls2 is:
Equation 4.24

By empirical formula
IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a plain and rolling terrain:
Equation 4.25

and for steep and hilly terrain is:

Equation 4.26

and the shift s as:

Equation 4.27

The length of the transition curve Ls is the maximum of equations 5.22, 5.24 and 5.25/5.26, i.e.
Equation 4.28

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Example 5.15
Calculate the length of transition curve and the shift using the following data:
Design speed = 65 km/h
Radius of circular curvature = 220 m
Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation (pavement rotated about the centre line) = 1
in 150
Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m
Example 5.16.
A National Highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of
radius 500 m. design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
4.4.9 Setback Distance
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centerline of a
horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance at
a horizontal curve. The setback distance depends on:
1. sight distance (OSD, ISD and OSD),
2. radius of the curve, and
3. length of the curve.
4.4.9.1 Case (a) Ls < Lc
For single lane roads:

Figure 4.20: Set-back for single lane roads (Ls < Lc)

Equation 4.29

Therefore,
Equation 4.30

For multi lane roads, if d is the distance between centerline of the road and the centerline of the inner
lane, then

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Figure 4.21: Set-back for multi-lane roads (Ls < Lc)
4.4.9.2 Case (b) Ls > Lc
For single lane:

Figure 4.22: Set back for single lane roads (Ls > Lc)

The set back is the sum of m1 and m2 given by:

Equation 4.31

Equation 4.32

4.4.10 Curve Resistance

When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and the rear
wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve, whereas the
rear wheels seldom turn. This is illustrated in figure 5.23.

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The rear wheels exert a tractive force T in the PQ direction. The tractive force available on the front
wheels is Tcosα in the PS direction as shown in the figure 5.23. This is less than the actual tractive
force, T applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve is:

Figure 4.23: Curve resistance

Equation 4.33
Example 5.17
While aligning a highway in a built up area, it was necessary to provide a horizontal circular curve of
radius 325 metre. Design the following geometric features:
(i) Superelevation
(ii) Extra widening of pavement
(iii)Length of transition curve
Data available are
Design speed 65 km/h, Length of wheel base of largest truck 6 m. Pavement width 10.5 m
Example 5.18
A State Highway passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of radius equal to the ruling
minimum radius.
(i) Design all the geometric features of this curve, assuming suitable data.
(ii) Specity the minimum set-back distance from the centre line of the two lane highway on the inner
side of the curve up to which the buildings etc. obstructing vision should not be constructed so
that Intermediate sight distance is available throughout the circular curve. Assume the length of
circular curve greater than the sight distance.
Example 5.19

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There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400 m and length 200 m on this highway. Compute the
set-back distances required from the centre line on the inner side of the curve so as to provide for
(i) stopping sight distance of 90 m
(ii) safe overtaking sight distance of 300 m.
The distance between the centre lines of the road and the inner lane is 1.9 m.

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4.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
4.5.1 Overview
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines in a vertical plane) and vertical
curves. The vertical alignment is usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as vertical
axis and the horizontal distance along the centre line of the road as the the horizontal axis. Just as a
circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves connect two
gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or concave. The former is called a
summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve. This section covers a discussion on gradient
and summit curves.
4.5.2 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. While
aligning a highway, the gradient is decided in designing the vertical curve. Before finalising the
gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the site also
has to be considered. Usually, steep gradients are avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty
to climb and increase in the construction cost.
4.5.2.1 Effect of gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly important
in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to restrictive sight distance at
uphill gradients the speed of traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a result, not only
the operating costs of the vehicles are increased, but also capacity of the roads will have to be reduced.
Further, due to high differential speed between heavy and light vehicles, and between uphill and
downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.
4.5.2.2 Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the negative gradient as −n. The

deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the change of direction and is

given by the algebraic difference between the two grades

(n1 − (−n2)) = n1 + n2 = α1 + α2.

Example: 1 in 30 = 3.33% ≈ 2o is a steep gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% ≈ 1o10’ is a flatter gradient.

The gradient representation is illustrated in the figure 17:1.

Figure 4.24: Representation of gradient

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4.5.2.3 Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable effect on the speeds
of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably reduced
when long gradients as flat as two percent is adopted. Although, flatter gradients are desirable, it is
evident that the cost of construction will also be very high. Therefore, IRC has specified the desirable
gradients for each terrain. However, it may not be economically viable to adopt such gradients in
certain locations, steeper gradients are permitted for short duration. Different types of grades are
discussed below and the recommended type of gradients for each type of terrain and type of gradient
is given in Table 5.7. Ruling gradient, limiting gradient, exceptional gradient and minimum gradient
are some types of gradients which are discussed below.
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer attempts
to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed,
pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter terrain, it may be
possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible
also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by considering a particular speed as the design
speed and for a design vehicle with standard dimensions. But our country has a heterogeneous traffic
and hence it is not possible to lay down precise standards for the country as a whole. Hence IRC has
recommended some values for ruling gradient for different types of terrain.
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of construction.
On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt limiting gradient. But the
length of the limiting gradient stretches should be limited and must be sandwiched by either straight
roads or easier grades.
Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They should be
limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 metres at a stretch. In mountainous and steep
terrain, successive exceptional gradients must be separated by a minimum 100 metre length gentler
gradient. At hairpin bends, the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.
Table 4.7: IRC Specifications for gradients for different roads

Terrain Ruling Limitings Exceptional

Plain/Rolling 3.3 5.0 6.7
Hilly 5.0 6.0 7.0
Steep 6.0 7.0 8.0
4.5.2.4 Critical length of the grade
The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate without undue
reduction in speed is called critical length of the grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable value.
This value depends on the size, power, load, grad-ability of the truck, initial speed, final desirable
minimum speed etc.

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4.5.2.5 Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will take care of the
lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains requires some slope for smooth
flow of water. Therefore, minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the
rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete
drain and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found to give satisfactory performance.
4.5.3 Creeper lane
When the uphill climb is extremely long, it may be desirable to introduce an additional lane so as to
allow slow ascending vehicles to be removed from the main stream so that the fast moving vehicles
are not affected. Such a newly introduced lane is called creeper lane. There are no hard and fast rules
as when to introduce a creeper lane. But generally, it can be said that it is desirable to provide a
creeper lane when the speed of the vehicle gets reduced to half the design speed. When there is no
restrictive sight distance to reduce the speed of the approaching vehicle, the additional lane may be
initiated at some distance uphill from the beginning of the slope. But when the restrictions are
responsible for the lowering of speeds, obviously the lane should be initiated at a point closer to the
bottom of the hill. Also, the creeper lane should end at a point well beyond the hill crest, so that the
slow moving vehicles can return back to the normal lane without any danger. In addition, the creeper
lane should not end suddenly, but only in a tapered manner for efficient as well as safer transition of
vehicles to the normal lane.
4.5.4 Grade compensation
While a vehicle is negotiating a horizontal curve, if there is a gradient also, then there will be
increased resistance to traction due to both curve and the gradient. In such cases, the total resistance
should not exceed the resistance due to gradient specified. For the design, in some cases this
maximum value is limited to the ruling gradient and in some cases as limiting gradient. So, if a curve
needs to be introduced in a portion which has got the maximum permissible gradient, then some
compensation should be provided so as to decrease the gradient for overcoming the tractive loss due
to curve. Thus grade compensation can be defined as the reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve
because of the additional tractive force required due to curve resistance (T − Tcosα), which is intended
to offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve. IRC gave the following specification for the
grade compensation.
(i) Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4% because the loss of tractive force
is negligible.
(ii) Grade compensation is where R is the radius of the horizontal curve in meters.
(iii)The maximum grade compensation is limited to .

4.5.5 Summit curve

Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when two gradients meet
as illustrated in figure 5.25 in any of the following four ways:
(i) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient [figure 5.25].

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(ii) When positive gradient meets a flat gradient [figure 5.25b].
(iii) When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient [figure 5.25c].
(iv) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure 5.25d].

Figure 4.25: Types of summit curves

4.5.5.1 Type of Summit Curve
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results, the common practice has been to use
parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the ease with it can be laid out as
well as allowing a comfortable transition from one gradient to another. Although a circular curve
offers equal sight distance at every point on the curve, for very small deviation angles a circular curve
and parabolic curves are almost congruent. Furthermore, the use of parabolic curves was found to
give excellent riding comfort.
4.5.5.2 Design Consideration
In determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design considerations are comfort and
security of the driver, and the appearance of the profile alignment. Among these, sight distance
requirements for the safety are most important on summit curves. The stopping sight distance or
absolute minimum sight distance should be provided on these curves and where overtaking is not
prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight distance should be provided as far as
possible. When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to the
passengers. This is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle negotiates
a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of the tyre pressure is relieved. Also, if
the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the length would be sufficient to ease the shock
due to change in gradient. Circular summit curves are identical since the radius remains same
throughout and hence the sight distance. From this point of view, transition curves are not desirable
since it has varying radius and so the sight distance will also vary. The deviation angle provided on
summit curves for highways are very large, and so a simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular
arc, between the same tangent points. Parabolic curves are easy for computation and also it had been

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found out that it provides good riding comfort to the drivers. It is also easy for field implementation.
Due to all these reasons, a simple parabolic curve is preferred as summit curve.
4.5.5.3 Length of the summit curve
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of the curve which
is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight distance consideration.
That is, a driver should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction on the other side of
the road. Equation of the parabola is given by
y = ax2,
where ,
N is the deviation angle and
L is the length of the curve
In deriving the length of the curve, two situations can arise depending on the uphill and downhill
gradients when
• the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance and
• the length of the curve is less than the sight distance.
Let L be the length of the summit curve, S is the SSD/ISD/OSD, N is the deviation angle, h1
driver’s eye height (1.2 m), and h2 the height of the obstruction, then the length of the summit curve
can be derived for the following two cases. The length of the summit curve can be derived from the
simple geometry as shown below:

Case a. Length of summit curve greater than sight distance (L>S)

The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve is shown in figure 5.26.

Figure 4.26: Length of summit curve (L>S)

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 Equation 4.34

Case b. Length of summit curve less than sight distance

The second case is illustrated in figure 5.27.

Figure 4.27: Length of summit curve (L<S)

From the basic geometry, one can write
Equation 4.35

Therefore, for a given L, h1 and h2 to get minimum S, differentiate the above equation with respect to
h1 and equate it to zero. Therefore,
Equation 4.36

Solving for n1,

Equation 4.37

Now we can substitute n back to get the value of minimum value of L for a given n1, n2, h1 and h2.
Therefore,

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 Equation 4.38

Solving for L,
Equation 4.39

When stopping sight distance is considered the height of driver’s eye above the road surface (h1) is
taken as 1.2 metres, and height of object above the pavement surface (h2) is taken as 0.15 metres.
4.4 Equation 4.40
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁
If overtaking sight distance is considered, then the value of driver’s eye height (h1) and the height of
the obstruction (h2) are taken equal as 1.2 metres.
4.5.6 Valley curve
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet as illustrated in figure 5.28 in any of the following four ways:
(i) when a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure 5.28a].
(ii) when a descending gradient meets a flat gradient [figure 5.28b].
(iii)when a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient [figure 5.28c].
(iv) when an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient [figure 5.28d].

Figure 4.28: Types of valley curve

4.5.6.1 Design considerations
There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time. But visibility is reduced
during night. In the absence or inadequacy of street light, the only source for visibility is with the
help of headlights. Hence valley curves are designed taking into account of headlight distance. In

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valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along with the weight of the vehicle,
and hence impact to the vehicle will be more. This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause
discomfort to the passengers. Thus, the most important design factors considered in valley curves
are:
(i) impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and
(ii) availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for night driving.
For gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting downwards, the best shape that
could be given for a valley curve is a transition curve. Cubic parabola is generally preferred in vertical
valley curves. During night, under headlight driving condition, sight distance reduces and availability
of stopping sight distance under head light is very important. The head light sight distance should be
at least equal to the stopping sight distance. There is no problem of overtaking sight distance at night
since the other vehicles with headlights could be seen from a considerable distance.
4.5.6.2 Length of the valley curve
The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of equal length
The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola
y = bx3
where T
he length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:
1) comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited to a
comfortable level of about 0.6m/sec3.
2) safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any part of the
country.
a. Comfort criteria
The length of the valley curve based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration that will ensure
comfort:
Let c be the rate of change of acceleration, R the minimum radius of the curve, v is the design speed
and t is the time, then c is given as:

Equation 4.41

For a cubic parabola, the value of R for length Ls is given by:

Equation 4.42

Therefore,

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 Equation 4.43

Where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the deviation angle in radians or tangent of the
deviation angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and c is the allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as 0.6m/sec3.
b. Safety criteria
Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two conditions:
1. length of the valley curve greater than stopping sight distance and
2. length of the valley curve less than the stopping sight distance.
Case 1. Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)
The total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD. The sight distance
available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in the valley. This is because the
beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the bottom of the curve will have minimum radius
which is a property of the transition curve. The case is shown in figure 18:2

Figure 4.29: Valley curve, Case 1, L > S

From the geometry of the figure, we have:

Equation 4.44

where N is the deviation angle in radians, h1 is the height of headlight beam, α is the head beam
inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance. The inclination α is ≈ 1 degree.
Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L < S)
The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance is from the
beginning of the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve and the bottom most part

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of the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight beam will reach far beyond
the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the beginning of the curve, then the headlight
beam will hit just outside the curve. Therefore, the length of the curve is derived by assuming the
vehicle at the beginning of the curve. The case is shown in figure 5.30.

Figure 4.30: Valley curve, case 2, S > L

From the figure,

Equation 4.45

Note that the above expression is approximate and is satisfactory because in practice, the gradients
are very small and is acceptable for all practical purposes. We will not be able to know prior to which
case to be adopted. Therefore, both has to be calculated and the one which satisfies the condition is
adopted.
Example 5.20
A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients; +3 and -5 percent. Design the
length of summit curve to provide a stopping sight distance for a design speed of 80km/h. Assume
other data.
Example 5.21
An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A summit curve is to be
designed for a speed of 80 km/h so as to have an overtaking sight distance of 470 m.
Example 5.22
A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet on a highway. The
stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance required are 180 m and 640 m respectively. But
due to site conditions, the length of vertical curve has to be restricted to a maximum value of 500 m
if possible. Calculate the length of summit curve needed to fulfill the requirements of
a. Stopping sight distance
b. Overtaking sight distance or at least intermediate sight distance and discuss the results.

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Example 2.23
A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in 30.
Design the length of the curve to fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight distance
requirements for a design speed of 80 km/h. assume allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration c = 0.6 m/s3
Example 2.24
A two-lane highway (two 12-ft lanes) has a posted speed limit of 50 mi/h and, on one
section, has both horizontal and vertical curves, as shown in the figure below. A recent daytime
crash (driver traveling eastbound and striking a stationary roadway object) resulted in a
fatality and a lawsuit alleging that the 50-mi/h posted speed limit is an unsafe speed for the
curves in question and was a major cause of the crash. Evaluate and comment on the
roadway design.

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CHAPTER 5: EARTHWORK CALCULATIONS
5.1 Methods of volume calculation
Direct measurement of volumes is rarely made in surveying, since it is difficult to actually apply a
unit of measure to the material involved. Instead, indirect measurements are obtained by measuring
lines and areas that have a relationship to the volume desired. Three principal systems are used:
i) The cross-section method,
ii) The unit area (or borrow-pit) method, and
iii) The contour-area method.
5.1.1 The cross-section method
Figure 6.1 portrays a section of planned highway construction and illustrates some of the points
discussed. Centerline stakes are shown in place, with their stationing given in the English system of
units. They mark locations where cross sections are taken, in this instance at full stations. End areas,
based on the planned grade line, size of roadway, and selected embankment and excavation slopes,
are superimposed at each station and are shown shaded. Areas of these shaded sections are
determined, whereupon volumes are computed the average end area formula or prismoidal formula.
Note in the figure that embankment, or fill, is planned from stations 10 + 00 through 11 + 21, a
transition from fill to excavation, or cut, occurs from stations 11 + 21 to 11 + 64 and cut is required
from stations 11 + 64 through 13 + 00.

Figure 5.1: Section of roadway illustrating excavation (cut) and embankment (fill)

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5.1.1.1 Types of cross sections

Figure 5.2: Earthwork sections.

5.1.1.2 Average-end-area formula
Figure 6.3 illustrates the concept of computing volumes by the average-end area method. In the
figure A1 and A2, and are end areas at two stations separated by a horizontal distance L. The volume
between the two stations is equal to the average of the end areas multiplied by the horizontal distance
L between them.

Figure 5.3: Volume by average end-area-method

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Thus,

Equation 5.1

In Equation 6.1, A1and A2 are in m2, L is in m, and VC is in m3. Equations 6.1 is approximate and
give answers that generally are slightly larger than the true prismoidal volumes. They are used in
practice because of their simplicity, and contractors are satisfied because pay quantities are generally
slightly greater than true values. Increased accuracy is obtained by decreasing the distance L between
sections. When the ground is irregular, cross sections must be taken closer together.

Example 6.1
Compute the volume of excavation between station 24+00 with an end area of 711 m 2 and 25+00
station with an end area of 515 m2.
5.1.1.3 End Areas by Coordinates
The coordinate method for computing end areas can be used for any type of section, and has many
engineering applications. The procedure was described to determine the area contained within a
closed polygon traverse.

For example

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5.1.1.4 Prismoidal formula
The prismoidal formula applies to volumes of all geometric solids that can be considered prismoids.
A prismoid, illustrated in Figure 6.4, is a solid having ends that are parallel but not similar and
trapezoidal sides that are also not congruent. Most earthwork solids obtained from cross-section data
fit this classification.

Figure 5.4: Sections for which the prismoidal correction is added to the end-area volume.
However, from a practical standpoint, the differences in volumes computed by the average-endarea
method and the prismoidal formula are usually so small as to be negligible. Where extreme accuracy
is needed, such as in expensive rock cuts, the prismoidal method can be used. One arrangement of
the prismoidal formula is:

Equation 5.2

Where VP is the prismoidal volume in cubic meter, A1 and A2 are areas of successive cross sections
taken in the field, Am is the area of a “computed” section midway between A1 and A2, and L is the
horizontal distance between A1 and A2.
To use the prismoidal formula, it is necessary to know area Am of the section halfway between the
stations of A1 and A2. This is found by the usual computation after averaging the heights and widths
of the two end sections. Obviously, the middle area is not the average of the end areas, since there
would then be no difference between the results of the end-area formula and the prismoidal formula.
The prismoidal formula generally gives a volume smaller than that found by the average-end area
formula. For example, the volume of a pyramid by the prismoidal formula is Ah/3 (the exact value),
whereas by the average-end-area method it is Ah/2. An exception occurs when the center height is
great but the width narrow at one station, and the center height small but the width large at the
adjacent station.
Example 6.2

Compute the volume using the prismoidal formula and by average end areas for the following three-
level sections of a roadbed having a base of 24 m and side slopes of 1.5/1.

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5.2 Volume computations
Computing areas and volumes is an important part of the office work involved in road surveying. For
computation of the volume of earthwork, the cross sectional area of the cross sections which are taken
to the longitudinal section during profile level are first calculated.
After calculating the cross sectional areas, the volume of earth work is calculated by the
➢ The trapezoidal rule (average end area method) or
➢ The prismoidal rule
The trapezoidal rule (average end area method)
Volume (cutting or filling)
Equation 5.3

That is
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑥[𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
+ 2(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)]
The prismoidal rule
Volume (cutting or filling)
Equation 5.4

That is
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑥[𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3
+ 4(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) + 2(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)]
The prismoidal formula is applicable when there are odd number of sections. If the number of sections
are even, the end section is treated separately and the area is calculate according to the trapezoidal
rule.
The prismoidal formula gives very nearly correct volume of earthwork even for irregular end sections
and sides that are warped surfaces.
The prismoidal formula though being more accurate than end-areas rule, in practice the endareas rule
is more frequently adopted because of the ease of its application. End-areas rule gives the computed
volumes generally too great which is in favour of contractor.
Since the end-areas rule gives volume larger than the prismoidal rule, accurate volume by the
former can be obtained by applying a correction known as prismoidal correction given below.

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 Equation 5.5

Cp =

Where Cp is the volume of the prismoidal correction in cubic meters, H1 and H2 are center heights in
cut (or in fill), W1 and W2 are widths of sections (from slope intercept to slope intercept) at adjacent
sections. If the product of is minus, the prismoidal correction is added rather than subtracted
from the end-area volume.
Volume calculations for route construction projects are usually done and arranged in tabular form.
To illustrate this procedure, assume that end areas listed in columns (2) and (3) of Table 6.1 apply
to the section of roadway illustrated in Figure 6.1. By using Equation (26.1), cut and fill volumes
are computed and tabulated in columns (4) and (5).

The volume computations illustrated in Table 6.1 include the transition sections of Figure 6.1. This
is normally not done when preliminary earthwork volumes are being estimated (during design and
prior to construction) because the exact locations of the transition sections and their configurations
are usually unknown until slope staking occurs. Thus, for calculating preliminary earthwork
quantities, an end area of zero would be used at the station of the centerline grade point (station
11+40 of Figure 6.1), and transition sections (stations 11+21and 11+64 of Figure 26.1) would not
appear in the computations. After slope staking the locations and end areas of transition sections are
known, and they should be included in final volume computations, especially if they significantly
affect the quantities for which payment is made.
Table 5.1: Tabular form of volume computation

Stations Area Cut(m2) Area Fill(m2) Volume Cut(m3) Volume

Fill (m3)
10+00 992
70650
11+00 421
5134.5
11+21 0 68
215.3 940.5
11+40 34 31
2136 248
11+64 144 0
14940
12+00 686
80200
13+00 918

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Example 6.3

Example 6.4

5.2.1 Volume using spot height method

This method is generally used for calculating the volumes of excavations for basements or tanks, i.e.
any volume where the sides and base are planes, while the surface is broken naturally (Figure 6.5(a)).
Figure 6.5(b) shows the limits of the excavation with surface levels in metres at A, B, C and D. The
sides are vertical to a formation level of 20 m. If the area ABCD was a plane, then the volume of
excavation would be:
Equation 5.6
V = plan area ABCD × mean height

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Figure 5.5: (a) Section, and (b) plan
However, as the illustration shows, the surface is very broken and so must be covered with a grid
such that the area within each 10-m grid square is approximately a plane. It is therefore the
ruggedness of the ground that controls the grid size. If, for instance, the surface Aaed was not a
plane, it could be split into two triangles by a diagonal (Ae) if this would produce better surface
planes. Considering square Aaed only:
V = plan area × mean height

If the grid squares are all equal in area, then the data is easily tabulated and worked as follows:
Considering AEFG only, instead of taking each grid square separately, one can treat it as a whole.

If one took each grid separately it would be seen that the heights of AEFG occur only once, whilst
the heights of abcd occur twice and he occurs four times; one still divides by four to get the mean
Generally,

𝐴 Equation 5.7
(Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4
4

Where:
V is the volume
A is the area of the rectangle or square
h1, h2, h3, and h4 are the corner heights common to one, two, three and 4 rectangles respectively.

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Example 6.5
The distribution of 25 spot heights with a regular 5m spacing covering a square area is to be graded
to form a horizontal plane with the formation level of 10m. Determine the volume of soil to be
excavated from the site. The spot heights are shown in the figure below.

5.2.2 Volume using contour area method

Volumes based on contours can be obtained from contour maps by using a planimeter to determine
the area enclosed by each contour. Alternatively, CAD software can be used to determine these
areas. Then the average area of the adjacent contours is obtained using Equation 6.1 and the volume
obtained by multiplying by the contour spacing (i.e., contour interval). Use of the prismoidal formula
is seldom, if ever, justified in this type of computation. This procedure is the basis for volume
computations in CAD software.
The contour-area method is suitable for determining volumes over large areas, for example,
computing the amounts and locations of cut and fill in the grading for a proposed airport runway to
be constructed at a given elevation. Another useful application of the contour-area method is in
determining the volume of water that will be impounded in the reservoir created by a proposed dam.

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Figure 5.6: Determining the volume of water impounded in a reservoir by the contour-area
method.
Example 6.6
A reservoir is to be formed in a river valley by building a dam across it. The entire area that will be
covered by the reservoir has been contoured and contours drawn at 1.5-m intervals. The lowest point
in the reservoir is at a reduced level of 249 m above datum, while the top water level will not be
above a reduced level of 264.5 m. The area enclosed by each contour and the upstream face of the
dam is shown in the table below.
Contour (m) Area enclosed (m2)
250.0 1 874
251.5 6 355
253.0 11 070
254.5 14 152
256.0 19 310
257.5 22 605
259.0 24 781
260.5 26 349

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262.0 29 830
263.5 33 728
265.0 37 800
Estimate by the use of the trapezoidal rule the capacity of the reservoir when full. What will be the
reduced level of the water surface if, in a time of drought, this volume is reduced by 25%?

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