MPA-031

Physical Geography

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110068
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Rashmi Sinha Dr. Sunita Reddy Faculty of Publc
Director, School of Social Sciences Centre of Social Medicine and Administration
IGNOU, New Delhi Community Health
Prof. E Vayunandan
School of Social Sciences
Prof. Pardeep Sahni Jawaharlal Nehru University Prof. Uma Medury
Former Professor, Faculty of Public New Delhi
Administration, IGNOU, Prof. Alka Dhameja
New Delhi Mr. Anuj Tiwari
National Disaster Management Prof. Dolly Mathew
Prof. M.S. Nathawat Authority Prof. Durgesh Nandini
Faculty of Geography, School of New Delhi (Convener)
Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Anshu Ogra Consultant
Prof. R. Baskar Visiting Faculty
Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
Faculty of Geology, School of Environmental Studies
Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi Department, Ashoka University
Programme Coordinator: Prof. Durgesh Nandini, Faculty of Public Administration, School of Social
Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinator: Dr. Satya Raj, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Editor: Prof. Ramashray Prasad, Department of Geography, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College,
University of Delhi, Delhi

COURSE PREPAREATION TEAM

Block/ Block/Unit Title Unit Writers
Unit No.
BLOCK 1 Geomorphic Processes
Unit 1 Interior of the Earth: Structure and Composition Dr. Vishal Warpa
(Adapted from Unit 3 of BGGCT-131) Assistant Professor, Discipline of
Geography, School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 2 Continental Drift, Mountain Building and Prof. Biplab Biswas
Plate Tectonics (Adapted from Unit 6 of Department of Geography,
BGGCT-131) The University of Burdwan,
Bardhaman
Unit 3 Endogenetic Forces (Adapted from Unit 7 of Dr. Koppishetti Nageswara Rao
BGGCT-131) Assistant Professor, Discipline of
Geography, School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 4 Exogenetic Processes (Adapted from Unit 8 of
BGGCT-131)
Unit 5 Fluvial Karst and Glacial Landscapes Dr. Sanjay Kumar
Associate Professor,
Unit 6 Aeolian and Coastal Landscapes P.G. Department of Geography,
Maharaja college Ara,
Veer Kunwar Singh
University, Arrah, Bihar
BLOCK 2 Atmospheric Processes
Unit 7 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
(Adapted from Unit 10 of BGGCT-131) Dr R. Anil Kumar
Associate Professor and Head
Unit 8 Insolation and Atmospheric Temperature
(Adapted from Unit 11of BGGCT-131) (Retd.) Department of Geography,
University College of
Unit 9 Global Distribution of Surface Pressure Systems Thiruvananthapuram, Kerela.
and Winds (Adapted from Unit 12 of BGGCT-131)
 Unit 10 Humidity and Precipitation Dr. Sudeshna Bhattacharya (Retd.)
(Adapted from Unit 13 of BGGCT-131) Associate Professor, Department of
Geography, Miranda House,
University of Delhi
Unit 11 Fronts and Cyclones Dr. Sanjay Kumar
(Adapted from unit 11 of MGG-005) Associate Professor Associate
Professor, P.G. Department of
Geography, Maharaja college Ara,
Veer Kunwar Singh University,
Arrah, Bihar
Unit 12 Climatic Classification Dr. Jitender Saroha
(Adapted from Unit 12 of MGG-005) Associate Professor, Department
of Geography Bhim Rao Ambedkar
College Wazirabad Road,
Yamuna Vihar Delhi
BLOCK 3 Oceanic Processes and Circulations
Unit 13 Ocean Floor and Relief Features
(Adapted from Unit 16 of BGGCT-131) Dr. Satya Raj
Assistant Professor, Discipline of
Geography, School of Sciences,
Unit 14 Distribution of Temperature and Salinity in the
Oceans (Adapted from Unit 17 of BGGCT-131) IGNOU, New Delhi

Unit 15 Tides and Currents Dr. Ritu Ahlawat

(Adapted from unit 18 of BGGCT-131) Associate Professor, Department of
Geography, Miranda House,
University of Delhi-110007
Unit 16 Oceanic Hazards Dr. Sanjay Kumar
Associate Professor,
P.G. Department of Geography,
Maharaja college Ara,
Veer Kunwar Singh University,
Arrah, Bihar

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May, 2024
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2024
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 Course Contents
Pages

COURSE INTRODUCTION 6
BLOCK 1 Geomorphic Processes 7
Unit 1 Interior of the Earth: Structure and Composition 9
Unit 2 Continental Drift, Mountain Building and Plate Tectonics 27
Unit 3 Endogenetic Forces 48
Unit 4 Exogenetic Processes 73
Unit 5 Fluvial, Karst and Glacial Landscapes 89
Unit 6 Aeolian and Coastal Landscapes 106
BLOCK 2 Atmospheric Processes 121
Unit 7 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 123
Unit 8 Insolation and Atmospheric Temperature 140
Unit 9 Global Distribution of Surface Pressure Systems and Winds 163
Unit 10 Humidity and Precipitation 185
Unit 11 Fronts and Cyclones 206
Unit 12 Climatic Classification 226
BLOCK 3 Oceanic Processes and Circulations 239
Unit 13 Ocean Floor and Relief Features 241
Unit 14 Distribution of Temperature and Salinity in the Oceans 264
Unit 15 Tides and Currents 282
Unit 16 Oceanic Hazards 302
SUGGESTED READINGS
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the course on Physical Geography, where we embark on an exploration
of the dynamic processes shaping our planet’s surface and atmosphere. In this journey,
we will delve into the intricate interplay between Earth’s interior, atmosphere, and
oceans, unraveling the mysteries of its geomorphic, atmospheric, and oceanic processes.
In the first block, “Geomorphic Processes,” we will journey deep into the Earth’s
crust, examining its interior composition, the forces driving continental drift and mountain
building, and the fascinating realm of plate tectonics. We will uncover the relentless
powers of endogenetic and exogenetic forces, sculpting the landforms we see today,
from fluvial valleys to towering mountain ranges, and from wind-sculpted dunes to
coastal cliffs.
Moving to the atmospheric realm in the second block, “Atmospheric Processes,” we
will ascend into the skies to understand the composition and structure of the atmosphere.
We will unravel the mysteries of insolation, atmospheric temperature variations, global
wind patterns, and the intricate dance of humidity and precipitation. Exploring the
realm of weather systems, we will decode the mechanisms behind fronts, cyclones,
and the classification of climates around the globe.
Venturing into the depths of the oceans in the third block, “Oceanic Processes and
Circulations,” we will plunge beneath the waves to explore the ocean floor and its relief
features. We will navigate through the currents of temperature and salinity, unlocking
the secrets of tides and oceanic currents. Along the way, we will confront the challenges
posed by oceanic hazards, from tsunamis to storm surges, and delve into the crucial
role of oceans in shaping Earth’s climate and sustaining life.
Throughout this course, we will not only unravel the intricate web of physical processes
shaping our planet but also appreciate the profound implications they hold for our
environment, society, and future. So, let us embark on this voyage of discovery, as we
delve into the fascinating realm of Physical Geography and uncover the mysteries of
our dynamic planet.
Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour.
We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact
[email protected]
 Block 1
Geomorphic Processes
BLOCK 1 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
Welcome to the first block of our course of Physical Geography, where we embark on
a journey into the realm of Geomorphic Processes. Geomorphic processes are the
dynamic forces that shape the earth’s surface, carving out landscapes and sculpting the
terrain over millions of years. In this block, we will delve deep into the earth’s structure
and composition, unravel the mysteries of continental drift, mountain building, and plate
tectonics, and explore the relentless forces driving change both beneath our feet and
across the surface.
In Unit 1, “Interior of the Earth: Structure and Composition,” we will peer beneath
the earth’s surface to understand its complex layers and the materials that compose
them. From the solid inner core to the molten outer core and the rocky mantle, we will
uncover the secrets hidden within our planet’s depths.
Unit 2, on “Continental Drift, Mountain Building, and Plate Tectonics,” takes
us on a journey through the geological forces that have shaped the continents and given
rise to majestic mountain ranges. We will explore the groundbreaking theory of plate
tectonics and its role in shaping Earth’s surface over vast periods of time.
Unit 3, on “Endogenetic Forces,” focuses on the internal forces that drive geological
change, from the uplifting of mountain ranges to the occurrence of earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. We will examine the processes of folding, faulting, and magmatic
activity that shape the Earth’s crust and give rise to the diverse landscapes we see
today.
In Unit 4, “Exogenetic Processes,” we turn our attention to the external forces
acting upon the earth’s surface, such as weathering, erosion, and deposition. From the
relentless erosion of rivers to the sculpting power of wind and waves, we will explore
how these processes shape the landforms around us.
Unit 5, “Fluvial, Karst, and Glacial Landscapes,” delves into the unique features
created by water, whether through the carving of river valleys, the dissolution of limestone
in karst regions, or the sculpting power of glaciers in shaping mountain landscapes.
Finally, in Unit 6, on “Aeolian and Coastal Landscapes,” we explore the dynamic
interactions between wind and water along our coastlines, from the formation of sand
dunes to the erosion of cliffs and the creation of coastal landforms.
Together, these units provide a comprehensive overview of the processes driving
geological change on our planet, from the deep interior to the dynamic surface. So, let
us begin our exploration of Geomorphic Processes and uncover the secrets of Earth’s
ever-changing landscapes.
 Interior of the Earth:
UNIT 1 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH: Structure and
Composition
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
1.2 Basic Concepts
The Earth as a Solid Body and Earth’s Interior
Rock Cycle
Layers and Discontinuities
1.3 Thermal and Physical State of the Earth’s Interior
Temperature
Pressure
Density
1.4 Earth’s Internal Structure:
Theories
Edward Suess
Van der Gracht
Seismology
Earth’s Interior
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 References/Further Reading
1.7 Terminal Questions
1.8 Answers

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the basic concepts, namely, earth as a solid body,

earth’s interior, rock cycle along with layers and discontinuities;

 illustrate the thermal and physical state of the earth’s interior;

 explain the earth’s internal structure as propounded by different

earth scientists;

 Elaborate the concept of seismology and earth’s interior.

9
Geomorphic Processes
1.1 INTRODUCTION
While reading newspapers or watching news on your television, mobile, and
computer, you might have come across unpleasant news which may create
hardship to human beings along with floral and faunal species. Try to recall
the news related to earthquakes, landslides, floods, forest fires, tsunami etc.
Some of them are caused completely by natural processes or forces
(operating inside and outside parts of planet earth) whereas some of them are
also triggered by our own activities. Some are caused due to our negligence
and poor planning. We will discuss them in different units of this course.
Have you ever given any thought to them about their occurrences and
impacts on our day-to-day life? Some of them originate inside the earth’s
surface and some on the earth’s surface.

Internal and external processes will be dealt in Units 3 and 4, respectively.

But prior to explaining those processes, we will study the existing condition
of the earth’s interior in this Unit. Hence, we begin the unit with basic
concepts related to our planet earth. It includes earth as a solid body, earth’s
interior, the rock cycle along with layers and discontinuities (Sec. 1.2).

Earth’s interior structure and composition are characterised by its thermal

and physical state about which you will learn in Sec. 1.3. While studying Sec.
1.4, you will learn about few important theories propounded by different
earth scientists.

1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS

As we know, basic concepts form the backbone of any field of study across
the disciplines or branches of knowledge. We hope, you will agree that the
learning of basic concepts not only provides a sound understanding of
the phenomenon under study but also acts as a base for further learning.

1.2.1 The Earth as a Solid Body and Earth’s Interior

Earth appears in the form of various layers of a solid body. This solid body is
made of several types of rocks. Rock is, basically, aggregates of one or more
mineral/s. On the basis of formation, it could be divided into three types –
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Mineral is inorganic solid
substance occurring in nature which has definite chemical composition and
crystalline structure. Basically, the study of rocks is the domain of petrology
(part of geology). It deals with the rock system which is made up of unique or
aggregates of mineral matters. It is this mineral matter which helps to build
the earth’s interior and surface.

Earth’s interior is divided into three layers namely crust, mantle and core. In
simplest words, you may visualise it by peeling off a boiled egg. The outer
hard and thin layer may resemble to the crust, middle layer to the mantle and
inner layer to the core, respectively. The most common and reliable source to
study the earth’s interior is Seismology which you will learn in Sec. 1.4. Let
10 us study the rock cycle which is exclusively the domain of geologists. They
study the earth’s history, structure and composition in detail. We perform our Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
all the spatial economic activities on the earth’s surface. To understand the Composition
sensitivity and binding characteristics of surface materials, their cohesiveness
and compactness, we as geographers along with scientists dealing with
disaster risk reduction are required to know the basic properties of rocks
also. Let us talk about the Rock Cycle.

1.2.2 Rock Cycle

You can think of any continuous activity. For example, four distinctive
weather seasons in a year namely spring, summer, autumn and winter and
many others. For example; nutrient cycle, carbon cycle, hydrological cycle.
Sowing and harvesting of different types of crops in every successive
agricultural year are some examples of continuous activity. In similar ways,
rock cycle refers to the constant organisation and reorganisation of various
rock types found over the Earth’s Crust i.e. lithosphere. You can underst
and this with Fig. 1.1 very easily.
Igneous rocks are known as primary rocks. They are formed soon after the
solidification of molten rock material. When the molten rock material is
inside the earth’s surface, it is known as magma; but when it appears on the
surface, it is known as lava. Hence, fluid rock material in solidified form is
termed as igneous rocks, because it cools down quickly on the surface and
cools relatively slowly in the interior. Molten rock materials come from
upper part of middle inner layer i.e. upper Mantle through volcanic
eruptions. After the formation, igneous rocks are exposed to the agents of
weathering and erosion on the earth’s surface. These agents breakdown the
igneous rocks into small pieces/particles. Further, the agents of denudation,
for example wind (aeolian) and water (fluvial) transports these small rock
particles and eventually deposit them into the seas and oceans. You will learn
about these in two Units 5 and 6 in detail.
Have you ever wondered that what happens to the small rock particles
after they are deposited? This process of continuous accumulation keeps on
going and, in due course of time, deposited materials get transformed into
new sedimentary rocks as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Rock Cycle 11

Geomorphic Processes Have you ever thought that how metamorphic rocks are formed?
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the application of pressure and heat. When
metamorphic rocks lay exposed, it may also get weathered and eroded to
form sedimentary rocks. When the sedimentary or metamorphic rocks are
subjected or get exposed to excessive temperature, they transform into
igneous rocks. Therefore, the process of rock cycle is never ending. Most of
the rock material is constantly recycled by formation and disintegration of
rocks of earth’s surface, particularly confined to lithosphere.

1.2.3 Layers and Discontinuities

You may be amazed to know that distinctive and complex system of
layers and discontinuities do exist in the rock cycle. One of the most reliable
sources of information about the Earth’s interior layers comes from the
precise study of propagation of seismic waves. You are quite familiar with
the same as these are simply waves. They generate in the form of tremors,
resulting into earthquakes. Seismic waves could be either natural or
artificially stimulated one in a preset/modulated environment or condition.
Based on the speed of seismic waves, three main layers along with
discontinuities have commonly been recognized. These are crust, mantle and
core. Seismic waves could be of two kinds, i.e. surface and body waves.
Further, these three main layers are divided into sub-layers on the basis of
changing speed of the seismic waves. You will learn about all these layers
and their discontinuities in Sec. 1.4 of this Unit in detail.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Explain the concept of rock cycle.

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1.3 THERMAL AND PHYSICAL STATE OF THE

EARTH’S INTERIOR
You may wonder that what do we mean by the thermal and physical state of
the earth’s interior. It signifies the study of three vital parameters namely
temperature, pressure and density etc. All of these parameters are responsible
for the generation of existing state and may also shape the future
development both at the earth’s surface as well as its interior.

Scientific analysis of all three parameters would enable you to comprehend

the underlying details of the earth’s interior. Afterwards, you would be able
12 to study the dynamics of the earth’s interior in a better way.
1.3.1 Temperature Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
Composition
As understood, you must be familiar with the meaning of temperature. All of
you will agree that to live and sustain in a given type of environment/
place/space or geographic region, all kinds of flora and fauna along with
human beings will require a threshold temperature value. You will be
surprised to know that temperature increases with increasing depth from the
earth’s surface. Similarly, you will further uncover that atmospheric
temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the Earth’s surface in
Block 2 on Atmospheric Processes.

On an average, the temperature increases at a rate of about 1° C for every

32 metres as one goes deep inside the earth’s interior. But it is only true for
first 8 kilometres of depth inside the earth beyond which it is very difficult to
gauge the temperature values. You will be amazed to know that, at this rate,
the temperature is likely to vary from 1200-2000° C at about 50 kilometres.
You will agree that at such a high temperature, at a depth of about 100
kilometres, physical state of underlying rocks transform significantly. The
hard, rigid and solid rocks transform into semi-solid rocks of viscous nature.
Have you seen a blacksmith who heats up the iron bars and sharpens for
giving final shapes in the form of agricultural implements by hammering it?
The process of heating leads to the softening of iron bars, for giving it the
required shapes as per the needs of the diverse consumers. Such kinds of
softened rocks are found between a depth of 100 to 700 kilometres from the
earth’s surface. This layer is called asthenosphere.

For this reason, you will wonder that the source of volcanic eruptions is
considered to be at a depth of about 50 to 100 kilometres inside the earth’s
interior. The rate of temperature increase starts declining progressively
beyond a depth of 100 kilometres. Reason for this is the gradual decline in
the availability of two heat sensitive radioactive minerals of uranium and
thorium respectively (Singh, S. 2012).

1.3.2 Pressure
You might be getting curious about the cause for such high density of the
earth’s core layer. Traditional view stated it to be the heavy pressure of the
rock strata succeeding each other. It is well understood fact that the overlying
pressure from rock layers simply increases the density of rocks. It further
increases with the increase in depth.

However, this opinion is not entirely true since the density of a given rock
types have threshold value beyond which the density ceases to increase.
Thus, the factor of overlying pressure cannot alone increase the density of
rocks to greater extent lying underneath the lithosphere. This inference leads
towards the fact that the core layers of the earth could be made up of intense
metallic matter having inherently very high density. However, scientific
studies have clearly set out the fact that the core layer of the earth is
constituted by two heavy metallic components of iron and nickel. It has also
13
Geomorphic Processes been confirmed based on the geocentric magnetic field of the earth’s interior.
A layer of crystalline rock strata encircles the topmost portions of the
metallic core of the earth.

You are aware of the fact that pressure inside the earth’s interior is very high.
For understanding this, you may perform one small experiment. Place around
one dozen books one over the other (stacking) on your study, dining or
drawing table. Now, firstly try to remove the topmost book from the pile of
stacked books. You will notice that it is effortless activity, without feeling
any pressure. In the next attempt, try to remove any one book from the
middle or lower parts of the stacked books, leaving the rest of ten books
intact. You will notice that it is not effortless activity as it demands little
more effort to do so. It happens on account of weight of upper layer of books,
that creates pressure on the lower layer of books. In similar way, upper layers
of the earth’s surface tend to put pressure on the lower layers. This is the
reason why pressure in the earth’s interior parts increases progressively with
increasing depth from the earth’s surface.

1.3.3 Density
Density has been defined as the mass per volume of a substance. It is
expressed as a ratio of any object with respect to pure water, in gram per
cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

On an average, the density of the earth’s interior is 5.5 g/cm3. However, it is

2.7 g/cm3 in the continental shells i.e., upper surface layers which consist of
granitic rocks. It is termed as ‘sial’ i.e. silica and aluminium. It is also
believed by the earth scientists, particularly geologists that the density of
material increases directly in proportion to the depth. In other words, you can
say that the density of materials increases as one goes down into the earth’s
interior parts.

Besides, on account of increasing pressure, density of the internal rocks was

believed to be higher than surface rocks. As a result of pressure, volume gets
reduced and correspondingly density gets increased. However, it is also an
established fact that density of rocks ceases to increase beyond certain limits
of depth. High density of rocks in the interior parts is due to the ingredient of
the rocks, which makes the density to increase. As a result, the rocks of the
interior parts are of higher density against rocks of earth’s surface.

You will be surprised to know that the density of materials found in the core
layers of the earth are around dozen times denser compared to the water. Iron
and nickel together known as ‘nife’ forms the core layer of the earth’s
interior.

The density is 4.3 g/cm3 in the middle layers composed of ‘sima’ i.e. silica
and magnesium. Apparently, heavier the material, the density will also
be correspondingly high.

14
Check Your Progress 2 Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
Composition
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Briefly discuss the pressure and density conditions of the earth’s interior.
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1.4 EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE:

THEORIES
A number of Earth scientists propounded various theories regarding the
Earth’s internal structure. Few important ones are discussed below for you to
have a broader idea regarding the same.

1.4.1 Edward Suess

Eduard Suess describes the chemical properties of the Earth’s interior
structure. He said that a thin sheet of sedimentary rocks having extremely
small thickness envelops the Earth’s crust. It is made up of crystalline rocks
with silicate as a mineral. Two most important minerals are mica and
feldspar. Less dense silicate matter makes up its upper portion whereas heavy
silicate matter determines its lower portion. Suess has divided the Earth’s
internal structure into three layers. These are known as ‘sial’, ‘sima’ and
‘nife’ with one or more than one common characteristics.

i) The Sial: Sial is made up of two words i.e. Si plus and Al which denote
silica and aluminium. It lies within the outer sedimentary envelop of the
Earth’s internal structure. On an average, its density is 2.9 g/cm3 and
varies from 50 to 300 kilometres in thickness. This layer is characterized
by the surplus availability of acid materials along with silicates of
potassium, sodium and aluminium etc. Major structural visible parts of
the planet earth i.e., continents are created by sial layer.

ii) The Sima: A layer situated just below the sial is known as ‘sima’. It is
constituted by the basalt material. Sima is the only provider of magma
and lava resources blown up from volcanoes during active phases. It is
composed of two words Si plus and Ma, whereby Si stands for silica and
Ma for magnesium. Hence, silica and magnesium are two important
minerals. Average density varies from 2.9 g/cm3 to 4.7 g/cm3. Its
thickness varies from 1000 to 2000 kilometres respectively. This layer is
characterized by the availability of plenty of base materials including
those of calcium, iron and magnesium silicates etc.

iii) The Nife: It is placed beneath the middle layer of sima. Nickel (Ni) and
ferrum (Fe) are two dominant minerals. Nife has very high density
because of the dominance of heavy metals. Its radius from the earth’s
15
Geomorphic Processes centre is 3470 kilometres. Availability of iron i.e. ferrnum shows two
properties of firmness and magnetism.

1.4.2 Van der Gracht

Van der Gracht has categorized the Earth’s interior into four layers. Their
diverse properties of the same have been given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Earth’s Interior Layers According to Van der Gracht

Sl. Layers Thickness Density

No.

(i) Outer sialic 60 kilometres below Continents 2.75 – 2.9

20 kilometres below Atlantic

Ocean

Not present below Pacific

Ocean

(ii) Inner silicate 60 – 1140 kilometres 3.1 – 4.75

mantle

(iii) Zone of mixed 1140 – 2900 kilometres 4.75 – 5.0

metals and
silicates

(iv) Metallic 2900 – 6371 kilometres 11.0

nucleus
Source: Singh, S. 2012, Physical geography

His scheme indicates the Earth’s internal layers with varying figures
regarding the number, thickness and density properties etc. As opposed to
this scheme, most of the Earth scientists distinguished a universal pattern that
deals the Earth’s internal structure into three layers as discussed below:

i) Lithosphere: It is mostly made up of granitic rocks with an average

thickness of 100 kilometres. Silica and aluminum are the major minerals.
Average density of lithosphere is 3.5 g/cm3.

ii) Pyrosphere: Basalt is the main constituent mineral. Thickness of

this layer is 2780 kilometres and average density is 5.6 g/cm3.

iii) Barysphere: Iron and nickel are the two important minerals. This
layer stretches from 2800 kilometres to the earth’s centre i.e., nucleus of
the core. Its average density varies from 8 g/cm3 to 11 g/cm3.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.
16
1) Highlight the major key points of various theories. Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
__________________________________________________________ Composition
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1.4.3 Seismology
Seismology is a kind of scientific endeavour akin to medical profession. It
studies the Earth’s internal structure with the help of tremors including both
the Earth tremors and nuclear outburst etc.

You will be surprised to know that it is not a new idea as science of

‘Seismology’ was prevalent since ages. It was practiced in ‘Asian giant land
of China’ around 2000 years before to determine the direction and source of
seismic waves.

A Chinese scholar named ‘Chang Heng’ was the first to devise an

instrument used to detect the unfelt and guess the direction to the epicenter of
Earthquakes during 132 A.D. (Lutgens et. al, 2011). Seismographs used in
contemporary times are testimony, which resembles to this old Chinese
instrument.

You can see that how modern instrument looks like and functions in Fig. 1.2.
Did you notice the freely suspended hanging weight from a flat support base?
The moment seismic or earthquake tremors hit the seismograph; it remains
static owing to the factor of inertia of weight. It is relative to the moving
objects of support and the Earth’s surface. In other words, you can say that
factor of inertia of weight keeps the dormant objects at dormant state whereas
dynamic objects at dynamic state.

Fig. 1.2: Illustration of Seismograph.

A seismograph collects the evidence regarding the nature and types of

Earthquake tremors. This instrument is known as seismograms. It tells us
about the main types of tremors produced due to the movement of rock strata.
17
Geomorphic Processes For instance, the continuous movement of tectonic plates (i.e. concept of
plate tectonics dealt in detail in Unit 3, of this course) is explained.

There are two categories of seismic waves known as body and surface
waves. Body waves moves within the internal parts of the Earth. It is further
divided into two sub-types. They are primary and secondary waves
designated by the capital letter P and S. Surface waves as the name itself
indicates moves at the external part of the Earth’s surface. They are also of
two sub-types namely Rayleigh and Love waves.

1. Body waves: A Body wave propagates through internal parts of the

earth. The study of its propagational characteristics is the main source
through which we get precise and detail information about the interior of
the earth. Body waves are of two types viz; P and S waves. Among this,
P or primary waves have highest speed. It travels at a speed of 5
kilometres per second in the upper part of the earth. Its speed increases
in the deep interior. It is basically push and pull type waves moving
towards the direction of wave motion as shown in Figure 1.3 a and b.
This resembles to the sound waves.

All three state of matter like solid, gas and liquid shows resistance to
change in volume when compression is applied. Thus, these mediums
would eventually come back to their original state once the compression
forces are withdrawn. Thus, P waves are able to move through all three
mediums.

Next type is S waves. It causes vibrations at right angles in the direction

of wave movement. It is less speedy than P waves as it moves at nearly 3
kilometres per second in the upper part of the Earth. You can understand
it by taking a 2.5 metres long piece of soft plastic garden pipe. Now, if
you tie one side of a pipe over a vertical pole and vibrate it from the free
side.

You will notice the action in a pipe coming from the wave direction as S
waves transform the form of a conveying substance altogether as
opposed to P waves which momentarily does so. In other words, fluid
materials such as liquid and gas are not stress tolerant which readily
transforms the form of a matter. It means that fluids will not let the S
waves pass through.

2. Surface waves: You will learn that every category of seismic wave has
its own unique qualities of motion. This category is characterised by
complexity in motion at ground level as evident from Fig. 1.3 c and d. It
makes everything upon the surface to be in motion including buildings,
bridges, transmission lines and numerous man-made objects. It has two
types.

18
 Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
Composition

Fig. 1.3: Different Categories of Seismic Waves.

(a) P waves (b) S waves (c) Love waves (d) Rayleigh waves

First one is ‘Rayleigh wave’ with up and down motions as like that of an
electronically operated lift in a multi-storey building. Second type is known
as ‘love wave’ characterised by side to side motion resembling to that of a
wave generated by a swiftly flowing perennial river system. Former type is
considered more fatal than later as it carries the potential to damage the very
base of man-made infrastructural amenities. 'Perennial river system’ refers
to a river system having permanent flow of water like most of the Glacier fed
Himalayan rivers.

You will be aware that it has always been difficult to probe deep into the
Earth’s interior parts since ages. One of the plausible mediums is through the
light penetration. But, light cannot penetrate the solid and liquid intervening
rock layers found beneath the Earth’s surface. Another medium could be
either through drilling (e.g. to ascertain the availability of petroleum
resources as being done in the Western coast i.e., Off the coast in Bombay
High, India) and digging (e.g. to obtain the iron ore mineral as being done in
gold mines at Kudremukh Ore Mines, in Chikkamagaluru district,
Karnataka, India) techniques into the deep interior parts of the Earth to
locate various mineral resources.

You will be surprised to know that it is nearly impossible to drill beyond

specific depths. As of now, we have been able to drill to the depth of
approximately 12.3 kilometres at Kola Peninsula situated in the north-west
Russia. The reason for this is primarily because of prevailing extremely high
temperature and pressure of surrounding rocks around the drilling well.
19
Geomorphic Processes You may wonder that every year, planet earth experiences thousands of
tremors recorded by the seismographs. The detailed study of recorded
earthquakes helps us to unravel the mysteries of the earth’s interior. While
propagating in the interior, seismic waves helps to explain the existing
conditions, which are interpreted by the seismologists. You can understand
this phenomenon with the help of a graph of heartbeat known as ECG
(electrocardiogram), which is interpreted by a cardiologist. One more
example could be of a image taken by the x-ray, city scan or ultrasound
machines for the affected parts of a human body to ascertain the exact
reasons of debility and sickness for treatment.

You know that density of the rocks differ as we move from earth’s surface to
the interior parts. Therefore, a seismic wave gets invariably affected by such
varying densities of rocks. This in turn makes the seismic waves to refract
and run in a curvilinear direction as opposed to a straight line. You will
further learn that due to the seismic wave’s complex movement, the study of
recorded wave data by seismograms becomes difficult. Not following a direct
movement, seismic waves tend to behave differently. They reflect, refract and
diffract in their course of movement during tremors as shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: Complex Movements of Seismic Waves in the Earth’s Interior.

You will be amazed to know that the junction of two intervening rock layers
provides the platform to reflect seismic waves. They also refract in their
course from one to another rock layers. Besides, seismic waves also get
diffracted while facing any kind of natural/physical barriers like rivers and
mountains etc. You can say that it is because of this varying characteristic of
seismic waves that helps earth scientists to determine the boundaries found in
the earth’s interior.

You will further learn that seismic waves follow a much-curved movement
on account of rising speed directly in proportion to the increasing depth. Its
velocity is accelerated if a rock layer is not easily compressible and hard as
well. In turn, these two features of a rock layer namely compressibility and
20
hardness help earth scientists to infer about the prevailing condition in the Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
interior parts. Composition

Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Explain the term seismology.

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1.4.5 Earth’s Interior

Thus, based on the study of seismology, earth’s interior can be divided into
three main layering systems as shown in Fig. 1.5.

1. Crust

Crust is the outermost layer. It forms a part of lithosphere. It is mostly made

up of basalt rocks. It has two parts namely upper and lower crust. Mean
thickness is around 20 kilometres. Average density of the upper crust is 2.8g
/cm3 whereas it is 3.0 g/cm3 in case of the lower crust.

Little variation between the two is on account of the pressure caused by the
superincumbent weight. You will also learn that minerals of the upper crust
were formed with lesser pressure compared to the lower crust. Seismic waves
tend to travel with lesser speed in both upper and lower parts of the crust. Its
volume is about one percent of the earth whereas mass is less than one
percent.

2. Mantle

You will be surprised to know that Mantle is characterised by the abrupt rise
in the intensity of earthquake waves. It is known as ‘mesosphere’ located at
the boundary between lower crust and upper parts of the mantle.

Speed of seismic waves is 6.9 kilometres per second at the base of lower
crust. It rises rapidly to 8.1 kilometres per second as density of rocks below
tends to increase abruptly, due to occurrence of zone of discontinuity. It lies
between the separation zone of lower crust and upper mantle.

This zone of separation was discovered by Yugoslavian seismologist named

Andrija Mohorovicic during 1909. Thereafter, it came to be known as
‘Mohorovicic Discontinuity’ or ‘Moho Discontinuity’.

21
Geomorphic Processes

Fig. 1.5: Earth’s Layering System.

It has mean density of 4.6 g/cm3. Beneath the Earth, the mantle spans
nearly for a depth of 2900 kilometres. As a whole, it comprises 83 percent
volume and 68 percent mass of the earth.

You have learnt that earlier mantle was divided into two zones on the basis
of varying speed of the Earthquake waves and varying densities of the rocks.
The upper mantle extends from the ‘Moho Discontinuity’ to a depth of
1000 kilometres and lower mantle from 1000 to 2900 kilometres.

Presently, the mantle has been divided into three zones based on the
facts from the discovery of the ‘International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics’ IUGG. These zones are as under:

i) Moho Discontinuity to a depth of 200 kilometres: It is represented by

solid, hard and rigid landmass.

ii) To a depth of 200 to 700 kilometres: This second zone of mantle is

characterised by the softened state of rocks along with rocks in semi-
solid/viscous condition. It is also known as ‘aesthenosphere’ as
discussed earlier. This zone marks significant decrease in the velocity of
both P and S waves. For this reason, it has been named as ‘low velocity
zone’. It includes first two zones of upper parts of mantle, i.e., (i) and
(ii).

iii) Depth of 700 to 2900 kilometres: It is known as lower mantle. After a

depth of 700 kilometres, the velocity of both waves, P and S gets
increased substantially on account of change of the state of matter from
semi-solid to solid as well as increase in the density of the underlying
rocks.

You will learn that Mantle is rich in silicate minerals like iron and
22 magnesium etc.
3. CORE Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
Core is the deepest and absolutely remote zone in the earth’s interior. It is Composition

also known as ‘barysphere’. Extent of core is located from a depth of 2900

kilometres to the earth’s centre at a depth of 6371 kilometres.

It is marked by the boundary known as ‘Weichert-Gutenberg

Discontinuity’ between lower mantle and upper parts of the core. This is
located at a depth of 2900 kilometres.

You will be surprised to know that it is this discontinuity that marks the
rapid change in the density from 5.5 g/cm3 to 10.0 g/cm3. It is also supported
and denoted by the rise in the speed of primary seismic waves at 13.6
kilometres per second.

The density of the core increases to 12.3 g/cm3 to 13.3 g/cm3 and then 13.6
g/cm3 respectively. Core layer surpasses the mantle in its density by almost
double.

Core layer constitutes 31 percent mass of the Earth and only 16 percent of its
volume. Higher density of rocks (primarily nickel and ferrous) could be the
reason for higher percent of mass in the Earth.

You will be further surprised to know that from a depth of 5150 kilometres,
Core has two divisions of outer and inner core. Outer core denotes the loss
of secondary seismic waves and thus tells us about its molten state.
Boundary of inner core goes down from 5150 kilometres up to the Earth’s
centre situated at a depth of 6371 kilometres. It is in solid state having density
of 13.3 g/cm3 to 13.6 g/cm3. Primary seismic waves pass at a velocity of
11.23 kilometres per second through the inner core layer.

The Earth scientists particularly geophysicists and geochemists consider

the core to be made of metallic materials such as iron and nickel.

Check Your Progress 5

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Discuss briefly about the crust.

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1.5 CONCLUSION
 Thus, in this unit, you have studied and learnt the following concepts,
key points and issues as highlighted below: 23
Geomorphic Processes  You have learnt the basic concepts like Earth as a solid body, Earth’s
interior, rock cycle, seismology and distinctive layering systems along
with discontinuities and characteristics as well.

 You came to know that the most prominent discontinuities of

‘Mohorovicic discontinuity’ lies between crust and mantle and that of
‘Weichert-Gutenberg discontinuity’ marks the boundary between
lower mantle and upper parts of the core.

 You have learnt about the various theories on Earth’s internal structure
propounded by Edward Suess and Vander Gracht.

 You have also learnt about changing conditions of temperature, pressure

and density in the interior.

 In nutshell, you have learned about the Earth’s interior structure and its
composition. This information will definitely serve as a key and
fundamental to further probe the same in more scientific ways.

Thus, comprehensive understanding of the earth’s internal structure and

its composition is essential in terms of endogenic processes and forces
that heralds changes on the earth’s surface. Hence, thorough
understanding of the same may also help in assessing the disaster risk
assessment and for managing such unforeseen events in a pragmatic
manner.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe in short the basic concepts pertaining to the interior of the
Earth?

2. What do you understand by the mantle layer of the Earth’s interior?

Explain?

3. Write down a detailed account of any one theory of the Earth’s interior?

1.7 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solarsystem/earth

 Anderson, D.L. (1989). Theory of the Earth. Boston: Blackwell

Publications.

 Grotzinger, J., & Jordan, T. H. (2010). Understanding Earth. Ed6,

New York: W.H. Freeman

 and Company.

 Hussain, M. (2001). Fundamentals of Physical Geography, New Delhi:

Rawat publications.
24
 Lutgens, F.K., & Tarbuck, E.J. (2011). Foundations of Earth Science. Interior of the Earth:
Structure and
New Jersey: Pearson. Composition

 Robertson, E.C. (1966). The Interior of the Earth: An Elementary

Description. U.S:

 Geological Survey Circular, 532, 10 pages.

 Sharma, H.S., Sharma, M.L., & Mishra, R.N. (2010). Bhautik Bhoogol
(Physical Geography

 in Hindi). Jaipur: PanchsheelPrakashan.

 Singh, S. (2012). Physical Geography, Allahabad: Prayag Pustak

Bhawan.

 Siddhartha, K. (2000). The Earth’s Dynamic Surface. New Delhi:

Kisalaya publications.

1.8 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Rock cycle refers to the constant organization and reorganization of

various rock types. Soon after the solidification of magma and lava,
igneous rocks are formed. Igneous rocks break into small
pieces/particles by the agents of weathering and erosion. Wind and water
carry rock particles into the sea and oceans. It eventually transforms into
new sedimentary. If the same rock is subjected to excessive heat and
pressure, it turns into metamorphic rocks. Both sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks are of weathered and eroded nature. Rock cycle is a
continuous natural process and cyclical activity.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Heavy pressure of the rock strata lying one over the other leads to
high pressure. It further increases the density with increasing depth. It is
also a proven fact that heavy pressure cannot alone increase the density
of rocks to such a greater extent. It could be due to the presence of
intense metallic matter having inherently very high density. Core layer is
constituted by two heavy metallic components of iron and nickel. It has
also been confirmed on the basis of geocentric magnetic field of the
earth’s interior.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Suess divided the earth’s interior into three layers – crust, mantle and
core. Except crust, other two layers are concentric in shape. He termed
these three layers as Sial, Sima and Nife on the basis of their mineral
characteristics. Van der Gracht divided the Earth’s interior into four
layers. These are (a) outer sialic (upto 20 kilometres below oceans and 25
Geomorphic Processes 40 kilometres below continents), (b) inner silicate mantle (60 to 1140
kilometres), (c) zone of mixed metals and silicates (1140 to 2900
kilometres) and (d) metallic nucleus (2900 to 6371 kilometres).

Check Your Progress 4

1) Seismology is a kind of scientific endeavour to study the earth’s

internal structure. It does so with the help of tremors including both the
Earth tremors and nuclear outburst etc. Seismographs gathering the
evidence regarding the nature and types of earthquake tremors are
known as ‘seismograms’. It tells us about the main types of tremors
produced due to the movement of rock strata.

Check Your Progress 5

1) Crust is the outermost layer. It is a part of lithosphere. Lithosphere

includes the parts of entire crust and upper solid mantle. It is
mostly made up of basalt rocks. It has two parts of upper and lower
crust. Mean thickness is around 20 kilometres. Average density of the
upper crust is 2.8 g/cm3 whereas it is 3.0 g/cm3 in case of lower crust.

Terminal Questions

1. In your answer, you should be able to not only describe the basic
concepts pertaining to interior of the Earth, but also should cover the
main tenets behind the same. You can refer to section 1.2.

2. Your answer should cover the mantle and its main features. You can
refer to section 1.4.

3. While answering this question, you should be able to define the

main doctrine behind the chosen theory to discuss the interior of the
Earth. Your answer should cover and highlight the key points, strengths
as well as weaknesses compared to other theories. You can refer to
section 1.4.

26
 Continental Drift,
UNIT 2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT, Mountain Building and
Plate Tectonics
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
AND PLATE TECTONICS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
2.2 Continental Drift Theory of Wegner
Energy Responsible for Continental Drift
Mechanism of Continental Drift as described by Holmes
2.3 Theories of Mountain Building
Geosynclinal Orogen Theory of Kober
Convection Current Theory of Holmes
Plate Tectonics Theory and Mountain Building
2.4 Plates Tectonic Theory
Mechanism of Plate Movement
Plate Tectonic Theory: Mountain Building, Volcanism, Earthquake and
Tsunamis
Evidences of Continental Drift and Underlaying Plate Tectonics
2.5 Conclusion
2. 6 References/Further Reading
2. 7 Terminal Questions
2.8 Answers

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the basic idea of continental drift;

 explain the relationship between the theories of continental drift

and plate tectonics;

 describe the origin and relationship of mountain building,

Earthquake, volcanicity, tsunamis with plate tectonics.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied interior of the earth and its materials in Unit 1 of this
Block. In this unit you will learn about some treories. They are concerned 27
Geomorphic Processes with continental drift, mountain building plate tectonics. You will be
M
explained that continents are in constant motion relative to each other. After
going through the Section 2.2, you will be able to explain the 'Continental
Drift'. This concept was proposed for the first time, in detail, by
Alfred Wegener. The theories related to mountain building are propounded
by various scientists explained in Section 2.3. Wegener's idea and other
related researches, eventually, helped to arrive at the theory of plate tectonics.
The theory of continental drift was supported by the theory of plate tectonics,
which has been explained elaborately in Section 2.4. The lithospheric
segments below continents and oceans are part of a large block known as
plates.

2.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY OF

WEGENER
The term ‘continental drift’ is self-explanatory. It signifies that continents are
drifting or moving features. Though this concept was mentioned by map
makers like Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and Antonio Pellegrini in 1858, but
the credit for continental drift goes to Afred Wegener who gave precise and
detailed description of the same, for the first time in 1912.This idea was
developed and explained by Alfred Wegener in 1912 in his book "The
Origin of Continents and Oceans". This whole idea of the movements of
continent was termed as continental drift.

Let us now discuss about the continental drift theory. As mentioned above,
‘Continental Drift Theory' was proposed first by Alfred Wegener. He
suggested that there might have been horizontal displacement of the
continental masses on a global scale. Wegener assumed that there was only
one super-continent named Pangaea meaning 'all lands'. It was surrounded
by super-ocean called Panthalassa. During Carboniferous period (about 200
to 250 million years before), the Pangaea was broken into two parts. Those
parts were to north and south with respect to each other. Both parts were
separated by ageosyncline – narrow and shallow sea. It was called Tethys
Sea. The northern part of Pangaea was called Angaraland or Laurasia and
the southern part was called Gondwanaland. The rivers falling from both
landmasses started depositing sediments. The minerals of sediments were
mainly silica and aluminum covering continental crust. They were moved
over to the oceanic surface and form sedimentary layers there too. It is known
as oceanic crust. Below this oceanic sedimentary crust, the main minerals of
the rocks are silica and magnesium minerals. As you have already studied in
Unit 1 , there are two types of crusts i) continental crust also known as SIAL
and ii) oceanic crust called as SIMA. The deep sea floor formed as the upper
surface of SIMA is largely composed of basalt. Wegener considered that
SIAL was moving / shifting over SIMA.

Density of the continental crust is lighter than all the layers of the Earth's
interior and its density is 2.7g/cm3. Main composition of minerals of
continental crust is Silica and Aluminum. That is why this layer is known as
28
SIAL layer. Oceanic crusts are heavier and its density is 3.0 g/cm3. The Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
mineral compositions of the rocks are mainly Silica and Magnesium and so Plate Tectonics
the layer is known as SIMA.

Wegener started his theory from Carboniferous period, but he did not
mention about the shifting or non-shifting conditions of continents and
oceans prior to Carboniferous period. It is also believed that non-mention of
condition prior to Carboniferous does not mean that Wegner disbelieved in
pre-Carboniferous drift. The main reason is that the details before
Carboniferous period are known with much less certainty. After this period,
the distribution of plants and animals can largely be explained by
movements. The Pangaea was disrupted during subsequent periods and
broken landmasses drifted away from each other and thus the present position
of the continents and ocean basins became possible.

2.2.1 Energy Responsible for Continental Drift

According to Wegener, the continents after breaking away/ going apart, the
broken segment started to move in two directions: (i) Equator ward; and (ii)
Westward. Refer to the Fig. 2.1 which explains how the present continents
were once united in a single super continent as Pangaea.

Fig. 2.1: Disruption of Pangaea and drifting of continents

(Source: Illustration from USGS, 2012, URL: http:// pubs.usgs.gov)

The equator ward movement of southern part of broken Pangaea was mainly
caused by gravitational differential force and force of buoyancy. The
continental blocks are formed of lighter materials (SIAL) and are floating
with friction on relatively denser oceanic crust (SIMA). Thus, the equator
ward movement of the continental blocks would depend on the relation to the
centre of gravity and the centre of boundary of the floating continental mass.
Generally, these two types of forces were operating on opposite directions. 29
Geomorphic Processes But because of the ellipsoidal form of the Earth, the resultant movements
M
were directed toward the equator.

As explained by Wegner, the westward movement of the continents was

caused by the tidal force of the sun and the moon. The maximum
gravitational force of the sun and the moon was there when the moon was
nearest to the Earth. The force dragged the SIAL over the interior of the
Earth, SIMA towards the west.

This theory lacks the strength for explaining the potential force responsible
for the movement of the continents. Such forces were extraordinarily small,
but it is claimed that even these very small forces may be responsible to
cause continental movement.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) What are Pangaea and Panthalassa?

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2.2.2 Mechanism of Continental Drift as Described by

Holmes
Arthur Holmes, in 1919, suggested the mechanism of continental drift in a
more scientific way. The theory says- (i) that the continents are drifting/
carried away by the horizontal flow of hot magma on which they sit, and (ii)
the mantle is flowing because of its convection current. Holmes suggested
that rocks in the interior of the Earth would buoyantly rise toward the surface
from deep within the Earth when heated by radioactivity and then sink back
down as they cool and become denser. He theorized that convection currents
move through the mantle the same way heated air circulates through a room,
and radically reshape the Earth's surface in this process. He proposed that
upward convection might lift or even rupture the crust. It would lead to
lateral movement of the block. It could propel the crust sideways like a
conveyor belt. In this process, convection turned downwards. The buoyant
continents would crumple up and form mountains. Holmes also explained the
importance of convection as a mechanism for loss of heat from the Earth and
cooling of its deep interior. Scientists could produce appropriate evidences of
convective currents in the earth’s interior only after the World War II.
Holmes' theories have been reinforced by new data from seismologists,
mineral physicists and geochemists (Earth: Inside and out, 2000).
30
 Continental Drift,
2.3 THEORIES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING Mountain Building and
Plate Tectonics
Wegener also attempted to explain the origin of Fold Mountains of Tertiary
period on the basis of his Continental Drift Theory. The frontal edges of
westward drifting of continental blocks of North and South America were
crumpled and folded against the resistance of the rocks of the sea floor and
thus the western cordilleras of the North and South America (Rockies, Andes
and other mountains) were formed. Similarly, the Alpine ranges of Eurasia
were folded due to equator ward movement of Eurasia from and Africa
together with Peninsular India from south. Here, Wegener postulated
contradicting viewpoints. According to Wegener, SIAL was floating upon
SIMA without any friction and resistance but during the later part of his
theory he pointed out that mountains were formed at the frontal edge of
floating and drifting continental blocks due to friction and resistance offered
by SIMA.

2.3.1 Geosynclinal Orogen Theory of Kober

Kober not only attempted to explain the origin of mountains on the basis of
his Geosynclinal Theory but he also attempted to elaborate the various
aspects of mountain building, e.g. formation of mountains, their geological
history and evolution and development.

Kober's Geosynclinal Theory is based on the forces of the contraction

produced by the cooling of the Earth. The force of contraction generated due
to cooling of the rigid masses or forelands which squeeze buckle and fold
the sediments into mountain ranges.

Base of the Theory

According to Kober, there were mobile zones of water in the places of

present-day mountains. He called those mobile zones of water as
geosynclines or Orogen. The mobile zones of geocyncline were surrounded
by rigid masses which were termed 'Kratogen' by Kober. He identified six
major periods of mountain building activities through geologic time scale.
Out of them, three were very little known. They are reported to have occurred
during Pre-Cambrian era. Since Precambrian is the oldest one in geologic
time scale, very little is known about this era. The fourth is known as
Caledonian orogeny. It occurred from Ordovician to early Devonian period
(about 488 million to 444 million years ago). The fifth is termed as Variscan
orogeny. It happened during late Devonian to Carboniferous period (about
370 million to 290 million years ago). The last (6th) one is called as Alpine
orogeny. Its duration was from Paleocene to early Pliocene (about 65 million
to 2.6 million years ago).

Mechanism of the Theory

According to Kober, the whole process of mountain building passes through

three closely linked stages of lithogenesis, orogenesis and gliptogenesis.
The geosynclines are long and wide mobile zones of water which are 31
Geomorphic Processes bordered by rigid masses. He called forelands or kratogen for those rigid
M
land masses. These upstanding landmasses or forelands are subjected to
continuous erosion by fluvial processes. The eroded materials are deposited
in the depressions termed geosynclines. This process of sediment deposition
is called sedimentation. The ever-increasing weight of the deposited
sediments due to gradual sedimentation put enormous pressure on the beds of
geosynclines.It results into gradual subsidence of the beds of the
geosynclines.

The second stage of mountain formation is called the stage of

orogenesis. Both the forelands start moving towards each other because of
horizontal movement. The movement is caused by the force of contraction
resulting from the cooling of the Earth. It is also caused by attractive force
due to subsidence of the sediments in the geosynclines. The marching
forward of rigid landmasses horizontally towards each other causes
compressive force. Compression of the sediments of geosynclines
causes contraction, and ultimately folding of sediments. This leads to the
formation of fold mountain ranges. If the compressive forces are normal and
of the moderate intensity, only the sediments of the geosynclines are folded
marginally to form two moderate ranges. There two moderate ranges are
formed along the forelands. Thus, the middle portion of the geosynclines
remains unaffected by folding activity. This unfolded middle portion is called
Zwischengebirge or median mass (Fig. 2.2). According to Kober, the Alpine
Mountain chain of Europe can be explained on the basis of median masses.

Fig. 2.2: Kober's Geosynclinal Theory of Mountain Building

(Source: Savindra Singh, 2012, Physical Geography)

Third stage of mountain building, ‘gliptogenesis’, is characterised by gradual

rise of mountains and their reduction by denudational exogenic forces and
processes. Continuous denudation result into gradually lowering of the height
of mountains.

2.3.2 Convection Current Theory of Holmes

Arthur Holmes postulated his thermal convection current theory during 1928-
32 29 to explain the intricate process of the origin of major relief features of
the Earth's surface. The driving force of mountain building implied by Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Arthur Holmes is provided by thermal convection current originating from Plate Tectonics
deep within the Earth.

Base of the Theory

The origin of convective current within the Earth depends on the presence
of radioactive elements in the rocks. The disintegration of radioactive
elements generates huge heat which melts the rock as magma and thus
causes convection current. According to Holmes, concentration of radioactive
elements in the crust is also there but the generated temperature is not so high
because there is gradual loss of heat through conduction and radiation from
the upper surface at the rate of 60 calories per square centimeter per year.
Though there is very low concentration of radioactive elements in the
substratum but the gradual accumulation of heat produced by the radioactive
elements cause convective currents. Ascending convective current originates
under the crust near the equator because of greater thickness of crust, whereas
descending convective currents are originated under the polar crust because
of its shallow depth.

Mechanism of the Theory

The convective currents are divided into two major groups on the basis of
their location i) convective currents of rising columns; and ii) convective
currents of falling columns.

According to Holmes, the equatorial crust was stretched and ruptured due
to divergence of rising convective currents which carried the ruptured
crustal block towards the north and south and a syncline was created as
Tethys Sea between two blocks. This phase is called Opening of Tethys.
Again, two sets of convergent or downward moving currents pulled Laurasia
and Gondowana land towards each other. Thus, Tethys was compressed and
folded into Alpine mountains including Himalayas. This phase is called
Closing of Tethys. Geosynclines are formed due to subsidence of crustal
blocks. Due to compressive force generated by convergent convective current
moving laterally, pulling down/subsidence impact is bound to happen.
According to Holmes, the cyclic pattern of convective current and
related mountain building pass through three phases or stages.

The first stage is called ‘lithogenesis’. We know that the interior of the earth
is very hot. On the surface of the earth, the temperature of the rocks is the
lowest. The inner part is hot or warm depending on the depth from the
surface (Fig. 2.3). In this stage, the rising convective currents from two
centers converge under the continental slabs. Convergence leads to pulling
down of the surface/slab as it has a tendency to plunge into interior. This
causes to form geosynclines. As continuous depositions of sediments
are pressed downward, it is forced to compress downward. Under the interior,
heat is intense and hence, metamorphosis of the subsiding rocks is recorded.
Due to metamorphism of rocks, rise in their density is observed. It further
leads to downward movement of the metamorphosed materials. That is why,
this stage is called ‘Lithogenesis’, genesis of mountain formation. 33
Geomorphic Processes The second stage is marked by phenomenal increase in the velocity
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of convective currents. The main cause for this convective current is
the downward movement of cold materials in the falling column and
upward movement of hot materials in the rising columns of convective
currents. The high velocity convergent convective current buckle geosyncline
sediments and thus initiate the process of mountain building. This stage, thus,
is called the stage of Orogenesis (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3: Successive stage of Thermal Convective Currents under the

Crust and Mountain Building. (Source: Savindra Singh, 2012, Physical Geography)

The third stage is characterised by waning phase of thermal

convective currents due to incoming hot materials in the falling column and
upward movement of colder materials in the rising columns. The termination
of the mechanism of convective current yields several results, e.g. (i) the
materials of the falling columns start rising because of decrease in the
pressure at the top of the falling column due to the end of deposition of
materials. This mechanism causes further rise in the mountains. (ii) the
metamorphosed rock (Eclogite) with increased density being heavier
depressed downward and gets melted due to immense heat and thus it
expands. This expansion in the volume of molten Eclogite causes further rise
in the mountains. This stage is known as the stage of Gliptogenesis (Fig.
2.3).
34
2.3.3 Plate Tectonic Theory and Mountain Building Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Mountain building can very well be explained by the theory of Plate Plate Tectonics

Tectonics. This e theory tells that the result of plate convergence is the prime
reason for the formation of mountains. There are four different types of plate
convergence with respect to the formation of the mountains (Fig 2.4):
1) Convergence of two oceanic plates,
2) Convergence of oceanic and continental plates,
3) Convergence of two continental plates and
4) Continent- Arc collision

Convergence of two Oceanic Plates and Mountain Building

Two oceanic plates may converge at the destructive plate boundary where
one oceanic plate, which is heavier and denser compared to other oceanic
plate, sub ducts in the trench beneath the lighter low-density plate. The
resultant compression leads to the formation of island festoons and Island-
arcs. The best examples of this type are the Japanese Islands and Philippines
Island. The ocean crust, along with its sediments, is thrust beneath and the
rocks on the continental side of the trench are metamorphosed under high
pressure condition. The molten magma rises up and forms a pile of volcanic
rocks. The continuous pilling of volcanic rocks raises them above the ocean
water are finally exposes them above the sea level to form Island arcs.

Fig. 2.4: Continent-Continent Collision and Complex Mountain Range

35
Geomorphic Processes Convergence of two Continental Plates and Mountain Building
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When convergence and collision of two continental plates take place, in most
of the time, subduction of plate is not observed significantly. It happens so
because, both of the plates are similar in density and other characteristics.
Hence, collision is, generally, not associated with subduction. Recent
researches are showing that sometimes subduction does take place but not
substantially. Therefore, collision of two continental plates is causing,
invariable, fold mountain. This brings about huge lateral compression in the
sediment deposited in the geosyncline situated between two converging
continental plates as well as the sediment laying on the margins of the
continents. Due to this, the Fold Mountains are formed.

The Alpine-Himalayan Mountain system provides the best example of

continent-continent collision and mountain formation. In the Mesozoic era
there existed a long geosyncline, known as the Tethys Sea, between Laurasia
in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. After the Mesozoic era,
Gondwanaland started breaking up and Deccan shield started moving
northward. The result of converge of these two land masses was that the
Tethys sea became narrower and ultimately closed. The marine sediments and
the crust of the Tethys seas crumbled to form the mountain system (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.5: Ocean-Continent Collision and Mountain Building.

36
 Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Plate Tectonics

Fig. 2.6: Distribution of Plates of the Earth and Direction of their Movement
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_movement_pt_BR.jpg,
Author : USGS/Modified by Eurico Zimbres, CC: Public Domain

The result of convergence of the two continental plates led to the folding of
the rock strata and the Himalayas were born.

Convergence of Continental-Oceanic Plates and Mountain Building

Continent-ocean collision is the most prevalent of all the collisions as most
of the mountains encircling the American coast of the Pacific Ocean formed
by this type of collision. Convergence and collision generate intense
compression force and the sediment deposited on the continental margin is
squeezed and folded. Continental plates of Americas are lighter in density in
comparison to the Pacific Ocean plate. Over and above, there is huge
pressure of water on the Pacific Ocean. That is why, the greately pressed and
denser plate gets subducted. Because of the compressive force, the
sediments/rocks falling in between the two plates gets crumbled and fold
mountain is formed (Fig. 2.5).The Rocky Mountains of western North
America and the Andes of western South America are the best examples of
mountain building by continent- ocean plate collision.

Continent - Arc collision

Continent-Arc collision occurs when a continental plate collides with an
oceanic arcislands. This kind of situation exists in New Guinea where the
mountains were formed about 20 million years ago due to convergence of the
Islands arc lying to the north edge of Australia. As such, the northern part of
the Island is an old Island arc while the southern part of the Island is a part of
Australia.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit 37
Geomorphic Processes 1) What are major theories of mountain building?
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2.4 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

Let us now study the modern theory of Plate Tectonics. The concept of plate
tectonics may be considered as a revival of the Continental Drift Theory. The
Plate Tectonic theory tells that the Earth's outer layer consists of several rigid
lithospheric blocks called plates. These plates consist of continental (SIAL),
and oceanic (SIMA) crust as well as upper part of solid mantle, above
aesthenosphere. Plates are defined as broad rigid segments of lithosphere
floating on the underlying hot viscous asthenosphere. The rigid continental
plates are 100-150 km thick whereas the thickness of the oceanic plates range
from 6 to 100 km. The plates are drifting or moving relative to each other and
in the process, huge pressure is generated along the margins or boundaries of
the plates. This huge pressure is responsible for almost all the major
geomorphic and tectonic features on the Earth's surface. The present position
and distribution of the continents and oceans can be described with seven
major and over twenty minor plates. The seven major plates are: Pacific,
North American, South American, African, Eurasian, Indo-Australian and
Antarctic. The some of important other minor plates are: Cocos, Filipino,
Juan de Fuca, Caribbean, Scotia, Nazca, Arabian, Somali, etc. Refer to the
Fig. 2.6, which shows the distribution of major and minor plates of the Earth.

You will understand that there are mainly three types of identified plate
boundaries and margins: divergent or constructive plate boundaries,
convergent or destructive plate boundaries, and transform or lateral plate
boundaries. The divergent plate boundaries are mostly seen in the deep sea
along the mid oceanic ridges and the process is known as "sea floor
spreading". From mid oceanic ridges, magmatic materials are ejected in the
form of volcanic activities. In the process of ejection of magma, passage
space is created. This leads to the shift of the plate into two different
directions. That is why, the spread of the surface is recorded, and so is the
name given ‘sea floor spreading’. Once the sea floor is spreading, a new
surface is constructed for which the term is given as zone of construction.

i) Divergent or constructive plate boundaries: Two plates moving in

opposite direction is called divergence. So, it is a zone of divergence
characterized by continuous upwelling of magma resulting into the
formation of new oceanic crust.

ii) Convergent or destructive plate boundaries: When two plates move

closer or dash with each other is termed as convergence. Since the plates
are dashing, the edges of both plates are deformed and the surface is
38
 reduced. The reduction in the surface is observed in the form of Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
subduction of the plate, formation of trenches as well as inclination of Plate Tectonics
the surface when mountain is formed. Since the reduction in the
horizontal surface is recorded, that is why, it is called as zone of
destruction – where horizontal surface shrinks. The convergent plate
boundaries are of three types:

a) Ocean-Ocean When ocean plate margins fall on both sides of

convergence, subduction of plate/s happen. Plunging subducted
plate gets melted in the interior. Its volume increases and volcanism
results. Hence both trences as well as volcanism is observed at
ocean-ocean convergence margin. Example of this type of plate
boundary is seen along Japan in the Pacific Ocean.

b) Ocean-Continent In this case, oceanic plate is denser and water

pressure is greater, ocean plate subducts and continental plate
override the ocean plate. It leads to formation of mountain.
Convergent plate boundary is seen all along the Pacific Ocean
boundary. This is marked by the generation of volcanic arcs on the
continents. Due to this volcanic activity, the Pacific
Ocean boundary is named as 'Ring of Fire'.

c) Continent-Continent When margin of both converging plates is

continental in nature, formation of mountain is bound to happen.
Convergent plate boundary is seen between the Indian Plate and
Eurasia Plate. Their convergence has resulted great mountain
system known as the Himalayas.

iii) Transform or lateral plate boundaries: These are formed where

two crustal plates slide past one another. In this case, no surface is
created or destroyed. The area along this boundary remains the same.
Therefore, it is known as zone of preservation or preservative plate
boundary. Due to sudden shift/move of the plates, severe earthquakes are
experienced.

2.4.1 Mechanism of Plate Movement

The main reason of plate movement is convectional currents in from the
interior. It results into pushing of the plate from where magma is ejected
along the mid-oceanic ridges. Pushing from the divergent boundary results
into pulling/plunging at the convergent boundary. Now let us discuss them in
detail.

1. Convection Current

Convectional currents in the interior is due to excessive heat of mantle. As

the currents ascend from mantle, they diverge and spread laterally at the
lower part of the plates. Convection current causes the lithosphere to split and
the plate may move laterally along the direction of the convection current.
The high heat flow along the mid-oceanic ridges provides evidence to this
39
Geomorphic Processes process. The mantle convection involves jet like plume. It is called mantle
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plume of high temperature. When it reaches at the lower part of lithosphere, it
transfers its heat. In this process, the lower part of lithosphere is melted.
Melting results into larger volume of the rock material. It pressurizes the
surrounding rocks and tries to come out as volcanic eruption on the surface.
Mantle plumes are thought to be responsible for the initial breaking of
the Pangaea. Refer to Fig. 2.7, which illustrates the mechanism responsible
for plate movements.

Fig 2.7: Mechanism of Plate Movements

2. Slab Pull

In the convergent boundary, the denser plate slides down the lighter
plate causing subduction. The subducted portion of the plate causes slab pull.
This force accounts for most of the overall forces acting on plate tectonics.
Besides this, the 'ridge push' force operates from divergent plate boundary.

3. Ridge Push

The magma coming out of the mid-oceanic ridges causes the 'Ridge
Push'. Before the nineties, this force was considered to be the leading
contributor for moving the plates around the Earth. There have been two
main models of ridge push proposed by Earth scientists, namely gravity
wedging and gravity sliding. We know that mid-oceanic ridges rise thousands
of metres above the ocean floor. New sea floor or oceanic area is created
along the mid-oceanic ridges. It is very hot and thin as well as much higher
in elevation than the abyssal plains and trenches. The newly created surface
will effectively slide down the slope and try to move towards the subduction
zone causing sea floor spreading. In this process, oceanic plate gets thicker
and denser. the ridge push force increases towards the subduction zone (Fig
40 2.7 ).
With the advancement of the Plate Tectonic Theory, the Continental Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Drift Theory has got enormous improvement. Continental Drift Theory says Plate Tectonics
that the continents are in motion while according to plate tectonics not only
the continents but the sea floor are also spreading. The generation of new
oceanic crust at mid-oceanic ridges seems to be compensated by the
consumption of old oceanic crust along subduction zones. So, the crustal
block is to move outward from the mid-oceanic ridges and move in along
convergent boundary.

According to Plate Tectonic Theory, only SIAL that is not in motion, but
entire lithospheric blocks (Plates) are moving over the asthenosphere. The
Continental Drift Theory talked about the gravitational and tidal forces as the
chief mechanism for the movement of the continents which were largely
inadequate. But Plate Tectonic Theory explains the mechanisms for the
movement of the continents and ocean floors. The theory explains almost
every aspect on the geo-tectonic features of the Earth as well as the
continental drift. Therefore, we can infer that the Plate Tectonic Theory is the
latest and modern concept of Continental Drift Theory.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit

1) What are different ways of plate convergence?

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2.4.2 Plate Tectonic Theory: Mountain Building, Volcanism,

Earthquake and Tsunamis
Different types of Earth movements, epirogenic, orogenic processes of
mountain building, Earthquake, volcanism and tsunamis, etc. can very well
be explained through plate tectonic theory.

Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building

All the great mountain ranges of the world can be explained with the plate
tectonics. Two converging plates result huge compression along their
boundaries Due to this,fold mountains are formed. The Rockies, the Andes,
the Alpine Himalayan belt etc. are active folded mountains formed in
Tertiary Period. Other mountains, namely Appalachian in USA and Urals in
Russia are zones where plate tectonics was active earlier and these mountains
represent the zone of welding between two different plates.
41
Geomorphic Processes Plate Tectonics and Volcanism
M
The worldwide distribution of volcanoes and their occurrence at specific
place is related to different types of plate boundaries and their movements.
Volcanic activity is seen where two plates converge. Example can be taken
from convergence of the Pacific and the Eurasian plates; and the Nazca and
the South American plates. The subduction of the plate also results into
melting of plunging plate and volcanism. Divergence leads to quite type
of basaltic eruption which is seen along all the mid-oceanic ridges. There are
two types of associations of volcanic activity with plate tectonics: plate
margin volcanism and intra-plate volcanism.

A severe earthquake occurred on 26th December 2004 off the west coast of
Sumatra, Indonesia due to mega-thrust under the Indian Ocean bottom
plate. It resulted into deadly tsunami which caused the loss of 230,000
people spread in 14 countries.

On both boundaries - constructive and destructive, volcanic activities are

associated. Relatively less frequently, intra-platevolcanism is also found.
They can be explained as local thermal variation or hot spots in the mantle.

Plate Tectonics and Earthquake

Nature and movements of plate boundaries are responsible for the major
Earthquakes. Frequent Earthquakes take place at the diverging as well as
converging plate boundaries. Mid-oceanic ridges are common manifestation
of the divergent plate margins. The oceanic ridges are offsets by many
transform faults. Movement along this transform faults generate Earthquakes
which have a shallow focus. Convergent plate boundaries are associated with
most widespread and intense Earthquakes.

Plate Tectonics and Tsunami

The under-sea plate convergence and abrupt vertical shift in plate causes
tsunamis. When this happens downward shift of plate, the ocean water rushes
to the occurrence site and gets piled up quickly. Since it is in liquid form,
after piling-up/accumulation it starts outward journey very swiftly. Hence,
the wave generated, in this process, becomes very furious and everything is
completely washed away wherever tsunamis wave reach. Tsunami occurs
with a little intensity when there is rapid vertical movement in the oceanic
crust. It results in displacement (rise or drop) of the overlying water. Unlike a
rising tide, there can be a rapid retreat of sea level prior to the huge surge i.e.
tsunami (USGS, 2005). In the deep ocean, the tsunami wave may only be a
few inches high as the wavelength is high. The same tsunami wave several
meter on the coast due to shallow depth of water and small wavelength
increase in height to become It behaves like a fast moving wall of turbulent
water of several meters high (http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov).

42
Check Your Progress 3 Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. Plate Tectonics

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Try to find the relationship between volcanism and plate boundary.
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2.4.3 Evidences of Continental Drift and Underlying Plate

Tectonics
Evidences for continental drift and the underlying plate tectonics are as
follows:
1. Most of the continents and their shape look like that they were once
together as a super great continent (Pangaea) but now they are separated
today. It seems that they exist today as pieces of a jig-saw puzzle.
For example, have a look at the Figure 2.8, the shape of the east coast
of North and South America matches with the shape of the west coast
of Africa and Europe.
2. Geologically, both the coasts of Atlantic are also identical. The
geological structure of the eastern coast of South America and western
coast of Africa are more or less similar.

Fig. 2.8: Match of Geology between Eastern South America and Western Africa 43
Geomorphic Processes 3. Many fossil comparisons along the edges of continents look like they
M
fit together, which suggests species' similarities of that would only
make sense, if the two continents were joined together at some point of
time in the past.
4. There are several seismic, volcanic, and geothermal activities along the
conjectured plate boundaries. The concentration is striking, and indeed
this serves to define the plate boundaries extremely well.
5. There are ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where plates
are separating that are produced by upwelling lava between the
plates. Likewise, there are mountain ranges being formed where plates
are pushing against each other (e.g., the Himalaya, which is still
growing).
6. The upwelling of lava or magma in the mid-oceanic ridge forms a
new crustal plate. So, it is certain that they are young in geological age.
This has been scientifically proven.
7. Evidences for the disintegration of Pangaea in several plates and their
movement as continents are now extensive. Similar plant and
animal fossils are found around different continental shores, suggesting
that they were certainly joined together in geological past. The fossils of
Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, found both in Brazil and South Africa
are one of the important examples. Another is the discovery of fossils of
the land reptile known as Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age from
locations in eastern South America and southern Africa (Fig. 2.9). There
are also living evidences, may be the same animals being found on two
continents. Some Earthworm families are also found in South America
and Africa.

Fig. 2.9: Fossil Pattern Distribution of Fossil Pattern in Different Continents

Source: USGS (http://en.wikipedia.org).
44
 Continental Drift,
2.5 CONCLUSION Mountain Building and
Plate Tectonics
In this unit, you have studied and learned the following key points
and theories:

 Wegener proposed the continental drift theory which suggests that

the continental masses get displaced in horizontal manner on a global
scale. He named Pangaea for the super-continent and Panthalassa to
the surrounded super-ocean. The Angaraland and Gondwanaland
separated by a long narrow shallow sea called Tethys.

 There are two types of crusts i) continental crust (SIAL) and ii)
oceanic crust (SIMA). The deep-sea floor formed as the upper surface of
SIMA. It was assumed that the super continent Pangaea got broken and
started drifting over SIMA.

 According to the Wegener, the continents are moving by the action of

tidal force of the sun and the moon. When the moon is nearest to the
Earth then the maximum gravitational force occurs. It caused the pull by
both the sun and the moon. It results for moving of the SIAL over the
interior of the Earth. This theory lacks the strength for explaining the
potential force responsible for the movement of the continents.

 Plate tectonic theory explains that the lithosphere is divided into

various blocks termed as plates. These plates move in different directions
according to the divergence.. There are three types of plate boundaries
namely divergent (plates move in opposite direction), convergent (two
plates come together) and transform (slide past one another). The
mechanism involved in the plate tectonic theory is thought to be
convection current, slab pull, and ridge push.

 You have learnt about the mountain building theories with

detailed explanation of features of Geosyncline, convectional currents and
plate movements. You have also learnt about the views of different
geographers on mountain building like Kober's Geosyncline Theory and
Convection Current Theory of Arthur Holmes.

You will further study in detail about endogenetic (Unit 3) and exogenetic
forces (Unit 4). Endogenetic forces originate from beneath of the Earth
surface and are responsible for evolving various topographical features.
Exogenetic processes are responsible for landscape sculpturing.

2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the theory of continental drift as explained by Wegener in
detail.
2. Briefly present the geosynclinal orogen Theory of Kober.
3. Explain the mountain building theory of Holmes.
45
Geomorphic Processes 4. Discuss the Plate Tectonic Theory and establish the relationship with
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mountain building, earthquakes, volcanism and tsunamis.

2.7 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

 Butzer, K. W. (1976). "Geomorphology from the Earth" New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.

 Carlson, R.L., Hilde T.W.C., and Uyeda, S. (1983). "The driving

mechanism of plate tectonics: Relation to age of the lithosphere at
trench". Geophys. Res. Lett., 10: 297-300., GeoRL.10.297C.
doi:10.1029/GL010i004p00297.

 Clinton, P., Conrad, Susan Bilek, Carolina, (2004). "Great Earthquakes

and slab pull: interaction between seismic coupling and plate-slab
coupling". Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 218:109-122.

 Lallemand, S., Heuret A., and Boutelier D. (2005). "On the

relationships between slab dip, back-arc stress, upper plate absolute
motion, and crustal nature in subduction zones". Geochemistry
Geophysics Geosystems, 6.

 Lake, P. (1966). Physical Geography. London: Macmillan and Co Ltd.

 Majid, H. (2007). Fundamentals of Physical Geography. New Delhi:

Rawat Publication.

 Monkhouse, F.J. (1984). Principles of Physical Geography. London:

Hodder and Stoughton.

 Mussett A.E., and Khan M.A. (2000). Looking into the Earth; An
Introduction to Geological Geophysics. Cambridge University Press.

 Singh, S. (2012). Physical Geography. Allahabad: Prayag Pustak

Bhavan.

 Sparks, B.W. (1971). Rocks and Relief. London: Longmans.

 Strahler, A. H., and Strahler, A.N. (1992). Modern Physical Geography.

John Wiley and Sons, Pvt. Ltd.

 USGS: Historical perspective on plate tectonics, last updated,

19 September 2011.

2.8 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Wegner assumed that there was only one super-continent called

Pangaea. Pangaea was surrounded by a super-ocean called Panthalassa.
46
Check Your Progress 2 Continental Drift,
Mountain Building and
Plate Tectonics
1) The major theories of mountain building are:
Based on Continental Drift Theory of Wegener;
Geosynclinal Orogen Theory of Kober;
Convection Current Theory of Holmes; and
Based on Plate Tectonic Theory.

Check Your Progress 3

1) There are three ways of plate convergence:

i) Convection Current
ii) Slab Pull
iii) Ridge Push

Check Your Progress 4

1) Plate boundary and volcanism are closely associated as the majority

of volcanoes are situated mainly along plate boundaries

Terminal Questions

1. Refer to Sec. 2.2.

2. Kober attempted to explain the origin of the mountains on the basis of

his Geosynclinal Theory and elaborated various aspects of mountain
building e.g. formation of mountains, their geological history, evolution
and development. Further refer to Sub-sec. 2.3.1.

3. Refer to Sec. 2.3.2

4. Refer to Sec. 2.4

47
Geomorphic Processes
UNIT 3 ENDOGENETIC FORCES
Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Endogenetic Forces: Basics and Classification
3.3 Diastrophic Forces
Epeirogenic Movements
Orogenic Movements
3.4 Volcanism
Types of Volcanoes
Distribution of Volcanoes
3.5 Earthquakes
How Earthquakes Occur?
Earthquake Waves
Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquake
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Terminal Questions
3.8 References/Further Reading
3.9 Answers

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define and classify endogenetic forces;

 differentiate between epeirogenic and orogenic movements;

 describe the nature and types of volcanoes and their distribution; and

 explain the origin, magnitude and intensity of earthquakes.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units 1 and 2 of this block, you have learnt about the earth’s interior, its
different layers and materials of the earth. You now know the movement of
plates, formation of mountains, creation and destruction of the ocean bottom.
These are happening due to certain forces. Those forces which are getting
generated from below the surface of the earth are known as endogenetic
forces. Endogenic forces are responsible for various changes on the earth’s
48
surface. Although the endogenetic forces are active inside the earth, some of Endogenetic Forces
its consequences are observed on the Earth's surface. For example, broad
topographical features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, ocean
bottom, etc., are formed due to endogenetic forces. It is, therefore, important
for you to learn about the endogenetic forces.

In Section 3.2 of this Unit, you will study how endogenetic forces are
generated from beneath the earth's surface and cause to relative movements
of earth's lithospheric segments. You will also study the classification of
endogenic forcesinto two types- namely slow (diastrophic) and sudden. In
Sec. 3.3, you will learn the concept of diastrophic forces are generated from
deep interior. In Sec. 3.4 and 3.5, you will study the origin of sudden forces
and their impacts onearth's surface. They are basically volcanism and
earthquakes. Volcanism is dealt with respect to its types and distribution. The
dealing of earthquake is concerned with its occurrence, generated waves its
magnitudes and intensity. The earth's relief and topography is created by a
balance between the endogenic and exogenic forces caused by both
endogenetic forces and exogenetic processes. Exogenetic processes originate
in the earth's atmosphere and continuously alter the major relief features
created by endogenetic forces. You will study about exogeneticforces/
processes in Unit 4 of this Block.

3.2 ENDOGENETIC FORCES: BASICS AND

CLASSIFICATION
We generally observe numerous topographical features such as
mountains, plateau, plains etc., on the Earth's surface. Would you like to
know how did they come into existence? Did these features exist when the
planet earth was formed or did they come into existence later? Yes, these
topographic features have evolved over time and are caused due to forces
active from earth's interior. These forces are called endogenetic forces.

The endogenetic forces are responsible for changes on the earth's topography.
The visible changes are creation of new surface/feature, destruction of
existing. These forces produce various types of irregularities on the surface
of the earth in the form of mountains, ridges, plateaus, valleys, and plains,
ocean bottom etc. In addition, volcanic activity and earthquake events are
also some of the expressions of endogenetic forces. Abruptly happening
causes are called sudden forces.

As the name suggests, the sudden forces arise due to sudden movements.
The cause of endogenetic force is high heat of the interior as well as heat
generated by disintegration of radio-active minerals in the upper layer of the
earth. The variation in temperature in different depths of the earth's interior
may cause contraction and expansion of rocks. In the present Unit, our major
concern will be to discuss the effect of endogenetic forces on shaping the
earth's topography. A diagrammatic presentation of the classification of
endogenetic forces is given in Fig. 3.1.
49
Geomorphic Processes

Fig. 3.1: Major types of endogenetic forces and their consequences in the earth's crust.

You have studied that the plates (Unit 2) are mobile and they are always on
move. You also have understood that Alpine Mountains are very young and
their formation started around 65-70 million years ago. These mountains are
still rising. But have you ever thought about the process by which they have
been created? You might have yourself felt the earthquakes or have read
about the volcanoes as well as you might have watched any videos on your
television related to them. Yes, it happens due to endogenic forces. Out of
them earthquakes or volcanism are happening suddenly but the rise of height
of the Himalayas of shifting of plates are very slow to recognize in a very
short time span. To understand the importance and consequences of these
endogenetic forces, you should study the following sections.

Epeirogeny means 'mainland'. The term introduced by Clarence Dutton, an

American geologist in 1890 from the Greek 'epeiros'.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) What are endogenetic forces and what are their effects?

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3.3 DIASTROPHIC FORCES

You have already learnt that the diastrophic forces originate from inside the
surface. They include both vertical and horizontal movements. These operate
50
very slowly and are responsible for the formation of major landforms such as Endogenetic Forces
mountains, plateaus, plains, etc. Diastrophic forces can be classified into two
types; (a) epeirogenic movements and (b) orogenic movements. Let us
learn about them:

3.3.1 Epeirogenic Movements

Due to epeirogenic movements, upliftment and subsidence of continental
masses are observed. It is known as both horizontal and vertical forces
operating from the interior. Vertical force can be seen in two ways – upward
or downward. Its direction of operation is along the radius of the earth – from
center to the surface of the earth. When it is in upward direction, upliftment is
resulted, while in downward operation results into pulling down of the
surface, hence, subsidence is seen. Therefore, they are also known as
upwarping or down warping, respectively. It happens without any significant
folding or faulting. Epeirogenic movements are also known as continent
building movements as they affect the large-scale landmasses.

The upliftment of a coastal land is called emergence as the land comes out
from the oceanic water body. In the same way, when the coastal area is being
pulled down and ocean water occupy the area, it is called submergence. Some
important examples of upliftment/emergence are Deccan Plateau, upliftment
of submerged coastal Florida and West Coast Islands. Due to subsidence,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are separated from Arakan Coast. The same is
seen in Rann of Kachchh and near Dwarka.

3.3.2 Orogenic Movements

You must have seen any mountain with moderate to steep slope. Have you
ever imagined that how it was formed? Can such a high mountain be made by
upward movement or vertical force? No, that is not possible. The mechanism
of mountain formation is different that the vertical upliftment.

You have already studied about the mountain building and plate tectonics in
Unit 2 of the block. According to plate tectonics theory, the uppermost solid
mantle and crust, also known as the lithosphere, is broken intoseveral
segments. These segments are called lithospheric or tectonic plates.They is in
constant motion with respect to one another. Due to this activity, major
interactions take place along the plate boundaries or margins. Their
movements result into the formation of mountain. Plates move in relation to
each other in three different ways such as divergent (the plates move away
from one another), convergent (plates move towards each other) and
transform (the plates slide past one another). The mountain building activity
takes place particularly in the convergent boundary between two plates.

Orogenic movements occur mainly along the convergent plate boundaries or

plate margins. Convergence produces intense pressure and results into
folding and faulting. These horizontal forces act in three ways. (i) towards
each other, (ii) opposite to one another and (iii) parallel to each other. The
force operates face to face or towards each other are called compressional 51
Geomorphic Processes forces or convergent force. You may be aware that the rocks are squeezed
or crushed when compressional force applies. On the other hand, the forces
act on the rock in opposite direction leading to rupturing of the rock. These
forces are called tensional force or divergent force. Under shearing forces,
the stresses act parallel to each other but in opposite directions. These forces
can produce transform faults. Tensional and shearing forces create faults or
fractures. If there is compression on one end, there may be tension on the
other end. Hence, it is understood that folding and faulting often act together
but along different location.

Stress is a force that acts on a body unevenly in all directions referred to as

differential stress. There are three types of differential stress including
tensional, compressional and shear.

a) Folding

As you know that several lithospheric plates constitute the earth’s surface and
plates arein motion. When two continents collide, the intervening
sedimentary rocks of continental margins come under strong forces of
compression. To understand the formation of folds, refer to Figure 3.2.
The horizontal strata is bent or curved as a result of compression. The
wavelike undulations generated horizontally are called anticlines (upfold or
crest) and synclines (downfold or trough). The size and shape of folds
depend upon various factors such as the nature of rocks, intensity, and
direction of compressive forces, etc. Folds in some rock layers measured
from a few centimetres to kilometres. They could be e tight or
broad, symmetrical or asymmetrical. Most of the mountain systems exhibit
some degree of folding. We could find large scale folding structures in the
mountains of Appalachian and Himalayas, etc.

Fig. 3.2: Folds formation due to compressional forces.

Now you need to understand the terminologies associated with folds. Have a
look at the diagram in Figure 3.3. The two sides or flanks of folds are called
limbs. The central line between the limbs, along the crest of anticline or
trough of syncline is termed as the axis of fold. An imaginary plane drawn
52
between the limbs is called fold axis. Two limbs form a fold. A plane Endogenetic Forces
dividing the fold from its crest to the center below is called the axial plane. If
the axis is inclined from the horizontal, the fold is said to plunge. If the axial
plane is vertical and the limbs are inclined with similar slope, the fold
is termed as symmetrical.If the two limbs are inclined with different angles
with dissimilar length, it is termed as asymmetrical. The point at the fold's
maximum degree of curvature is known as the fold hinge point. A hinge line
connects hinge points in three dimensions

Fig. 3.3: Basic components of a fold.

The important types of folds are illustrated in Figure 3.4. The

compressive equal pressure from both sides with moderate intensity results
into symmetrical or simple or open folds. These are very rarely found. Few
examples of these folds are Jura Mountains of France and Switzerland.
Asymmetrical folds are formed when both the limbs are unequal and
irregular with different angles of inclination. One limb may be larger
with moderate inclination and the other shorter with steep inclination.

Fig. 3.4: Various types of folds formation due to compressive forces: a) symmetrical;
b) asymmetrical; c) overturned; and d) recumbent.

An overturned fold is formed when the axial plane is inclined to such a limit
that the strata of the limb are overturned. When the axis of the fold is
essentially horizontal, and both limbs are almost parallel to each other,
Recumbent folds are formed. It happens when the intensity of compression
over both the limbs of fold may be parallel as well as horizontal. With further
increase in pressure, the recumbent folds may be sliced or sheared in which 53
Geomorphic Processes the slices of rock moves over the underlying rock on flat surfaces of low
inclination is called as overthrust faults. The plane of shearing is a thrust
plane and the structure is Overthrust fold. This kind of thrust is called
nappe, a fold detached and thrown further. Literally speaking, nappe is not a
fold, but it is a fault caused by excessive pressure. It a French word which
means “cover sheet" or "table cloth". The examples of nappesare found in
European Alps.

b) Faulting and Thrusting

You have studied about the basic information on folds and their types. As
you know, folding is bending of rock layers. It occurs due to compressional
force.Fault is a fracture in the crustal rock. It is formed mainly due to
tensional forces created by the endogenetic forces. The plane along which the
rock blocks are displaced is called fault plane. Faults are formed when rocks
on both sides of the plane have moved relative to each other. Due to tensional
forces, rock layers are dislocated. The vertical displacement of rock blocks
may take place upto several hundred meters and horizontal displacement may
extend upto several kilometers.

Watch the video related to fold and faults from: https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=rjn2ZJwpqQA

Detailed study of faults helps geoscientist to understand how the tectonic

plates move relative to each other. The four basic types of faults are classified
based on the angle of inclination and the direction of displacement.(Fig.
3.5).If the displacement is up or down along the fault plane, it is called a dip-
slip fault. A strike slip fault is formed when the displacement is parallel and
horizontal to the fault line. When both displacements – dip-slip and strike slip
arecombined, it is said to be oblique slip faults. Both shifting blocks of the
fault are termed as the walls. The separating surface is called fault plane or
fault scarp. The upper block is termed as hanging wall whereas the lower one
is footwall.

Fig.3.5: Faults formation mainly due to tensional forces.

54
According to the horizontal shrinking or enlarging space, faults are divided Endogenetic Forces
into two – normal and reverse. A normal faultis created when tensional force
is in operation. Due to tension, when fault is created there is elongation or
extension of the surface. Hence, the direction of the movement is vertical. As
a result, one side is either pulled up or pulled down. It is termed as
upthrownor downthrown relative to each other.Normal faults may occur in
multiples and parallel in. It is known as step-like fault.

A reverse faultis created when compressional force is in operation. Due to

compression, the surface shrinks or gets reduced. In reverse fault, the hanging
wall moves up relative to the footwall. It must be remembered that both
normal and reverse faults form fault scarps. These scarps are exposed at the
margins of uplifted (reverse fault care) or down drifted (normal fault case)
blocks.

Lateral or strike slip faults are formed when the faulted rock blocks are
displaced horizontally with no fault scarp. Only a thin fault line is traceable
across the surface. These are also named as shear faults, transcurrent faults,
transform faults or wrench faults. Some important examples are the Alpine
Fault in New Zealand, the Great Glen Fault in Scotland and the Lorch-
Alahama Fault or the Alhama de Murica Fault in Spain. Thrust and reverse
faults are generally observed in subductionand convergent plate boundaries.

A graben or rift valley isformed when a central faulted block is thrown

downward between two normal faults. A narrow faulted block is thrown
upward between two normal faults is called a horst. Topographically, horsts
are like plateaus or flat topped mountains with steep and straight faulted
sides. A graben is a valley or depression/trench like structure bordered by
steep and parallel walls. Best examples of the horst are Shillong Plateau in
India, and the Rhine Graben (East African Rift Valley) which stretches for
600 kms in length and 70 kms in width.

In this section, so far, you have learnt about two forces- epeirogenic and
orogenic. Due to these forces, how folds and faults are formed is also known
to by now. In the following sections and subsections, you will learn about the
sudden forces.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Mark the following statements as True or False:

a) Folds are formed due to compressive forces.
b) The consequences of epeirogenic movements are the formation of
folds and faults.
c) Nappe is a fold caused by tensional force.
d) Strike-slip fault is also called shear fault. 55
Geomorphic Processes __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

3.4 VOLCANISM
Briefly you have already studied about vulcanism in Unit 2 of this block. You
know it well that is happens suddenly and originates from the earth’s interior.
Volcanism is one of the endogenetic processes capable of rendering sudden
and massive changes in the surface features of the earth. It represents
processes and features related to the movement and solidification of magma
both within the crust and on the surface. Surface processes include the
formation of volcanoes. Volcanism can be observed mainly in the interiors of
oceanic plates. The activity of molten magma is defined as extrusive
volcanism whereas magma solidifying below the surface is called intrusive
volcanism or plutonic activity.

Volcanic materials can be divided into two main groups:

(a) Pyroclastic materials for example: hot ash, gases, water vapour and
small fragments of rocks (lapilli, tephra, pumice, scoria) etc.

(b) Lava flow materials for example: lava and lava flow,

Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the most catastrophic

phenomena. There are roughly 700 potential volcanoes identified. Out of
which approximately 50 volcanoes erupt with risk. Some of known
catastrophic historical eruptions were at Vesuviuos (79 AD),Tanbora
(1815), Mount Pelee (1902), Mount St. Helens (1980), Nevadodel Ruiz
(1985) and Pinatubo (1991). Researches show that three fourths of
all volcanic activity is underwater activity mainly concentrated along mid
oceanic ridges.

A volcano is a deep vent, or opening or passage, usually connecting the

interior through which heated materials consisting of gases, ash, water, vapor
and molten rocks are ejected. All such items reach to the earth’s surface from
the earth's interior. You can have a glance on tn an idealized diagram of a
volcano from Fig. 3.6.

The ejection of the heated materials from a volcano through the vent is called
eruption. Magma extruded onto the earth's surface is referred to as lava. The
magma consists of molten rock. Apart from liquified rock material, other
substances likeheated liquid - water, watervapour, gases etc. are also ejected.
The materials coming out from the volcano gets accumulated in the vicinity.
The crater is created at the top of the cone as funnel-shaped depression. The
base of the crater is connected with the interior part of the Earth by volcanic
pipe through which the lava rises to the top.
56
Let us now study different types of volcanoes. Endogenetic Forces

Fig. 3.6: Various features of volcano.

3.4.1 Types of Volcanoes

There is a wide range of variations in the form of volcanic eruptions and
their periodicity. The nature of volcanic eruption whether explosive or quite
depends upon the type of magma and its viscosity. On the basis of the
viscosity of magma and passage of volcanic eruptions, volcanoes
are categorized into two types -(a) central or explosive eruption and
(b) fissure or quite eruption. Central eruptionejects pyroclastic materials
like lava and rock fragments, ashes and dust.

In fissure eruption, basaltic lava is expelled from the interior. Since basaltic
lava is rich in metallic content due to which it is less viscous. It erupts very
easily without any blasting effect. It requires less pressure. Lava is spread
over large area easily and quickly. Therefore, plateau type feature is created.
The divergent plate boundary is associated with this type of volcanic
eruptions.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

As mentioned above, volcanoes are of two types – central and fissure on the
basis of the shape of the passage as well as the viscosity of the magma.
Erupted materialsget accumulated around the volcanic vent either in circular
of linear shape. In general, the nature and intensity of the eruption may vary
based on the characteristics of ejected substances. In central vent type of
eruptions, magma is relatively viscous, gases are more and hence, pressure
needs greater. Lava is made up of more silica content and are more explosive.
This is known as acidic lava.
57
Geomorphic Processes Basic lava is relatively more fluid. It has more metallic content. It is called
mafic lava or basaltic lava. If the lava is more fluid, it erupts quietly and
lacks violent explosion. On the basis of the viscosity of magma, volcanoes
may be subdivided into several types. Some important among them are
Islandic Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean and Plinian. They are
shown in Fig. 3.7.

Icelandic Type

This type of volcano is categorized into fissure eruption. The lava ejected in
this type is basaltic in nature and is more fluid. Hence, the lava is spread over
a large area and plateau type feature is created.

Hawaiian Type

Hawaiian type of volcano is effusive and quiet eruptions. They can also feed
much larger lava flows through time. Sometimes fountains of highly fluid
basaltic spray rise up with the gases. These eruptions commonly occur in
Hawaii islands and hence, named as Hawaiian type. Examples of these
eruptions are KlaueaIki (1959) in Hawaii island and Krafla (1975-83) in
Iceland.

Strombolian Type

These are the most picturesque volcanic stylesIt is named after volcano
formed on StromboliIsland, in the Mediterranean Sea. It is characterised by
relatively mild explosion. It ejects liquid lava, fragmented materials like
pumice, scoria, and bombs of hot materials. These eruptions are regular,
rhythmic in intervals varying from few minutes to about an hour. The ejected
material in this type of volcanoes reaches to a height of a hundreds meters to
about akilometres.Strombolian eruption in the Mediterranean looks
somewhat like an energetic Roman candle firework.When it is viewed at
night, looks like the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".

Krakatoa Volcanic Eruption: 1883

Krakatoa is a volcanic island in Indonesia.It lies along Indo-Australian and

Eurasian convergent boundary. The eruption on 26th August 1883 was the
most catastrophic in the human history. About two-third of the island was
blown away by the massive volcanic blast. You may imagine the power it has
generated by the fact that ejected minute substances reached to a height of
nearly 80 kms in the sky. Its sound of volcanic explosion was heard about
3500kms away in Australia. The sunset in the different parts of the globe
were colored by fine volcanic dust for many months afterward.

(Read in detail from: https://www.britannica.com/place/Krakatoa)

Interesting Facts

 Most volcanoes are 10,000 to 100,000 years old and expected that
10,000 more volcanoes are situated in the ocean.
58
 The oldest volcano is Mt. Etna, Sicily, in Italy that is about 350,000 Endogenetic Forces

years old.

 Indonesia has a greater number of volcanoes in the world, and one of the
volcanoes Merapi (means "mountain of fire") erupted recently in January
1994.

 Laki volcano in Iceland erupted in 1783 and lava flow was stretched
about 65 kms.

 Stromboli has been known to be erupting for more than 2,000 years.

 Volcanoes emit gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide,sulphur

dioxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride.

Fig. 3.7: Different Types of Volcanic eruptions

59
Geomorphic Processes Vulcanian Type

Vulcanian type was named after eruption on Volcano in the Aeolian Islands
in the Mediterranean Sea.This type of eruptions are more explosive Due to
more viscous magma in the interior and lava on the surface. Viscus lava gets
solidified quickly and seals the mouth of the crater in between two eruptions.
Due to this obstruction, the violent pressure of gases blasts the plugged
mouth/crater. In this process, much larger amount of gas, ash, dust, lava and
rock fragments are emitted in greater quantity and intensity that than their
Strambolian type. Counter parts.

Pelean Type

This type of volcanic eruption is associated with explosive outbursts.

Pyroclastic magma, dense mixtures of rock fragments and gas are its mains
constituents. It occurs with greater intensity than Vulcanian and Strombolian.
The lava mainly comes out with greater force with larger quantity of gases.
When greater pressure is generated in the interior, volcanicexplosion occurs
with immense blasting effect. Ashes and gases form thick mushroom shaped
clouds. The clouds can rise to greater heights in the sky. Its name is assigned
so, due to destructive eruption pf Mount Pelee on the Caribbean islands.

PlinianType

Plinian type is the most violent and destructive of all volcanic eruptions. It
produces great column of gases and minute fragments climbing into
stratosphere and creates a big umbrella of ejected materials. This type is
named after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in the year 79 (with
reference to 2024, it is 1945 years before) described by a historian named
Pliny. These are highly explosive and eject highly viscous lava. The emitted
viscous lava forms a dome in the volcano's crater.

Frequency of Eruption Type Volcanoes

You have studied the classification of volcanoes based on the viscosity of

lava and shape of the volcanic passage. Let us, now, know about their types
based on their frequency. On the frequency of eruption, volcanoes are divided
into three types, namelyactive, dormant and extinct.

Active volcanoes are those which erupted recently and have chance to erupt
in near future. The volcanoes are termed dormant when the eruption was seen
long time back, but there is possibility that it may erupt. Extinct volcanoes
are those which does not have any chance to erupt.

3.4.2 Distribution of Volcanoes

You have studied plate tectonics and plate boundaries in Unit 2 of this block.
Have you tried to observe that the volcanoes are highly concentrated along
with plate boundaries? At present more than 1500 active volcanoes are
distributed over the globe. It has been observed that volcanic activity is
strictly confined to certain limited strips of the world. These are mostly
60
found on the marginal parts of the continents, and in the littoral zones of Endogenetic Forces
oceans and seas. Volcanic activity is mainly associated with plate boundaries
(Fig. 3.8).

Examples:

Active Volcanoes: Mona Loa (Hawaii Islands), Etna (Sicily), Vesuvius

(Italy), Pinatubo &Mayon (Philippines). Cotopaxi Volcano in Ecuador (the
world's highest active volcano, 19,600ft high).

Dormant Volcanoes: Fujiyama (Japan) and Krakatoa (Indonesia)

Extinct Volcanoes: Pope Mountains (Myanmar), Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa)

and also found in Mauritius, and Malagasy.

You may like to read about volcanoes at http://volcanoes.usgs.

Gov/index.php

Fig. 3.8: Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes along the Plate Boundaries.

Volcanoes are mainly distributed alongplate boundaries. It is apparent from

the Fig. 3.8 that the most notable area of volcanism in the world is around the
margin of the Pacific Ocean.It is known as Ring of Fire or Circum-Pacific
Belt. This zone encompasses more than seventy five percent of the volcanoes
of the world.It is estimated that the about 80 percent volcanoes are
concentrated along convergent plate boundaries, 15 percent are on the
divergent plate boundaries and only 5 percent are found on intra-plate. There
are five distinct zones of the distribution of volcanoes in the world. They are:

(i) Around the Pacific Ring of Fire– The largest number of volcanoes are
concentrated in this region.
61
Geomorphic Processes (ii) Along the Mid-Oceanic Ridges – Most of the quiet volcanoes are found
in this zone from where plates are drifting apart.
(iii) Mediterranean convergent boundary – In this belt, some well known
volcanoes are found where complex tectonic boundaries are there.
(iv) In the African Rift Valley–Geologically. it is a new zone where
volcanoes are observed.
(v) At Hotspots – these types of volcanoes is not associated with any plate
boundaries but are explained by local existring condition for volcanic
activities.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Match the following?

Types of Lava Types of Volcanoes

a) Fluid i) Hawaiian
b) Mild viscous ii) Plinian
c) Moderateviscus iii) Icelandic
d) Highest viscous iv) Vulcanian
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3.5 EARTHQUAKES
As we know, large number of earthquakes occurs every year across the
world. Some of them bring excessively destructive effects on human life,
property and environment. Hence, it is essential to have an idea about the
earthquake. Earthquakes may last only for a few secondstoa few minutes.
They can occur at any time. Simply, the earthquake is the passage of
vibrations which gets generated in the earth's interior due to the sudden
movement of disturbance. According to Strahler and Strahler, an earthquake
is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild
motion capable of shaking buildings apart and causing gapping cracks to
open up in the ground. It is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted
through the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a particular
point. This point is called focus which is the source for releasing the sudden
energy. Let us study in detail about it.

3.5.1 How Earthquakes Occur?

Earthquakes are caused by volcanic explosions or by sudden displacements
of rocks in fault zone or due to volcanic activities. Hence; they could be of
two types –volcanic and tectonic. Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to
62 volcanic eruptions. When the magma is forced to come pot from the interior,
it causes tremor on the surface because of greater friction. Volcano generated Endogenetic Forces
earthquakes are of lesser intensity.

Due to the endogenetic forces, rocks of the interior are in stress and strain.
When they become greater than their tolerance, it leads to breaking of the
rocks/plates. It causes imbalance in the isostatic equilibrium. Disequilibrium
is the cause an earthquake. Hence, some of the tectonically generated
earthquakes are excessively devastative. So, starting from mild tremor to
disastrous earthquakes is resulted by tectonic activities. That is why, most of
the earthquakes are highly associated with plate boundaries, because effects
of plate movements are recorded there (Fig. 3.8). Apart from the plate
boundaries, some earthquakes are also observed on intra-plate.They are
caused by local isostatic disequilibrium.

3.5.2 Earthquake Waves

Generally, earthquakes originate from a few to several kms deep below the
Earth's surface. In order to understand an earthquake, refer Fig. 3.9. It makes
you understand two terms - focus and epicentre. Most of the earthquakes are
originating from plate boundaries of fault plane. The shift/slide of the fault
block is not a smooth one. They are jammed/ locked with each other. When
they shift, it becomes jerky. Abrupt change in their position causes imbalance
in isostatic adjustment and earthquakes are the resultants.

The point, along a fault or plate boundary in the interior from where the
earthquake is generating, is known as focus. Immediately above it, on the
surface (shortest possible distance, perpendicular) is termed as epicentre.
The depth of focus from the epicentre, called as focal depth.It is an important
parameter in determining the potential damage of an earthquake. The seismic
waves radiate in all directions from focus, and propagates. The shallower
deep earthquake causes greater damage than the deep focused. In former
case, less deep-seated earthquake has the use its energy to jerk lesser amount
of rockmass while in later case, it requires to jerkhuge mass. That is why, less
deep-seated earthquakes are more dangerous than the deeper seated one, if
the intensity is similar.

Earthquake measuring instrument is called Seismograph.By the study of the

recorded earthquakes, it is known that there two types of waves generated.
They are body waves and surface waves. These waves travel outward in
widening circles, like the ripples produced when a rock is thrown into
calmlake water. It decreases with increasing distance from the drop of the
stone/epicentre.

You can understand it very well by this experiment.

Take a pebble and throw it into a calm water of a pond. You can visualize
ripplesgetting generated on the pond water. If you focus on the ripples, you
can observe how they are moving out in radial pattern. They will travel
outward in all directions gradually losing energy from the point of the origin
where pebble is dropped. Seismic waves also travel in the same manner with
intense energy from the focus and gradually losing energy with distances.
63
Geomorphic Processes

Fig.3.9: Earthquake Process.

Body waves, as the term itself is explanatory, travel from the body/earth’s
interior. They are Primary (P) and Secondary (S) waves. Surface or Long
(L) waves travel from the top layer/surface of the earth. P wave is the fastest
of all seismic waves and they arrive first and are recorded on the
Seismograph. They can move through all medium of matter – solid, liquid
and gas. They are, primarily, "push and pull" waves. These are also known
as compressional or longitudinal waves. They are just like immersing a nail
in the wall by using hammer or like sound waves. The particles move in
back-and-forth direction. For details about seismic waves, you have already
studied in Unit 1 of this block. You may refer back for recapitulation.

Secondary waves are also body waves which travel in the interior. It is slower
in velocity in comparison to P waves. That is why, it is recorded after P
waves on seismograph. It travels only in the solid matter and once liquid or
gases come in its way, it is ceased to travel further. These are transverse or
shear waves, in which the motion of particle is at right angle to the direction
of propagation. S waves can pass only through solid rock and move rock
particles up and down, or side-to-side-perpendicular to the direction of the
wave travels.

Surface waves are two types – Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Love is
faster surface wave in comparison to Rayleigh and moves the ground from
side-to-side in horizontal motion. Rayleigh waves are relatively slower and
move the ground up and down, and side-to-side. It rolls along the ground just
like a wave roll across the ocean or lake.

Both surface waves are slower than the body waves. They arrive after body
waves because of the complexity of their paths through crustal layers and
slower velocity. These waves are responsible for greater damage and
64 destruction.
How does earthquake affect the people? Endogenetic Forces

You know, thousands of earthquakes occur around the globe each

year.,Most of them are recorded by instruments and not felt by human
beings. They are not affecting to us, but those which are intense, they affect
us the most. Earthquakes of larger magnitude and high intensity release
greater energy. They are the cause of complete devastation. Intense ground
shaking, landslides, surface faulting, avalanches, tsunamis, flashfloods,
etc., may trigger and destroy everything.Most of the damages are to the
existing infrastructures like roads, bridges, railways, ports, airports,
and water supply, waste scattering, electric power, telecommunication
lines, natural gas and liquid fuels, etc.

3.5.3 Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquake

Now, we know that the seismic waves reach the epicentre first, and the areas
closer to the epicentre experience maximum intensity. Therefore, it
is important to study how to measure the size and destructiveness of
an earthquake. The magnitude of an earthquake indicates the quantity of
energy released by an earthquake at the source point. Charles F. Richter
(1900- 1985), a leading seismologist, devised a rating scale of earthquake
magnitude in 1935. It is popularly known as Richter Scale. This scale is
based on the amplitude of seismic waves - the stronger the earthquake, the
stronger the seismic vibrations it causes. It consists of numbers that ranges
from less than 1 to more than 9. Richter magnitude is determined from the
logarithm to the base 10 of the amplitude recorded by a seismograph. It states
that an increase of one in magnitude corresponds to a factor of 10 increases in
the amplitude of ground motion. For example, a magnitude of 6.0 earthquake
causes 10 times larger shaking than that of a magnitude of 5.0 earthquake.
You may notice in Table 3.1 that magnitudes 8 or above are coded as great
earthquakes. Magnitude ranging between 8 and 8.9 earthquake occurs once in
a year on an average for the whole planet.Table 3.1 explains various
magnitudes on Richter scale and their effects during an earthquake.

The US Geological Survey is a responsible institution for measuring

and assessing the earthquakes across the world.

You may like to read more about earthquakes at http://earthquake.usgs.

gov/earthquakes/

Now you might have understood the scale of magnitude of an earthquake.

The earthquake intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a
particular location during an earthquake. It can be determined from the
reported effects of the tremor on human beings, furniture, buildings, and
geological structures, etc. Intensity varies from place to place within the
affected region. If it is highly populated area, it can inflict more causalities
and huge potential damages whereas it can affect the remote areas
insignificantly with the same magnitude of earthquake.
65
Geomorphic Processes In order to study the intensity of an earthquake, the scale was developed by
the Italian seismologist Mercalli in 1902. Later on, it was modified by Harry
Wood and Frank Newmann in 1931. The modified Mercalli Scale consists of
12 increasing levels of intensity, from Roman numeral I to XII. It illustrates
the distribution of intensities that are ranging from imperceptible shaking to
catastrophic destruction (Table 3.2). The occurrence of a great earthquake in
the ocean, far away from the habitat, may not directly cause more damage to
cities, dams, and highways because the shake energy will diminish with
travel long distance. But of course, effects of tsunami will definitely do some
damage. On the other hand, a moderatemagnitude earthquake with shallower
deep focus near densely populated region will do heavy damage in
comparison to the deep focus with same magnitude. The measurement of
destructive power of an earthquake is termed as its intensity.

Table 3.1: Magnitude of an Earthquake on Richter Scale and its Effects

Magnitude Description Earthquake effects Frequency of

occurrence
(estimated)

Less than Micro Micro Earthquakes, Continual/several

2.0 not felt, or felt rarely million per year
by sensitive people;
detected by
seismographs.

2.0-2.9 Minor Felt by some people over one million

but no damage to per year
buildings.

3.0-3.9 Minor Often felt by people, over 100.000 per

but very rarely cause year
damage; shaking of
indoor objects can be
noticeable.

4.0-4.9 Light Some landscape but no 1.000-1,500 per

loss of life. year

5.0-5.9 Moderate Felt by everyone; 1,000-1,500 per

moderate landscape year
damage but no loss of
life.

6.0-6.9 Strong Damage to a moderate 100-150 per year

number of well-built
structures in populated
areas; Earthquake-
resistant structures
66
 Endogenetic Forces
survive with slight to
moderate damage;
poorly designed
structures receive
moderate to severe
damage; felt in wider
areas; strong to violent
shaking in epicentral
area.

7.0-7.9 Major Major landscape 10-20 per year

damage with high loss
of life in
populated areas; well-
designed structures
receive damage; felt
across great distances.

8.0-8.9 Great Massive to total one per year

landscape destruction
and heavy loss of life;
moderate to heavy
damage to sturdy or
Earthquake-resistant
buildings; felt in
extremely large
regions.

9.0+ Great Total landscape One per 10-50

destruct-tion and years
massive loss of life;
permanent changes
in ground topography.

(Source: Earthquake facts and statistics, United States Geological Survey.

http://earthquake. usgs.gov/learn/topics/)

Table 3.2: Description of the Levels of Modified Mercalli Intensity

Intensity Shaking Description/damage

I Not felt Not felt except by a very few under

especially
favorable conditions.

II Weak Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially

on upper floors of buildings.
67
Geomorphic Processes
III Weak Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on
upper floors of buildings but many people do
not recognize it as an Earthquake; standing
motor cars may rock slightly; vibrations
similar to the passing of a truck.

IV Light During the day felt indoors by many,

outdoors by few; at night, some awakened;
dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make
cracking sound; sensation like heavy truck
striking building; standing motor cars rocks
noticeably.

V Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened;

some dishes, windows broken; unstable
objects overturned; pendulum clocks may
stop

VI Strong Felt by all, many frightened; some heavy

furniture moves; few instances of fallen
plaster; slight damage.

VII Very Everybody runs outdoor; damage negligible

strong in buildings of good design and construction;
slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
structures; considerable damage in poorly
built or badly designed structures; some
chimneys broken.

VIII Severe Slight damage in specially designed

structures; considerable damage in ordinary
substantial buildings with partial collapse;
great damage in poorly built structures; fall
of chimneys, factory stacks,
columns, monuments, walls; heavy furniture
overturns.

IX Violent Considerable damage in specially

designed structures; well-designed frame
structures thrown out of plumb; buildings
shifted off foundations; ground cracks
conspicuously.

X Extreme Some well-built wooden structures gets

destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroys with foundations; damage
to transportation network.
68
 Endogenetic Forces
XI Extreme Few structures remain standing; bridges
destroys, fractures in ground; underground
pipe lines disturbed; Earth slumps and land
slips; great damage of transportation
network.

XII Extreme Total damage; waves seen on ground

surfaces; lines of sight and level distorted;
objects thrown upward into the air.

(Source: Earthquake facts and statistics, United States Geological Survey.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ learn/topics/)

Distribution of Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonic theory is the most appropriate explanation of causes of
earthquakes. You have studied about the theory of plate tectonics in Unit 2.
As you know the earth’s consists of seven major plates and twenty minor
plates. These plates are constantly moving in relation to each other and this
relative movement of plates is the fundamental cause of earthquakes. Nearly
all seismic, volcanic and tectonic activities take place along the boundaries of
these moving plates. Therefore, the boundaries between different plates have
an important significance. You may know that these are recognized as
convergent or destructive plate boundaries, transform or conservative plate
boundaries, and spreading or divergent plate boundaries.
Most of the earthquakes like shallow, intermediate and deep are found to
occur along the convergent plate boundaries where oceanic plates sub duct
and plunge into the interior. Sudden slippages of plate results in high
magnitude earthquakes. The best examples of such earthquakes are
experienced in Japan, Alaska, Chile and other narrow zones close to oceanic
trenches and volcanic arcs of the Circum Pacific Zone (Fig. 3.8).
Transform boundaries are those where two plates just slide past each other
without any collision. This mechanism happens along the transform faults.
For example, the San Andreas Fault forms the transform boundary between
the American plate and the Pacific plate in California. Moderate to strong
earthquakes are occurring along this zone.
Spreading boundaries are identified at the mid-oceanic ridge and its branches
where new lithosphere is created and spreading on either side of the ridge.
The mid-oceanic ridges and the African rift zone are associated with shallow
earthquakes. Earthquakes also directly linked with continent-continent
convergent plate boundaries of Europe and Asia. It includes Mediterranean
and Trans-Asiatic earthquake belt extending along Alpine Mountain System
of Europe and Asia Minor and Himalayan System including Tibet and
China. Some intra-plate locations of earthquakes are also recorded which
have their local causes.

You may find recent information on world earthquakes at http://www.

earthquakes. bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/ recent_world_events.html
69
Geomorphic Processes Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) What is an earthquake?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3.6 CONCLUSION
Thus, in this Unit, you have studied and understood the following important
aspects:
As you know many of the features found on the earth's surface are not stable.
Changes are taking place depending upon the endogenetic and exogenetic
forces.
The relief of the earth's surface is created by the interaction of both
endogenetic and exogenetic processes. The forces operating from within the
Earth surface are known as endogenetic forces. They are responsible
forupliftment and subsidence, folding, faulting, earthquakes, and volcanism,
etc.
There are two types of earth movements namely diastrophic and
sudden movements which may occur as a result of the work of endogenetic
forces.
Diastrophic movements comprising both vertical (epeirogenic) and horizontal
(orogenic) movements operate very slowly, and their effects become
perceptible after thousands and millions of years.
Sudden movements result into rapid events such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions which produce volcanic mountains and lava plateaus.
You will learn about exogenetic processes in detail in the next Unit 4 of this
Block.

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are diastrophic forces? Explain these with suitable illustrations?

2. Explain various types of volcanoes?

3.8 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

 Darrel Hess (2011). Physical Geography- A Landscape Appreciation.
70 PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
 Dayal, P. (1996). A Text Book of Geomorphology.Shukla Book Endogenetic Forces
Depot, Patna.

 Huggett, R.J. (2008). Fundamentals of Geomorphology.Indian

Reprint, Routledge, New York.

 James F. Peterson, Sack, D. and Gabler, R.E. (2017) Physical

Geography. Cengage Learning Boston, USA.

 Lutgens, F.K. and Edward, J.T. (2015). Foundation of Earth

Science. Pearson Education, Inc., Noida, India.

 Singh, S. (2012). Physical Geography.PrayagPustakBhawan, Allahabad.

 Strahler, A.N. and Strahler, A.M. (2006). Modern Physical

Geography. Cambridge Publications, New Delhi.

https://www.britannica.com/place/Krakatoa

https://www.britannica.com/science/volcano/Six-types-of-
eruptions#ref388832

3.9 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

1) The forces operating from beneath the earth's surface and causing
horizontal and vertical movements are called as endogenetic forces.
These movements are leading to land upliftment, subsidence, folding,
faulting, volcanism, and earthquakes etc. Endogenitic forces are
responsible for creating major relief features such as mountains, plains,
valleys, etc.

Check Your Progress 2

1) True; b) False; c) False; d) True

Check Your Progress 3

1) a) -iii), b) -i), c) -iv), d) -ii)

Check Your Progress 4

1) An earthquake is vibration or shaking of the ground caused by

endogenetic forces.

Terminal Questions

1) Diastrophic forces are a kind of of endogenetic forces. They operate

from beneath the earth's crust. These forces are actively involved in the
formation of primary landforms such as mountains, valleys, plains etc.
Diastrophic forces can be divided into two groups such as
71
Geomorphic Processes epeirogenic and orogenic movements. Epeirogenic movements are
vertical movements caused by a set of forces acting along the earth
radius. Orogenic movements are affected by tangential forces that come
into action on earth's mantle in a horizontal direction. For complete
details refer to Sec. 3.3.

2) Volcanoes are classified based on mode of eruption as central and

fissure types. On the other hand, volcanoes are also categorized as
active, dormant and extinct on the basis of the frequency of eruption. For
complete details refer to Sub-sec. 3.4.2.

72
 Exogenetic Processes
UNIT 4 EXOGENETIC PROCESSES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Weathering and Mass Wasting
Physical or Mechanical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Biological Weathering
Mass Wasting
4.3 Concept of Cycle of Erosion
Davis Model
Penck Model
4.4 Conclusion
4.5 Terminal Questions
4.6 References/Further Reading
4.7 Answers

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define weathering, explain its process and types;

 describe and classify mass wasting;

 elucidate the processes of weathering and mass wasting;and

 describe the concept of cycle of erosion explained by W.M. Davis and

W. Penck.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 3 of this block, you have studied about endogenetic forces that
operate from within the earth’s surface. They are responsible for upliftment
and subsidence of areas. They also the cause of folding, faulting, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, etc. In this unit, you will learn about exogenetic processes
or forces which originate from the earth’s surface and atmosphere. They are
associated with reduction of elevated areas. The imprints of exogenetic
processes are visible on the earth’s surface. Primarily, there are three basic
types of exogenetic processes namely weathering, mass wasting and erosion
occurs. All of them operate on the earth’s surface.
73
Geomorphic Processes In Sec. 4.2, you will learn about the factors controlling weathering, mass
wasting and their types. Sec. 4.3 explains you about the concept of cycle of
erosion. You will also study about the theories of landform development
propounded byWilliam Morris Davis and Walther Penck.

Erosion is the movement of weathered/available material. It is primarily

performed by the various geomorphic agents like river, Karst, glacier, wind,
and sea waves. They are explained in Unit 5 and 6. Now you will study the
process of weathering and mass wasting, and the concept of cycle of erosion
in this Unit.

4.2 WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING

Have you ever observed the local topographical features of your
surroundings? For example, physical features like mountains, valleys, plains,
rivers, deserts, coasts, etc., are getting changed over time. In fact, centuries
back people thought that mountains, deserts and lakes, etc., are unchanging.
They will always be there as they are visible today. Advanced scientific
experiments discovered that the Earth has been evolved 4.6 billion years
ago.Now, it is a proven fact that earth’s features are continually changing due
to exogenetic processes of weathering, mass wasting and erosion.

Exogenetic forces are also called land wearing and tearing forces.

Most of the exogenetic processes are very slow but, some of them like
torrential rain and flowing water along steep slope or excessively high sea
waves especially during tsunami alters the affected areas very strongly.

You now know that the endogenetic forces elevate the land, while opposing
exogenetic processes continually wear and tear it down. Exogenetic/
exogenic forces are called as denudational or destructional processes
originated. They are originating from the earth’s surface or from the under
the influence of gravity. Various exogenetic geomorphic agents such as
running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and sea waves remove the
disintegrated rock materials. Removed materials are transported by those
agents. When the transporting ability is reduced, those materials are
deposited. These processes are continuously engaged in sculpturing the area.
It is termed as denudation or degradation. In this section, we will focus on the
process of weathering and mass wasting. Let us now discuss about the
process of weathering.

Weathering is a process in which the surface is worn and teared in situ

without substantial transport of the broken rocks. Rocks are continuously
under the process of disintegration or decomposition of rock. It means, long
distance transportation is not involved. If at all the transport is visible, it is
found under the influence of gravity. Due to gravitation of the earth, the
fragmented rocks on the slope could not retain there, hence, they come down.
Scientific definition of weathering involves mechanical fracturing or
chemical decomposition of rocks by natural agents at surface of the earth.
74
Weathering process can be grouped into three categories. They are (i) Exogenetic Processes
physical or mechanical weathering, (ii) chemical weathering and (iii)
biological weathering. Before discussing about the types of weathering,
you shall know the important factors that affect the weathering process.

Factors Controlling Weathering

Weathering plays a major role in denudation process. The nature and

intensity of weathering vary from place to place and from region to region
depending upon various factors. There are mainly four important factors
affecting weathering. They are:
(a) Structure and Composition of Rocks
(b) Climate,
(c) Topography and
(d) Vegetation,

Rock Structureincludes rock’s massiveness, porosity, permeability,

joint patterns, bedding planes, faults, fractures, etc. The mineral composition
of rock involves chemical characteristics, grain size, crystallinity etc. of the
rocks. They largely affect the nature and intensity of weathering. The
minerals forming the rock determine whether rock is more susceptible to
chemical or physical weathering. Rocks rich in carbonates are susceptible to
chemical reaction. Hence, they weathered very easily in comparison to non-
carbonate containing rocks.

Rocks with numerous joints allow the entry of water, air, and roots of the
trees, etc. and are more subjected to mechanical disintegration. Horizontal
bedded rocks are affected by the mechanism of disintegration and
decomposition, whereas vertical strataare broken down due to frost action
and ice.

There are several components under climate which affect weathering but
temperature and humidity are very important. There are several types of
climatic regions. Each climatic type produces certain types of weathering.
High temperature and moisture cause greater leaching and hence, weathering
is more. Big range of temperature (diurnal or annual) causes expansion and
contraction of top layer of rocks which lead to more breakage and
disintegration.Temperature fluctuations above and below freezing point leads
to freezing and thawing. They cause mechanical weathering of rocks as well.
Chemical weathering is the highest in humid tropical areas.

Topographical factors include elevation, slope and aspect. They also

influence the rock exposure responsible for weathering. Weathering is more
on higher slope, because weathered materials are removed downward under
the influence of gravity. Since the surface is exposed, more weather is
caused.

75
Geomorphic Processes The presence or absence of natural vegetation in a particular region affects
weathering. Vegetation covers and protects the rock outcrops from the direct
impact of sunrays but at the same time the roots penetration breaks down the
rocks. It leads to the disintegration of rocks.

Now, we will study the types of weathering. Primarily, weathering is of three

types:
(a) Physical or Mechanical,
(b) Chemical and
(c) Biological

4.2.1 Physical or Mechanical Weathering

Physical or mechanical weathering is the breakdown of surface rocks into
smaller fragments ranging in size from large blocks or boulders to fine sand
and silt. It involves mechanical disintegration of rocks without any change in
its chemical composition. In the process of disintegration of bigger rocks into
smaller pieces, the surface area keeps on increasing. Larger exposure of areas
to nature, over which weathering is taking place, weathering is enhanced.
Depending upon nature of climatic conditions and rocks, mechanical
weathering is performed in several ways; namely frost action, salt-crystal
growth, thermal expansion and contraction and the mechanical action of
plants and animals. Disintegration of rocks can very well be understood by
the illustration given in Fig. 4.1. It begins with the formation of cracks in
bedrock. When cracks widen and deepen, the rock becomes susceptible
to disintegration. Those cracks are called joint lines. They may extend for
several meters into the bedrock. In this process, rocks are weak and subject to
more wear and tear.

Fig. 4.1: Mechanical disintegration of rocks; intersecting joint lines leading to the
formation of blocks; and smaller particles that are subsequently eroded away.

Frost action or ice wedging is one of the most effective types of

mechanical weathering. Water in the rock periodically freezes and thaws
during night and day in those areas where the temperature fluctuates around
freezing point. The water entered into the joints freezes and forms ice, which
causes the joints deepening and widening. When the ice thaws, the water
flows further deep into the rock. Generally, when water freezes, it increases
76
about nine percent in volume. This repeated expansion activity of water can Exogenetic Processes
cause pressure in rock pores, cracks and crevices leading to the disintegration
of rocks. This process is found to be most effective in well-bedded or jointed
rocks, and very common in cold climates (-5° to -15°C). Fig. 4.2 shows the
effect of frost action.

Salt crystal growth is caused by the crystallization of salts from

evaporating water. In arid regions, dry weather draws moisture to surface
through rock openings by capillary action of water, which may contain salts.
As the water evaporates, the salts are left behind as tiny crystals. These
crystals expand as they heat up or dry, and exert a force or enough pressure
towards breaking up the rocks. Thermal stress weathering results from the
expansion and contraction of rock which is caused by rapid temperature
changes. This type of weathering is mostly found in desert regions where
there is high temperature in the day and cool in the night. In the hot desert
areas, the outer layers of the rock expand from heat in the day, and contract
from rapid cooling during the night. Differential expansion and contraction
due to diurnal range of temperature causes the tension and stresses leading to
the formation of parallel joints in the rocks. This process is termed as
exfoliation. In this process, rock layers start peeling off in sheets or slabs
(Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.2: Frost action: a) water seeps into cracks; b) water freezes to ice; and c) breaks the
rock.
77
Geomorphic Processes

Fig. 4.3: Rock exfoliation

4.2.2 Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by the alteration of rock-
forming minerals. Chemical alteration of minerals involves many types
of reactions between the atmospheric and biotic agents. Some minerals
(e.g. olivine and augite occur in basalt) are far more alterable than others
like quartz. Quartz is extremely resistant to chemical change and slightly
soluble in water and more in saline water. It is known that many minerals
soluble in rainwater are usually acidic in nature and leach rocks quite
actively. Chemical weathering is most effective in warm and humid climates
compared to cold and dry regions, where heat and moisture are in abundance.
Chemical weathering involves a number of processes.All are associated with
moisture. When water comes in contact with chemically reactive rocks along
with atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen, rocks get disintegrated. Most
significant among the processes of chemical weathering are carbonation,
hydrolysis, and oxidation.

Carbonationis a chemical weathering effective on the rock which has

calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When atmospheric carbon dioxide and water
come in contact with calcium carbonate containingrocks,it forms carbonic
acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks down minerals in the rocks
to form calcium bicarbonate. Calcium bicarbonate is soluble in water and
thus, weathering is resulted. This process dissolves the rocks over a long
period of time and creates numerous landforms. In nutshell, it is like:
CO2+H2O → H2CO3
(carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid)
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2 + 2HCO3
(calcite + carbonic acid → calcium + bicarbonate)

Hydrolysis is a process in which chemical combination of water with mineral

is involved. It produces a new mineral compound which is weaker and soft
mineral. It results into disruption of the rock. For example, silicate minerals
78 like potassium feldspar present in many igneous rocks are weathered and a
clay mineral, kaolinite, is formed that is susceptible to disintegration. Most of Exogenetic Processes
the minerals, except highly resistant mineral like quartz, are very susceptible
to chemical change when exposed to atmospheric and biotic agents.
Hydrolysis is mostly observable in weathering of granite and igneous rocks
that alters the minerals irreversibly.

You may observe many of the rusting metals in your home/locality. What do
you think of the causes behind it? You might have also observed the rusting
in old blades or iron knifeforks, window frame, nail, agricultural implements,
etc. These are very common examples around us. This is an example of
oxidation process commonly occurring in the natural environment especially
with iron containing objects. Hence, oxidation is a process, in which
the dissolved oxygen in water comes into contact with certain rock
minerals, especially iron, to form oxides. Oxidation generally accompanies
hydrolysis and is the most apparent in rocks containing iron. When oxygen
combines with iron, the reddish iron blisters are formed which is the most
common oxidation effect in the rocks. This process is known as rusting, and
is responsible for an initial indication of chemical weathering in many rocks
due to their discolouration as brownish-red to red. When the iron is oxidized,
it forms ferric iron, which in turn is transformed into limonite. Limonite is
a mineral that resembles with rust. .

4.2.3 Biological Weathering

The loss of minerals and ions due to animals and microorganisms’ actions as
well as growth of plant kingdom is termed as biological weathering.
Biological weathering is also known as organic weathering.It is the
weakening and disintegration of rock by microbes, plants and animals
including human beings. Growth of plant roots inside the cracks, joints or
fractures and faults produces physical pressure on the rocks. The stress build
up on the rocks is a part of the biological process (growing roots).Actions of
technologically advanced human beings are, now-a-days, very effective in
making the land surface exposed for weathering.Wedging and burrowing of
rocks are common by rodents, earthworms, termites, rabbits etc. Mosses,
algae, bacteria, lichens etc. grow on the rocks especially in warm and humid
areas. All of them are responsible for weakening the rocks and help in
weathering (Fig. 4.4).

79
Geomorphic Processes

Fig. 4.4. Examples of Biological Weathering.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Describe various types of weathering process.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

4.2.3 Mass Wasting

You, now, know the process of weathering in which the massive bedrock
breaks up. The broken blocks of rocks are fragmented and unconsolidated.
On the slope, the fragmented and unconsolidated rocks have a tendency to
move downslope. Hence, weathered material is moved relatively for a short
distance down the slopes under the influence of gravity with or without the
assistance of running water. It is called mass wasting or mass movement.
There are several factors favoring mass wasting. They arestructure (closely
spaced joints, faults, etc.), composition and permeability of rocks,
topography (steep slopes and cliffs), climatic factors (large variations in
temperature, heavy rainfall, etc.), vegetation cover. They are important
factors of mass wasting. The large amount of debris ofmass movement can
sometimes be able to bury a town or village on the mountain slope. Young
mountains with fragile slope are examples of mass wasting. When pores in
the sediment are filled with water, they cause the materials slide past one
another due to loss of binding effect of the sediment particles. Normally,
addition of water in the rocks through rainfall and snow melt along the slope
lubricates the contact surface. It results into several forms of mass wasting.
Due to earthquakes and aftershocks particularly faulted and jointed bed rocks
can be dislodgedmove downslope.

Mainly, there are three basic classes of mass movement such as falls, slides
80 and flows (Fig. 4.5).
 Exogenetic Processes

Fig. 4.5: Types of mass movement.

Gravity is a natural force which attracts every object towards the center of
the earth.
Isaac Newton, renowned physicist, first proposed universal gravitation law
in 1920. He said that all objects in the universe attract every other object.
This attractional force is known as gravitational force.

Falls: Falls refer to the free falling of pieces of rock from any steep slope.
In this process, the rock blocks or fragments are dislodged from a cliff or
steep slope, and fall, roll or bounce down to the cliff foot. These falls mostly
occur in the mountainous region due to frost action and other weathering
processes. The resultant broken rock material accumulates at the foot slope
forming steep ramp-like incline and are collectively referred to as talus or
scree.

Slides: Slides occur when the large masses of rock as a unit or block
moves downslope abruptly. In this type of mass wasting, rock or soil material
slips downhill.It is called slope failure. Landslides are the most significant
type of mass wasting. It is an instantaneous collapse of slope. It happens due
to lubricating effect of water and sometimes, it happens without water
availability as well.

Flows: The most common slower flow type of mass movement is creep or
soil creep. It is the slowest and imperceptible downhill movement of debris
and soil is described. The mechanism involves freeze/thaw and wet/dry
conditions contributing to soil creep by progressively moving soil particles
down the hill. The rate of creep is very slow. We may observe the evidence
of this process in the field through downward curvature of trees, tilt of
fencing posts, electric and telephone poles, and inclined structures on
creeping slopes, etc.

Some flows are characteristically rapid movement, and occur when the
soil mass is being saturated with water. The most common types of
flow movements are earthflow and mudflow. The rapid movement of water-
saturated soil material flows down on relatively low-angle terraces or hill
sides is known as earthflow. At the top hill slope, a steep scarp is developed
where the moving debris is pulled away. The flow effect is very clear in the
81
Geomorphic Processes lower portion; where a toe of material pushes out over the valley floor. On
the other hand, a mudflow is a mass of super saturated rock particles of all
sizes soaked with sudden heavy rainfall and/or shallow groundwater. The
runoff waters carry the soil and rock debris from a large steep sloped area.
Thus, water and debris move down slope very quickly.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Link falls and slides.

2) Mark the following statements as True or False?

a) Gravity is the pulling force of mass wasting.

b) Landslide is one of the types of mass wasting.

c) Rapid mass wasting always occurs only in heavy rain areas.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Till now, in this section, you have learnt two basic external processes
occurring on the earth surface. They are weathering and mass wasting. Now,
you it very well that how weathering and mass wasting are taking place as
well as their controlling factors.In the following section, you will learn about
the concept of cycle of erosion.andviews of Davis and Penck in this regard.

4.3 CONCEPT OF CYCLE OF EROSION

You have studied about endogenetic forces in Unit 3 through various types of
relief features are produced on the earth’s surface. Exogenetic processes are
operating on the relief and are trying to eliminate the differences created by
the endogenetic forces. They are trying to bringthe surface to the sea level or
base level. Erosion is a process in which various erosive agents remove rock
debris and transport them and deposit them where its ability is reduced. It
leads to lower the elevated landmass and ultimately supposed to reach to the
base level from where the landmass had evolved. Hence, evolution of
landmass from sea level, its rise above and finally reduction of the same to
the base level is called.

The concept of the cycle of erosion or geographic cycle was initially

proposed by an American geomorphologist William Morris Davisin 1899.
The main concept of Davis explains the developments of landforms in a
sequential order of a cycle. Apart from Davis concept, some other concepts
82
on cycle of erosion were proposed. Some of them areW.M. Davis (1899), W. Exogenetic Processes
Penck (1924), K.K. Markov (1948), L.C. King (1962), I.P. Gerasimov and
J.A. Mecerjakov (1970). For discussion, only two concepts by Davis and
Penck are discussed below.

4.3.1 Davis Model

The geographical cycle of W.M. Davis was the first modern theory
of continental erosion and landscape evolution. He postulated the cycle as a
period of time during which an uplifted landmass undergoes its
transformation by the process of land sculpture turning into low featureless
peneplane. He assumed that the initial form of landmass got uplifted from
beneath the sea by earth movements. He emphasized that the upliftment
phase of land mass is very short. Once the landmass is uplifted, denudational
function would start. Davis is criticized for this statement as exogenetic
forces would not wait for the upliftment to be completed.

According to Davis, the landscape is a function of structure, process, and

stage. All of these three play a dominant role in the origin and development
of landforms over elevated landmass. Structure deals with the nature of rock
(whether hard or soft) as well as its characteristics like folds, faults, joints,
layers, etc..Over a landmass with softer rocks, cycle is completed in a shorter
duration compared to the hard rocks. Process is concerned with internal and
external forces that shape the landscape. Stage means time duration within
which the processes are at work. Land sculpture varies in different stages.
When landmass is uplifted, the erosional agents start working on it to convert
featureless surface. Davis envisioned a continuous sequence of terrain
evolution which is linked to the life cycle of organism defining as youth,
mature, and old stages. Fig. 4.6 explains the three basic stages of cycle of
erosion.

Fig. 4.6: Diagrammatic representation of Davisian cycle of erosion.

Youthful Stage

The process of denudation is initiated by the exogenetic forces with the

upliftment of landmass by endogenetic forces above the sea level. In humid
climatic environment, because of sufficient rain, a system of streams
normally develops on the emerged landmass. The top surfaces or summits of
emerged landmass are literally unaffected by fluvial erosion. Streams erode
its valley as water flows with concentration. The streams with incise deep,
steep sided, narrow, v shaped valleys with irregular gradients marked by
83
Geomorphic Processes waterfallsand rapids. In this stage, shallow lakes and swamps can be
found.According to Davis, youthful stage is described as an area of younger
and juvenile stage of river valley development.

Maturity

The early stage of maturity indicates lateral erosion and well-

integrated drainage system. The falls and rapids are worn away and thus the
area would develop smooth profiles. The main river and its tributaries are
graded to the base level of erosion. The stream will consume less amount of
energy to move its load. It results in the reduction of valley deepening due to
the substantial decrease in channel gradient and flow velocity. Because of the
lateral erosion, V-shaped valleys of youthful stage are replaced into broad
and wide valleys and floodplains are formed. By the end of mature stage,
relief is reduced rapidly and valley floors are graded.

Old Stage

This stage is characterized by the gradual reduction of river gradients

and associated decline of stream energy, absence of valley incision, and
sharp decrease of relief, etc. The area is dominated by extensive flood plains
over which a few major streams meander broadly and slowly. By the end of
old stage, the whole surface approaches closer to the base level. it was call
peneplane by Davis. At the end, a few hard and resistant rocks/hillocks are
seen and are called monadnocks. It was named after Mount Monadnock
in New Hampshire, USA. When a cycle of erosion is going on and the same
landmass is uplifted before the completion of the cycle, it is termed as
rejuvenation.

Davisian cycle of erosion is based on the concept of understanding landscape

development in evolutionary terms. Successive three stages such as youth,
mature and old could appear in many areas in the nature. However, there are
some imperfections observed in his assumptions. They raised doubts about
his conclusions by the scientific community. For example, most interfluves
appear to grow narrower with parallel retreat of valley slopes.But Davis
described interfluves and said that they are reduced in height as the cycle
advances. A more important difficulty with Davisian model is that the land
upliftment does not take place until the cycle is completed. Another example,
the peneplain surfaces are recognized in some areas but not everywhere.

4.3.2 Penck Model

Walther Penck, German geomorphologist, objected the Davisian Cycle of
Erosion. According to him, the landscape characterized in a specified area is
related to the tectonic activities of that region.

According to Penck, landforms are an expression of the phase, and rate of

landscape upliftment in relation to rate of erosion, where both upliftment and
erosion may be a continuous process. According to Davisan model, erosional
process starts when the landscape is completely uplifted. The landmass is
84
eroded to a featureless low relief landscape. Penck agreed with the concept of Exogenetic Processes
Davisian eroded landforms of low relief but he opposed the rapid upliftment
and repeated cycle of erosion. According to Penck, upliftment of the land and
denudation process starts at the same time. He used the term Entwickelung
meaning thereby development in the place of ‘stage’. For the youth, maturity,
and old stages he proposed the terms Aufsteigende Entwickelung (waxing
or accelerated rate of development), Gleichformige Entwickelung (uniform
rate of development), and Absteigende Entwickelung (wanning or
decelerating rate of development). Fig. 4.7 explains three basic phases of
landscape development as proposed by Penck.

Fig. 4.7: Penck’s concept of the landscape development.

In the first phase of development, land surface rises slowly and reaches to the
summit level at maximum. The landscape development begins with
the upliftment of Primarumpf (initial landscape with low height and
relief) representing an initial featureless broad land surface. In this stage, rate
of upliftment is high, but the absolute height is low, effect of erosion is
relatively less. With passage of time, it is accelerated. Since the upliftment of
landmass exceeds the valley deepening, the absolute height goes on
increasing. When upliftment rate exceeds the denudation, the convex slopes
are formed resulting from waxing or accelerated rate of development. It
is called, in German, Aufsteigende Entwicklung.

Second phase is uniform development of the landscape. Upliftment

and denudation match with each other. It forms uniform straight slopes with
passage of time. It is called, in German, Gleichformige Entwicklung.
Initially, it is characterized by continuation of accelerated rate of upliftment
and but attains the same rate of erosion. Hence, the relative relief remains
constant. In a subsequent sub-phase, the upliftment is slower with similar rate
of erosion. In this case as well, the relief remains the same. At the end of this
second phase, upliftment of the land stops completely. Altitudes
ofsummit/divides start decreasing and relative relief remains constant
because of the rate of lowering of divide summits which equals the rate of
valley deepening.

The final phase of landformsdevelopment leads to waning development

termed as Absteignede Entwicklung, in German. The erosional process is
85
Geomorphic Processes dominant, and both absolute and relative relief show declining trend. In this
final phase of landscape development, upliftmentis absent and valley
deepening slows down due to reduced altitude and slope. The valley side
slopes of upper part have steep slopes called gravity slopes while the lower
part is called wash slope, which consists of low inclined talus material.
Further, ridges of the summit/divides are reduced to steep sided conical
residuals.Their height gets further and small hillocks called inselbergs. This
inselberg landscape is observed by a series of concave wash slopes termed as
Endrumpf, feature formed at the end of cycle of erosion.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) How many stages are identified in the Davisian model of landscape

development?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

4.4 CONCLUSION
So far in this Unit, you have studied thoroughly and understood the following
key points:

As you know, land surfaces are constantly undergoing modifications through

endogenetic and exogenetic forces.

You came to know that exogenetic forces originate on or above the earth
surface. They are mainly weathering, mass wasting, and different types of
erosional processes.

You have learnt about two important concept of landform development

explained by Davis and Penck.

The sequential development of landscape was initially proposed by Davis. It

explainsin three stages namely young, mature and old.

Penck’s view on the cycle of erosion is based on parallel retreat of slope.

According to him, it operates with emergence of landmass as well as erosion
simultaneously.

In nutshell, you have studied the processes related to weathering, mass

wasting, and the cycle of erosion. This information will definitely help you to
understand the processes carried out by various geomorphic agents in the
landform development.
86
You will learn elaborately the processes of running water, Exogenetic Processes
groundwater, glacier in Unit 5 andwind, sea waves in Unit 6 of this Block.

4.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the chief weathering processes with suitable illustrations?

2. Describe Davis and Penck’s views on landscape evolution process?

4.6 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

 Darrel Hess (2011). Physcial Geography- A Landscape Appreciation.
PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

 Dayal, P. (1996). A Text Book of Geomorphology. Shukla Book

Depot, Patna.

 Huggett, R.J. (2008). Fundamentals of Geomorphology. Indian

Reprint, Routledge, New York.

 Lutgens, F. K. and Edward, J.T. (2015). Foundation of Earth

Science. Pearson Education, Inc., Noida, India.

 Singh, S. (2003). Physical Geography. Prayag Pustak Bhawan,

Allahabad.

 Strahler, A. N. and Strahler, A. M. (2006). Modern Physical

Geography. Cambridge Publications, New Delhi.

 James, F. Peterson, Sack, D. and Gabler, R.E. (2017).

Physical Geography. Cengage Learning, Boston, USA.

4.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Weathering is breakdown of the rock by mechanical disintegration,

chemical decomposition and biological impact. Carbonation, hydrolysis
and oxidation are three basic types of chemical weathering processes.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Falls are the downward movement of rock or soil through air,

whereas slides occur as large blocks of rock moves downhill abruptly.

2) b) (i) True (ii) True (iii) False

Check Your Progress 3

1) Three stages: youthful, mature and old.

87
Geomorphic Processes Terminal Questions

1. There are mainly three types of weathering processes such as physical,

chemical and biological weathering. Physical weathering is breaking of
rocks by various mechanical processes, whereas the rock material is
altered into another substance by chemical reactions is known as
chemical weathering. Biological weathering is occurring due to living
organisms of any particular region. You can refer to Sub-sec. 4.2.1,
4.2.2, and 4.2.3.

2. The concept of cycle of erosion explains the relationship between

the stream erosion and landscape development. In Davis’s opinion,
the landscape is a function of structure, process and stage.
Penck’s hypothesis mainly envisages that the landform evolution of a
particular region is dependent on the tectonic activity of the region
concerned. You can refer to Sec. 4.3.

88
 Fluvial, Karst and
UNIT 5 FLUVIAL, KARST AND GLACIAL Glacial Landscapes

LANDSCAPES
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fluvial Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.3 Karst Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.4 Glacial Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 Terminal Questions
5.7 References
5.8 Answers

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss the meaning and concept of fluvial, karst and glacial

landscapes;

 Explain the formation of different landforms produced by fluvial, karst

and glacial actions;

 Discuss and differentiate between erosional and depositional

landforms.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 4, you have studied about exogenic processes continuously active on
the surface of the earth. You must have observed that water flows from
higher altitude to lower along the slope. The areas where chemically reactive
rocks are found, rocks are weathered and eroded easily by chemical action. In
the areas where temperature is less than 00 Celsius, ice is found particularly
on higher altitude and polar region. They are said to be fluvial, karst and
glacial dominated regions, respectively. They are fluvial, karst and glacial 89
Geomorphic Processes agents of landscapes development. It is worth mentioning here that running
water or river is active in humid regions; underground water is active in the
regions where limestone chalk, gypsum and dolomite like soluble rocks are
found and glaciers are active in high altitudes and high latitudes regions of
the world.

The area dominated by running water is known as fluvial landscapes. Area

rich in limestone, dolomite, gypsum or chalk with water availability is known
as Karst landscapes. Glacial landscapes are found in high altitude and high
latitude regions of the world. In this Unit, we will learn about the formation
of landforms developed by these three agents of erosion.

5.2 FLUVIAL LANDSCAPES

Fluvial landscapes are those which are generated by running water or mainly
rivers. The term fluvial derives from the Latin word ‘fluvius’ that means
river. Fluvial landscapes are observed from the source of the river to its
mouth. River or running water is a normal agent of erosion in humid regions.
According to normal cycle of erosion (learnt in Unit 4) the fluvial landscape
can be compared with three stages of human life. A human being completes
its life through three stages - youth, maturity and old. In the same way, the
cycle of erosion is supposed to be completed through three – youthful, mature
and old stage. Since the characteristics of all the stages are different in terms
of altitude, slope, erosive power and carrying capacity of the river, the
landforms produced are also accordingly different.

The landscape of any area is the function of weathering, erosion,

transportation and deposition by different agents of denudation. Let us
discuss them in brief:

The details of weathering are discussed in Unit 4. Erosion is detachment and

lifting of rock particles. Detached and lifted particles are moved forward
according the transporting ability of the agent. Once the ability to transport is
reduced, carried particles are deposited. Transportation connects both –
erosion and deposition and helps in forming different kinds of land features.
These landforms are of two kinds – erosional and depositional.

Erosion is performed in four ways – (i) abrasion/corrasion, (ii) attrition, (iii)

hydraulic action and (iv) solution / corrosion. The loads carried by running
water grind the flow path (river bed and its side). Hence, erosion of bed and
side of river is termed as abrasion or corrasion. The reduction of the load by
striking the bed and side as well as hitting the loads among themselves is
known as attrition. The friction caused by the flow of running water causes
the rock to reduce. It is termed as erosion due to hydraulic action. When
soluble minerals of the rock are dissolved in water, it is called erosion by
solution or corrosion.

Transportation occurs in four ways – (i) traction, (ii)) saltation, (iii)

suspension and (iv) solution. Larger and heavier gravels lying on steep slope
90 are rolled along the river bed. Hence, erosion of bed of river is called
traction. When medium and smaller sized boulders/ rock fragments are Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
moved forwarded by leaps and jumps (like frog’s leaping/ jumping), it is
called saltation. When very small and tiny rock particles are carried through
the flowing water body without putting back at the surface is termed as
suspension. Solution is the name given when the soluble substances/
minerals of rock are removed by dissolving them.

Deposition by running water is caused by (i) slope decrease, (ii) reduction on

water volume, (iii) load increase and (iv) lowering of water velocity or
decrease in water depth. Now, let us discuss the land features in a sequential
of their development.

5.2.1 Youthful Stage

River originates from higher altitude and drains downstream along the
general slope. The first flow of water is in the form of small rills and gullies.
Initially, slope is very steep. First stage of river cycle is characterised by the
formation of some distinct landscapes. According to Davis, river remains in
the first stage in mountainous region. In this stage, erosional work is
significantly very high and erosional features are developed by the river. This
stage is also known as upper course of river. After development of small rills
and gullies, ‘I’ shaped valley is formed due to rapid valley bottom erosion/
down cutting and very slow rate of lateral erosion. Therefore, the deep and
narrow valleys are developed due to down cutting, popularly known as
Gorge (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1: Gorge/I-Shaped Valley

(Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/fluvial-landforms.htm NPS Photo/Ann Wildermuth)

Due to slow rate of lateral erosion, water divide remains wider in young
stage. Actually, water divide, divides the area drained by two rivers in two
different directions. River capturing is an important feature of young stage.
Due to head ward erosion, when a river erodes towards its source, it captures
the water of another river. The point where a river captures another river, it is
91
Geomorphic Processes Capture.. After some time, the bed of river with steeper
called Elbow of Capture
slope and deeper valley drains almost entire water. Hence, the downstream
valley of captured river is devoid of water (Fig 5.2). Since captured river has
more water, its bed is deeper. Its downstream continuation has higher bed,
and hence, it is called Misfit River.

Figure 5.2: River capturing

Source: https://digitalteachers.co.ug/river-capture-meaning/

In mountainous region, rapids, cascades, springs and waterfalls are formed

due to different arrangement of hard and soft rocks. Rapids are areas of fast
flowing water with shallow depth in the mountains/ higher slope. As the
name is self-explanatory, waterfall is fall of water vertically from a
resistance rock in its path. Where waterfalls, a plunge pool is created due
higher erosion of falling water. When a series of small waterfalls are found, it
is known as cascades (Fig 5.3). When seeped water into rocks reappears
slowly on the slope is called spring.

POTHOLE

Fig. 5.3: Rapids and Cascades

Source: Author

River flows through narrow and deep valleys during first stage or young
stage. When there is an abrupt break in slope along a river path, especially at
the foothill, alluvial cone or alluvial fan (Fig 5.4) is formed. It happens due
to more and more deposition of sediments caused by lowered ability to
transport by the river. When the slope of deposited sediment is steep, it is
called alluvial cone. When the slope of the same is relatively gentle, it is
termed alluvial fan.
92
 Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes

Fig. 5.4: Alluvial Cone

Source: Author

5.2.2 Mature Stage

When river leaves mountainous region, it enters into plain. It is generally
termed as mature stage. This stage is characterised by lateral erosion as slope
is lowered in comparison to the upper course. Hence, prominently vertical
erosion in upper is replaced by lateral erosion. Therefore, narrow and deep
valley is converted into wide and open valley. Relief and slope become lower
due to negligible vertical erosion in the plain. During mature stage, river
flows in along a curved path and creates some typical landscapes. Among
them, natural levees, ox bow lakes, flood plains are some important
landforms.

The velocity of the running water in plain area is slower as the slope is lesser.
It also carries huge amount of smaller sized debris. Under appropriate
conditions, river deposits its debris even in its path. Depositions of sediments
in its bed lead to meandering. Meander (Fig 5.5) is erosional cum
depositional landscape. Erosion at one bank is associated with deposition on
the other. At erosional bank, river water depth is more and cliff like feature is
created. At this place, the slope is concave. It is also termed as cut bank. On
the other bank, deposition is prominently observed. Water depth is low and it
is called point bar. At this place, the slope is convex.

Fig. 5.5: Meandering of Gomti River before its confluence with Ganges
Source:
https://earth.google.com/web/@25.5365971,83.11876483,104.6540149a,18724.91329176d,3
5y,0h,0t,0r/data=OgMKATA
(Last accessed on 26th March 2024) 93
Geomorphic Processes Due to higher erosion, the outer curve of meander gets closer. The inner
curve of loop gets disconnected from the channel. When the loop of meander
is separated by erosion of the meander neck from the flowing water, oxbow
lake (Fig 5.6) is formed. It is separated as independent still-water body.

Fig 5.6: Meander and Ox-Bow Lake

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nowitna_river.jpg

Flooding is a natural process in the plain. When the amount of water is

excess, it overtops the banks of river. At the bank, outside the channel, the
flood water velocity is slower. Since the lesser depth of water and more
friction cause deposition of sediment along the river bank. In due course of
time, river banks become higher than the surrounding outside the area. This
higher linear bank of the river is known as natural levees.

After overtopping the bank/natural levees, flood water spreads over a large
area. Whatever the sediment is carried by flood water, it is deposited over the
entire area up to which the flood water reaches. Therefore, whole of the area
covering flood water is known as flood plain. Currently up to which flood
water reaches is also termed as Khadar. The area of flood plain up to which
the flood water is not reaching currently is termed as Bhangar.

In a well-developed plain of a large river, some of its tributaries are running

parallel to the main river. After running for a considerable distance, it joins
the main river. Such tributaries are called Yazoo Rivers.

5.2.3 Old Stage

The lower course of the river is considered as the old stage of the river. Since
the slope is very negligible. In this stage, the youthful energy of the river is
completely missing. It flows very slowly and calmly. It all happens due to
negligible slope. Hence, the sediment brought from the upper or middle
course is deposited. The river reaches to a level where even tiny sized
sediments are completely deposited before it empties it water into the ocean
94 or sea. Due to very low slope, sediments are deposited into its bed. Water is
forced to get divided into several channels. Those several channels are known Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
as distributaries. These distributaries distribute the river water into oceans
and hence, they are called so. Deposition of sediments by distributary system
of river forms delta at the mouth of a river (Fig. 5.7). Delta is, generally, a
triangular shaped depositional topography formed at the mouth of the river. It
is also known as arcuate or fan-shaped delta. Their classical example is
Ganges delta depending upon the local situation, the shape of the delta may
be of different kinds as well. Bird’s foot delta is termed when the shape
resembles like bird foot’s claw. Its example is delta of Mississippi of the
USA. Estuarine delta is formed where ocean wave is strong and the deposited
sediment is carried away into the ocean. Hence, the mouth of the river
remains open and empties into ocean. It’s very good example is delta of
Narmada River.

Fig. 5.7: Types of deltas

Source: https://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1591012432_image2.png

In the upper course, vertical erosion is very pronounced. Hence, 'V’-shaped

valley is formed. In the middle course, slope is relatively low, valley is
flattened and wider. In the lower course, the energy of the river is reduced
due to negligible slope, sluggish flow of water. All sediments are deposited.
Valley becomes much wide with shallow depth. Overall, the longitudinal
profile of the river is concave in shape.

95
Geomorphic Processes Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1. A river course is divided into how many stages. Name them.

2. Name the erosional landforms made by river.

3. Name the depositional landforms made by river.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

5.3 KARST LANDSCAPES

Karst landscapes are well developed in the areas of chemically reactive rocks.
Rocks like limestone, dolomite, chalk or gypsum are chemically reactive or
they get dissolved when comes in contact with them. You have already
studied about the chemical weathering in Unit 4 of this block. One of the best
developed such landscape is in Karst area of Adriatic coast of Yugoslavia.
Hence, the termed Karst landscape is given to such resembling areas.

Ideal Conditions

Topography made by groundwater or karst topography is well developed in

the areas where:

 large deposits of limestone or dolomite or such type of rocks are found;

 they are thickly bedded, fractured and well jointed;

 they are exposed to air and water;

 they lay in warm and humid areas;

 they are above the groundwater table; and

 there is good drainage system to removal of water.

On the basis of location and formation of the features, the karst topography is
grouped into two categories:

(i) Topographical features formed on the surface such as lapies, sinkholes,

swallow holes, doline, uvala, polje etc.(ii) Cave and related landscapes

5.3.1 Surface Karst Landforms

Lapies is a rugged topography developed in limestone surface region due to
96 dissolving of calcium content in the rocks. It is characterised by a series of
interconnected tiny ridges and shallow channels created by chemical Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
weathering process and dissolution of rocks. It is such a rugged topography
over which it is difficult to walk in such areas (Fig. 5.8).

Fig. 5.8: Lapies

Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Lapies_de_Innerbergli_Habkern_P1012490mod.jpg

Sinkhole: Sinkholes are found on the surface of limestone or dolomite

regions. When water enters in the interior through joints of limestone or
dolomite, funnel shaped topography is developed at the head of the joints.
That funnel shaped topography is known as sinkhole. Its depth varies from 3
to 10 metres .

Fig. 5.9: Sinkholes

Source: Author

97
Geomorphic Processes Swallow Holes: In karst region, several sinkholes are formed. Due to gradual
and continuous enlargement of sinkholes, several adjacent merged together.
Their size becomes and large. Through the internal joints, rocks are dissolved
and a passage of water is created through which smaller rivers may even
disappear. This large depression on the surface and its connection with
internal drainage is termed as swallow hole.

Doline: When nearby swallow holes are further enlarged by continuous

solution and are merged together, they are known as dolines.

Uvala: Coalescence of several dolines forms the larger sized depression on

the surface is termed as uvala. The stagnation of water in uvala forms a
permanent lake in lime stone regions.

Polje: Polje is the larger size of uvala. It is characterised by vertical side

walls and flat alluvium deposited floor with large depression. Stagnation of
water in the polje creates a lake.

Fig. 5.10: Karst Landscape

Source: https://civilspedia.com/karst-topography/

Blind Valley: Blind Valley is that type of valley in which there is no outlet
of flowing water on the surface. It is formed when a smaller river flowing
through karst region disappears and water becomes underground through
dolines. The valley through which water becomes invisible automatically
(through dolines) is known as blind valley.

Fig. 5.11: Blind Valley

Source: Author
98
5.3.2 Cave and Related Landscapes Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
Under the surface of the earth, a hollow space is created by dissolution of
rocks by chemical cation on such reactive rocks. It is formed in the region
where thick deposit of limestone is found. Its size varies from very small to
very large depending upon the deposits of limestone and chemical actions.
This hollow is termed as karst cave. In karst region, chemically dissolved
rocks are drained out through underground stream channels. Water seeps
through the roof of the cave from several joints. In this process, a huge
hollow underground cave is created. The water dripping from the joints and
holes into the cave .

Fig. 5.12: Cave, stalactite and stalagmite

Source: Author

The dripping water from the roof dilutes the lime content. The drip is slow
and, in this process, some part of the lime is solidified by evaporation of
water from the dripping surface. With the passage of time, it keeps on
enlarging in its width and length. Enlargement in width makes it thicker and
downward growth increases its length. This feature hanging from the roof is
termed as stalactite.

Below the stalactite, dripping drop of lime dissolved water falls on the
surface of the cave. Since it is rich in lime, some part of it is solidified and
there and rest is drained out. Hence, a rising structure at the falling point of
sipped water is seen. It also keeps on growing in width and length. Increase
in length vertically is observed. It known as Stalagmite.

When the growth of both stalactite and stalagmite leads to getting both joined
together, it is popularly known as Cave Pillar.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Name the erosional landforms made in karst region.

2) Name the depositional landforms made in karst region.

5.4 GLACIAL LANDSCAPES

Glaciers are found where the temperature is below freezing point. Glaciers
are basically formed due to accumulation of ice above the snow-line. Glacial 99
Geomorphic Processes landscape is the characteristics of high latitude and high-altitude regions of
the world. Glacial landscape develops or found above the snow line. There
are three types of glaciers. They are Alpine Continental and Piedmont
glaciers. Alpine glaciers are the features of high altitudes, continental glaciers
are the features of high latitudes
latitudes,, and piedmont glacier is the feature of
foothills where the temperature is below freezing point. Several distinct
features are developed by glaciers. They can be classified under two broad
categories:

(i) Erosional features and (ii) Depositional features

5.4.1 Erosional Features

All the erosional features are the creation of erosion. They are mostly
developed in Alpine glacier regions or in mountains. There are several
landforms created by erosional action by the glaciers. They are:

U-shaped Valley: Glacier is a solid body of ice which moves down slope
very slowly. Since it is solid, it exerts huge pressure on the surface. In this
process, it tries to make a ‘U’ shaped valley. When a glacier occupies a pre-
developed ‘V’ shaped valley by river, it creacreates
tes ‘U’ shaped valley. Hence,
river valley of ‘V’ shaped is transferred into ‘U’ shaped valley by glaciers.

Fig. 5.13: U-Shaped Valley Hanging Valley

Source: Author

The erosive power of the glaciers is determined by the slope of the surface
and the amount of accumulated ice. When the slope as well as amount of ice
is more
more,, it erodes more. Therefore, greater erosion is observed. Valley
becomes deeper. It is quite obvious that there is smaller quantity of ice is
there in the tributary glaciers. Hence smaller amount of ice erodes lesser in
comparison to the main (primary) gla glacier.
cier. Therefore, the difference in the
thickness of the glacier is responsible for the formation of hanging valley
(Fig. 5.13). Just like Main River, the main glacier has more thickness of ice
in comparison to the tributary. It results into the differences in bed level.
When, the tributary glacier meets the main glacier, it is seen hanging over the
main glacier. When the ice is melted, or glacial age is over, they are visible.
Several examples of hanging valleys are observed in the Himalayan region.

100
 Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes

Fig. 5.13: Glaciated Landscape (Source: Wikipedia, United States National Park
Service. Public Domain.)

Cirque: is like an armchair in shape found in the upper part of glacier. When
a glacier starts from a peak of a mountain system, it has a very steep wall like
structure. At the bottom, it is a basin like depression. To the front, it is like a
threshold with a little higher blocking of the depressed basin. Its slope is
concave. The height of the frontal part of a cirque is high due to deposition of
debris. Once, the glacier is melted, water get accumulated in the cirque. This
accumulated water is termed as Cirque Lake or tarn (Fig. 5.13).

Arête: When cirques are developed on both sides of a ridge, arête is formed.
The boundary between two adjacent cirques gets narrower and sharper due to
erosion; a sharp edge is created called arête. Tracking/climbing is dome along
the arête because it has lesser slope in comparison to the climbing through the
cirque. When three or more glaciers developed along a peak from different
direction, the peak becomes sharper and narrower (Fig. 5.13). This peak is
known as horn (Fig. 5.13).

Roche Moutonnee: The effect of glacial erosion is also seen on the floor/
surface. Such type of effect can be seen in both continental and mountain
glaciers. Continental glaciers are wider. Hence, there is a possibility of rocky
hills / or rocky mounds come in their path. In such a situation, the slope in
front of glacier (stoss side) of that rocky mound becomes softer and smoother
due to abrasion and the leeward side slope becomes rugged / rough due to
glacier/snow pressure. Such develop landscape is termed as roche moutonnee.

Fig. 5.14: Roche Moutonnee (Source: Author)

101
Geomorphic Processes Fiord: When a glacier reaches at the sea / oceanic coast, it performs erosional
work. At the coast, huge iceberg reaches to the coast. That iceberg also
carries load/ erosive tools of the glacier at the bottom. Since huge iceberg
exerts high pressure on the ocean bottom, erosion is performed below the seal
level. Hence, greater erosion creates fiord which is an extension of the ocean
inside the land. The western coast of Norway is famous for such type of
coast. These types of coasts are suitable for natural ports fish industry.

5.4.2 Depositional features

Deposition occurs when the carrying capacity is reduced. Different sizes of
loads are carried by glaciers. When they are getting deposited in their ways,
they deposit the materials in different ways. On the basis of the way of
deposition, t can be classified into two types – unstratified and stratified
glacial deposits.

A. Unstratified Features:

Unstratified landform is named till plain, formed due to deposition of loads

of glacier. When continental glacier melts, unsorted or unstratified loads
deposition of glacial happen. It leads to form a plain which is termed as till
(unsorted glacial sediments) plain. Prairie Plain of North America is an
example. Small plain of such type are also seen near Goolmarg in Kashmir,
India.

Moraine: Boulder, sand and clay deposits are found on the floor of the
glaciated region. The unsorted deposits by glaciers are termed as moraine.
They are of four types:

Fig. 5.14: Moraines (Source: Author)

Terminal Moraine: As the name suggests, it is found at the boundary of a

glacier where it terminates.

Lateral Moraine: Lateral moraines are formed along two banks of a glacier.
They are visible when the glacier recedes and the ice is melted.

Medial Moraine: When a tributary glacier meets with another glacier medial
moraine is formed. Both banks of both glaciers have lateral moraines. After
convergence, both joining banks (lateral moraines) merged together and their
sediments are carried in a merged form. Hence, sediments are carried in a
linear form from the middle of the moraine. That is why; the medial moraines
102 name is given. Ground Moraine: When the moving body of ice in the form
of glacier is melted, its loads are deposited on the way. Since, its deposition is Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
taking place over the entire area of the moving ice; it is called as ground
moraine.

Drumlin: is a depositional topography found before terminal moraine. When

the transportation efficiency or carrying capacity of glacier comes to end,
they deposit their loads in hips. The axis of the hips is determined by the
direction/ axis of the movement of the glacier. These hips look like inverse
teaspoon. It is popularly called as Drumlin.

Fig. 5.14: Glacial Depositional Landscape

Source:
https://www.thephysicalenvironment.com/Book/glacial_systems/landforms_of_continental_glaciation_p1.html

B. Stratified Landforms: Stratified landscapes are found between glacier

and alluvial region. It develops after terminal moraine. Outwash Plain is
one of the prominent landscapes of such region. When water and ice
fragments are flow together, creates or develops a plain. It is called
outwash plain. Out wash plains are developed by continental as well as
mountain glaciers. Outwash plain is a depositional plain. In this stratified
outwash plain some other landscapes are found. Among them Kame,
Sandur and Kettle are prominent.

Kame: Kame is poorly stratified deposits found after snow line but parallel
to the snow line. This landscape is compared with delta, hence is called kame
delta.

Kettle: is a depression in the outwash plain. It is formed due to melt of a

large iceberg. They are found many in the outwash plain.

Esker: It is a narrow and long ridge made up of the deposits of gravel and
sand. It is generally found on the ground moraine areas. Its side has relatively
steep slope. Its height varies from a few meter to several meter and its length
is more than a km in the direction of the glacio-fluvial flow.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit. 103
Geomorphic Processes 1. Name the erosional landforms made by glaciers.

2. Name the depositional landforms made by glaciers.

5.5 CONCLUSION
River, Underground water and Glaciers are active in different climatic
conditions. Depending upon the climatic conditions of any particular area,
geomorphic processes are different. You can simply take examples of Indian
plains and high Himalayan zone with temperature less than zero degrees
Celsius. Both of these regions have different geomorphic processes. Different
processes are working differently. Therefore, the landforms made by them
are different as well. It all depends on the way of their actions. That is why;
William Morris Davis proposed that landform of any region is the functions
of structure, process and stage. It is called trio of Davis about which you have
already studied before.

5.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of
made by river.

2. Explain the formation of either erosional or depositional feature made in

Karst regions.

3. Discuss the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of made

by glaciers.

5.7 REFERENCES & SUGGESTED READING

 Siddhartha, K: (2017), Physical Geography, Kitab Mahal

 Singh, Savindra: (1998), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan

 Robert E. Gabler, James F. Peterson, L. Michael Trapasso, Dorothy

Sack: (2008), Physical Geography, Cengage Learning.

 Leong, Goh Cheng: (1995), Certificate Physical and Human Geography,

Oxford University Press

 Marsh, William M, & Kaufman, Martin M: (2012), Physical Geography,

Great Systems and Global Environments

 https://earth.google.com/web/@25.5365971,83.11876483,104.6540149a,
18724.91329176d,35y,0h,0t,0r/data=OgMKATA

 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nowitna_river.jpg

 https://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1591012432_image2.png

 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Lapies_de_Inner
bergli_Habkern_P1012490mod.jpg
104
 https://civilspedia.com/karst-topography/ Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
 https://www.thephysicalenvironment.com/Book/glacial_systems/landfor
ms_of_continental_glaciation_p1.html

5.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) A river course is divided into three stages:
i : Youth stage, ii: mature stage and iii: old stage
2) The erosional landforms made by river are:
I shaped valley, v shaped valley, Gorge, Rapids, waterfall and Cascades
3) The depositional landforms made by river are:
1. Alluvial cones 2. Alluvial fan 3. Flood plain 4. Natural Levees etc.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The erosional landforms made in karst region are:
(i): lapies, sinkholes, swallow holes, doline, uvala, polje etc.
(ii): Cave and related landscapes
2) The depositional landforms made in karst region are:
i. stalactite ii. Stalagmite iii. Cave Pillar

Check Your Progress 3

2. 1) The erosional landforms made by glaciers are:
‘U’ shaped valley, hanging valley, Cirque, Arête , Roche Moutonnee
etc.
2) The depositional landforms made by glaciers are:
i. Till plain, ii. Moraine, iii. Kame, iv. Sandur and v. Kettle

TERMINAL QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5.2.1, 5.2.2 and 5.2.3

2) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5.3.1, and 5.3.2

3) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5. 4.1 and 5.4.2

105
Geomorphic Processes
UNIT 6 AEOLIAN AND COASTAL
LANDSCAPES
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Aeolian Landscapes
Erosional Features
Depositional Features
6.3 Coastal Landscapes
Erosional Features
Depositional Features
6.4 Conclusions
6.5 Terminal Questions
6.6 References
6.7 Answers

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe the meaning and concept of Aeolian and Coastal Landscapes;

 Explain the mechanism of erosional and depositional process; and

 Discuss the erosional and depositional features developed by wind and

sea waves.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous Unit – 5, you have studied about the fluvial, Karst and Glacial
landscapes. In this Unit, you will study about the Aeolian and Coastal
landscapes. Aeolian and Coastal landscapes are developed in two distinct
geographical/climatic regions. Aeolian landscapes are found in arid and semi-
arid regions. In this type of areas, precipitation is very minimal. They are
located in the subtropical high areas of the globe. Details of the climatic
conditions and pressure belts are dealt in Unit 9 of Block 2 (Atmospheric
Processes). Coastal landscape is confined in a narrow belt along the coasts of
the ocean. The landforms produced in these two regions are quite distinct.

6.2 AEOLIAN LANDSCAPES

Arid and Semi-arid regions are characterised by the annual rainfall of less
106 than 50 cms. In such condition, air remains dry. Wind and running water are
the two agents working in hot desert regions. But due to special geographical Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes
locations and climatic conditions; wind remains the dominant erosional agent
in hot desert regions. Sometimes, rainfall do occurs, but due to intense
evaporation, their affect becomes very limited. The landscape develops in
arid or semi-arid regions are also called Arid Landscape.

Physical weathering is more dominant in the region. Erosional and

depositional processes are active in hot desert regions. Hence, the landforms
created in arid region are grouped into two – erosional and depositional.

6.2.1 Erosional Landscapes

Several topographies are developed in hot desert regions by prevailing wind.
The dry winds blowing in deserts contain sand particles. When any rock
obstacle comes in the path of prevailing wind, they work like a sand paper on
that rock. Different types of special landforms are developed – like Gara,
Yardang, Zeugen, Demoiselle, Wind window, Aeolian bridge; Inselberg and
Pedi plain are prominent among them.

Gara/Mushroom Rock: The name itself explains about the shape of the
topography. It looks like a mushroom. When the prevailing wind active over
a rock from one direction, throughout the year in hot desert region; the rock is
eroded by wind action. Since the wind is more active at the surface, it is
eroded more near the surface. The upper part of the rock is projected towards
the wind direction. If the direction of the prevailing wind changes with the
season, or it is active from different direction, then the rock concern will look
like a Banyan tree popularly known as Mushroom Rock (Fig. 6.1). It is
worth mentioning here is that, the sand/silt carrying capacity of the wind in
desert regions is up to 30 metres. Hence, the lower part is eroded and the
upper part is unaffected. It is large and wide in comparison to the lower part.
Therefore, the rock looks like a canopy.

Fig. 6.1: Mushroom Rock (Source: Author)

Yardang: In desert regions, the alternate arrangement of hard and soft rocks
found vertically in the path of prevailing wind direction creates Yardang. The
columns of soft rocks are eroded easily and quickly in comparison to those of
hard rock columns. After a long time, the column of soft rocks is converted
into small depression due to wind erosion and removal of eroded particles.
The hard rock column stands above as ridges. The series of depressions and
ridges are known as Yardang.
107
Geomorphic Processes

Fig. 6.2: Yardang (Source: Author)

Zeugen: Zeugen is also called Inkpot shaped topography. It is developed in

hot desert regions, when alternate arrangements of hard and soft rocks are
found horizontally. Once the horizontal hard layer of rock is eroded, the
lower soft layer is eroded easily and quickly. Even under-carving is also done
in the softer rock by wind action. It resembles an inkpot.

Fig. 6.3: Zeugen (Source: Author)

Yardang and Zeugen both look sometimes almost similar but they do have
differences. Yardang develops on hard and soft rock found alternately and
vertically while zeugen is formed on different resistant rock found
horizontally.

Demoiselle: When hard rock is found on the top and soft rock lays
underneath, differential erosion by winds in dry region creates a pillar like
structure. Once the top horizontal hard rock layer is removed with a cap on
top, the surrounding soft rock is quickly eroded and an earth pillar is created.
It is known as Demoiselle.

Fig. 6.4: Demoiselle

108 Source: https://www.shakaguide.com/article/capitol-reef/land-of-goblins-goblin-valley-state-park

Wind Lattice, Window and Wind Bridge: Window and bridge created by Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes
winds are the result of special type of rock found in the path of prevailing
wind. When the rock made with mixed resistance mineral is found in the
prevailing wind direction in hot desert region wind erodes the soft
mineral/rock particles very quickly and easily. In this way, several holes are
made in such rock. The several holes in a rock look like a lattice, hence, it is
called Wind Lattice (Fig. 6.5). When two or more than two holes mixed
with each other and creates a larger hole, wind passes through these holes are
known as Wind Window (Fig. 6.5). After sometimes, these several windows
are merged and create one and single large window is formed. Such large
window looks like an arch like structure. This structure, through wind passes,
is called Wind Bridge (Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5: Wind Latice, Window and Wind Bridge (Source: Author)

Pediplain and Inselberg: Pediplain is a flat erosional surface created by

wind in its last stage of arid cycle. It is characterised by featureless plain with
minimum relief in the concerned area. Most of the eroded sand and silt
particles are removed and big sized boulders are left behind. Hence, surface
covered with boulders in deserts are known as pediments. Therefore,
Peniplane is formed by coalescence of several pediments. This boulders
covered low-laying featureless plain is known as Pedi plain (Fig. 6.6). The
hard resistant rock in desert region is seen as hillocks in almost featureless
plain made by wind action. Popularly termed as end product of arid cycle of
erosion. Hence, the hillocks in the pediplain are known as Inselberg (Fig.
6.6).

Fig. 6.6: Pedi plain and Inselberg (Source: Author)

6.2.2 Deposional Landscapes

All the agents of erosion transport the eroded materials. These materials are
the tools to perform its erosive function. The ability to transport is also 109
Geomorphic Processes governed by several factors. Once the ability to transport the material is
reduced, the same is deposi
deposited.
ted. The way a transported material by wind is
deposited; several types of landforms are produced. Important among them
are – sand dunes, Barchans, Seif, Sand levees and Loess.

Sand Dunes: Sand dunes are depositional landform. For the development of
any depositional landscape in hot desert region, an obstacle of rock mass or
shrubs is needed in the direction of the prevailing wind. In such condition,
wind deposits the carrying sand along the axis of the obstacle. Thus, a mound
of sand created is known as Sand Dunes (Fig. 6.7). The slope of sand dune is
gentle towards windward side and steeper towards leeward side. Sand dune is
a temporary landform found in the hot desert and it migrates forward in the
direction of wind. It happens due to the absence of compactness among sand
particles in dry environment. Sand dunes are of two types – Transverse and
longitudinal sand dunes.

sand
Fig. 6.7: Sand Dunes (Source: Author)

Barchans: Transverse sand dunes are called Barchans. It is crescent shape

topography develops due to the presence of obstacle. Here the role of wind is
prominent in shaping the barchans. When sand is deposited in front of
obstacle, the prevailing wind snatched them from the sides of the obstacle.
Hence, the horns are developed from both sides of sand accumulation. Such
topography is termed as Barchans (Fig. 6.8). Windward slope is convex in
shape while leeward slope is concave. On concave side, sand is accumulated
on top and fa falls/slips
lls/slips downward. It creates eddy due to which sand is
accumulated and horn of barchan is elongated.

Fig. 6.8: Barchans

110 Source: https://rsquirespaleo.blogspot.com/2023/08/barchan-sand-dunes.html

Seif: Longitudinal dunes are called Seif. They are long, narrow chain of Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes
dunes created by sand accumulation. This accumulation is in the direction of
prevailing wind. Due to crosswinds, Seif height and width is increased while
winds parallel to their axis cause them to enlarge in length. It is also
developed due to lengthening of barchans horns. Basically Seif are higher
ridge of sand accumulation. The land between two Seif is a lower/depression.
It is almost sand free. It is used for movement in the desert as walking is
relatively easy. It is called as gassi.

Loess: The wind takes away fine sand particles thousands of kilometres far
from the deserts. When the carrying capacity of wind becomes negligible,
the sand particles tend to settle down. Thus, a plain is formed known as
Loess. Loess deposits may become very thick in due course of time. In
northern China loess plain is found. According to Pye, four fundamental
requirements are necessary for the formation of loess – a dusty source,
adequate wind energy to transport the dust, a suitable accumulation area and
a sufficient amount of time.

6.2.3 Waterborne Deposional Landscapes

The running water also works as an important agent of denudation in some of
hot desert region. Just like humid region, running water performs its action in
hot desert region as well. Since physical weathering is very high in hot
deserts, an easily available tool for running water erodes very quickly. Large
quantity of available sediment also gets deposited as the available water is
also not in large quantity for longer duration. Hence, water derived
depositional features are seen in the desert region.

Fig. 6.9: Pediment, Bajada, Balson and Playa (Source: Author)

Playas or Salina: After rainfall, a temporary lake is formed. This type of lake
is termed as Playas or Salina (Fig. 6.9). Some intermittent streams provide
water to this lake. The lake region is like a depression where water gets
deposited. Since temperature is very high, the accumulated water gets dried
due to high evaporation. Salt is deposited there, that is why, play a is known
as salina. When the water of Playa Lake dried due to high evaporation, the
salty layer can be seen on the surface.

Bajada: When water flows from the upland in the desert, large quantity of
gravel material is transported and gets deposited at the base. The deposited
111
Geomorphic Processes materials give rise to form a fan-shaped deposit. When several fan-shaped
deposits merged, it is called as bajada (Fig. 6.9). Bajada is also termed as
Balson (Fig. 6.9).

Pediment: It is a low slope erosional surface with low relief formed in the
desert and semi-desert by running water. It is formed at the base of a receding
mountain front. It is generally associated with parallel retreat of slope near
the mountain base in deserts. The pediment is covered by thin and
discontinuous soil/alluvium or colluvium.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1. Name the erosional landforms made by winds.

2. Name the depositional landforms made by winds.

6.3 COASTAL LANDSCAPES

Sea waves play an important role in the development of coastal landscape. Its
impact is seen near coastal regions. That’s why the landscape developed on
coastal zone are called Coastal landscapes. Generally, erosional topographies
are developed on upper part/land side whereas depositional topographies can
be seen in the lower part/ towards sea water of the coast. Corrosion or
solution, abrasion, attrition and hydraulic actions are responsible for the
erosional work done by sea waves. The impact of these mechanisms depends
on the size and energy of the sea waves, slope of the coastal region, height of
the coast, structure of the coastal rocks, dip of the rock, and the depth of the
sea water on coast. All these factors are all together responsible for the
development of coastal erosional and depositional landscapes. The features
produced by sea waves are grouped into two – erosional and depositional.

6.3.1 Erosional Landscapes

Sea Cliff: Sea cliffs are erosional landform created by destructive sea waves.
Sea waves are generally caused by blowing winds over the seas. When wind
blows, it generates pressure on the water surface. Wind blowing with
pressure creates friction on the water and thus, water is pushed forward in
wind direction. It results sea waves. Continuous striking of sea waves on its
coast lead to massive erosion. Due to erosion on the coast, almost vertical
wall like structure is created. This is termed sea cliff. Initially, undercutting is
performed. The rocks laying above the undercut/base is broken due to heavy
weight. In this way, sea cliffs are continuously on retreat and land area is
consumed by sea.

112
 Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes

Fig. 6.10: Sea Cliff (Source: Author)

Wave-cut Platform: The formation of wave-cut platform is associated with

sea cliff. The sea cliff tends to retreats due to erosion as mentioned above. It
keeps on retreating. In this way, continental shelf tends to increase
accordingly. At the base of the sea cliff, wave-cut notch/undercut is created.
The surface between high tide and low tide is known as Wave-cut Platform
(Fig. 6.11). The width of the platform depends on how much the cliff has
retreated.

Fig.6.11 : Wave-cut Platform

Source: https://mammothmemory.net/geography/geography-vocabulary/coastal-landscapes-2/cliff.html

Sea Caves: Sea caves are formed along the coast by wave erosion. When any joint found
along the sea cliff where the sea waves strike, sea cave is formed. When waves hit the weak
zone of joint, it is broken and enlarged. In this way, its enlargement leads to form the sea
cave. Numerous sea caves are found along the coast.

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Geomorphic Processes

Fig.6.12 Painted Cave, Santa Cruz Island, Channel Islands National Park, California.
(Source: NPS image)

Sea Arch: Sometimes a narrow strip of landmass is projected towards sea.

On this landmass, when sea waves strike, a cave is created. The cave is
enlarged and a passage is formed so that the waves cross through it. This
passage is known as Sea Arch. Caves and arches will continue to form as
waves erode more of the bedrock.

Fig. 6.13: Sea Arch

Fig.6.14: Development of a Sea Cave or Sea Arch (Source: Author)

Stack: Due to weathering and erosion of the roof of the sea arch, roof is
114 collapsed. Sea side pillar like structure is detached from the mainland. It
remains isolated. It is known as Stack. Sometime, it looks like an island. Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes
This topography is also called as stack or chimney. At Dhanuskodi near
Rameshwaram, you can see such stack. Near Dwarika on western coast of
India, you can see the stack.

Bay and Gulf: Bay and gulf are erosional landscapes formed due to alternate
arrangement of hard and soft rocks. When there is an arrangement of hard
and soft rocks in vertical position, then the sea waves erode the soft rock
comparatively easily. Hence, water intrudes into that eroded part. The hard
rock comparatively projected towards the sea. This topography is known as
Bay. You can observe this topography on the eastern side of India as Bay of
Bengal.

On the other hand, when the alternate arrangements of hard and soft rocks are
found in horizontal position, gulf is formed. It happens when the hard rock is
towards the sea and softer rocks are towards landside. The sea waves firstly
erode the hard rock facing sea. Once the hard rock is eroded, softer rocks get
eroded quickly. In this way a big cavity is formed in the softer rock region.
Meanwhile, the outer/towards sea, hard rock is eroded slowly and a narrow
mouth is created. The sea water intrudes in the cavity Such inland intrusion
of sea is popularly known as Gulf.

6.3.2 Depositional Landscapes

When sea waves come towards the shore, they get friction due to shallow
water depth. With relatively less force, waves strike the shore and erosion as
well deposition is observed. We have already talked about the erosional
landforms above. When water retreats towards sea, it brings the eroded
materials towards sea. Due to lower capacity to transport, materials are
deposited in different ways. Depending upon the ways of deposition, several
landforms are formed. Let us discuss about them.

Sea Beach: Sea beach is a depositional landform formed by sea waves found
along the shorelines. They are located between high tide and low tide zone.
Continuous striking of sea waves along the coast generates sand particles.
Those sand particles are deposited where the wave is not very strong as well
the sea is not very deep. Shallow water at the coast reduces the waves energy
and the sand is deposited. Strong wave and deep sea drag the sand towards
the sea and beach is not formed. Where the slope is relatively high and waves
are strong, gravel beach is found as the bigger sized boulders/gravels are left
behind and smaller particles are brought inside the sea. Hence, there are two
type of beaches – sand beach and gravel beach. Sand beach is found in bays
where water is shallow and has less wave energy. Gravel/pebble beaches are
along the sea cliff where wave energy is more.

Sand Bars and Spits: It is a depositional landscape seen during low tides
parallel to the coast. Sand bars are like embankment made of sand. They are
found almost parallel to the coast. The sallow sea is found between sand bars
and coast. There is no connection between coast and sand bars. When the one
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Geomorphic Processes side of sand bar is connected to coast and other side is projected towards sea,
such embankment of sand is known as Spit. The mainland or continental part
should be projected towards the sea is necessary for the development of Spit.

Fig.6.15: Sand Bar and Spit (Source: Author)

There are three types of Sand Bar-

a- Connecting Bar
b- Loop Bar
c- Tombolo

Connecting Bar: Some bars are developed near narrower coast. It happens
when sea is intruded towards land. The two sides of intruded coast get
connected by sand bar a little away from inner part. This type is called
Connecting Bar. You can observe the connecting bars near Ernakulum on
Kerala Coast.

Loop Bar: Some bars are developed parallel but around an island. It takes
the shape of a ring. Hence is known as Loop Bar or Ring Bar.

Fig.6.16: Connecting Bar and Loop Bar (Source: Author)

Tombolo: If an island near the mainland is connected by a sand bar, it is

known as Tombolo.

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 Aeolian and
Coastal Landscapes

Fig.6.17: Tombolo (Source: Author)

Spits are also of three types:

d- Simple Spit
e- Hook Spit
f- Looped Spit

Simple Spit: Simple spit is a sand bar deposit from the mainland extending
towards sea in almost straight direction. The sea waves coming from both the
sides of spit are of similar type in terms of direction and energy. That is why,
its direction is maintained almost straight.

Fig. 6.18: Simple Spit (Source: Author)

Hook Spit: Change in the direction of prevailing wind is reflected by the

change in the direction of the spit. Generally, the exterior part (towards sea)
of the spit is turned marginally and it keeps on turning with passage of time.
This turn is termed as hook.

Looped Spit: When the hook is turned in such a manner, so that it touches
the mainland or about; named as looped spit. More than one hook spit is
found in a Spit, known as Mixed Spit. Such spit is develops due to effect of
the change in wave direction. Mixed Spit gives the evidences of climate
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Geomorphic Processes change. There is no outlet founds in Spit. When the height of the bars and spit
is above sea level then it is called Sand Barriers.

Fig. 6.19: Hook Spit and Mixed Spit (Source: Author)

Thus, with the above description, it is clear that different types of erosional
and depositional landscapes are developed by sea waves.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Name the erosional landforms made by sea waves.

2) Name the depositional landforms made by sea waves.

6.4 CONCLUSION
Aeolian and Coastal landscapes are developed in two different regions.
Aeolian landscapes are developed in hot desert regions lying in arid or semi-
arid regions of the world. They are found in the western part of the continents
between 150-300 latitudes. Geographically, it is off-shore wind region. Such
region receives annual rainfall of less than 50 cm. Here, the air / wind
remains dry, and evaporation level is high. Therefore, wind becomes the
strong erosional agent in such regions. With the help of abrasion, attrition,
deflation and transportation process, different types of topography are
developed in which some are erosional and some are depositional. It is worth
mentioning here is that in oasis region some waterborne landscapes are also
develops.

Coastal regions are found in different parts of the world. Here, the Sea Wave
or Oceanic Wave work as a strong denudational agent. The structure of the
rock, slope of the rock and many other factors like solution, abrasion, attrition
and hydraulic actions are responsible for the erosional work done by sea
waves. The impact of these mechanisms depends on the size and energy of
the sea waves, height of the coast, dip of the rock, and the depth of the sea
water on coast. All these factors are all together responsible for the
development of coastal erosional as well as depositional landforms.

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 Aeolian and
6.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Coastal Landscapes

1. Describe the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of

made by winds.

2. Explain the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of made

by sea waves.

6.6 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

 Siddhartha, K: (2017), Physical Geography, Kitab Mahal

 Singh, Savindra: (1998), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan

 Robert E. Gabler, James F. Peterson, L. Michael Trapasso, Dorothy Sack:

(2008), Physical Geography, Cengage Learning.

 Leong, Goh Cheng: (1995), Certificate Physical and Human Geography,

Oxford University Press

 Marsh, William M, & Kaufman, Martin M: (2012), Physical Geography,

Great Systems and Global Environments

 https://www.shakaguide.com/article/capitol-reef/land-of-goblins-
goblin-valley-state-park

 https://rsquirespaleo.blogspot.com/2023/08/barchan-sand-dunes.html

 https://mammothmemory.net/geography/geography-vocabulary/coastal-
landscapes-2/cliff.html

6.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) The erosional landforms made by winds are :
i. Gara ii. Yardang iii. Zeugen iv Demoiselle, v Wind window vi
Aeolian bridge; vii Inselberg
2) The depositional landforms made by winds are:
i. sand dunes, ii Barchans, iii Seif, iv Sand levees and v Loess

Check Your Progress 2

1) The erosional landforms made by sea waves are:
i. Sea Cliff ii. Wave-cut Platform iii. Sea Caves iv. Sea Arch v. Stack
vi. Bay and Gulf
2) The depositional landforms made by sea waves are:
i. Sea Beach ii. Sand Bars and Spits 119
Geomorphic Processes TERMINAL QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1. Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 6.2.1, 6.2.2 and 6.2.

2. Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 6.3.1, 6.3.2

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