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Encyclopedia of Mind Enhancing Foods Drugs and
Nutritional Substances 2d edition David W. Group Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): David W. Group
ISBN(s): 9781476619156, 1476619158
File Details: PDF, 3.53 MB
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Language: english
Encyclopedia of Mind Enhancing Foods,
Drugs and Nutritional Substances,
Second Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 Encyclopedia of Mind
Enhancing Foods, Drugs
and Nutritional Substances
Second Edition

David W. Group

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina
 Though every attempt has been made to insure that the information
contained in this book is accurate, it is not a substitute for consultation
with a physician or health care provider. Any attempt at self-diagnosis
or treatment is strongly discouraged. The publisher and author are not
responsible for any adverse affects or unforeseen consequences as a re-
sult of ingesting or otherwise using any of the foods, drugs or other
substances described in this book. Should there be any questions or
concerns about any of the information in this book, it is always advis-
able to consult with a knowledgeable physician or health care provider.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING -IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Group, David.
Encyclopedia of mind enhancing foods, drugs and
nutritional substances / David W. Group. — Second edition.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-7864-4142-6 (softcover : acid free paper)

ISBN 978-1-4766-1915-6 (ebook)
♾
1. Nootropic agents. 2. Dietary supplements. I. Title.
RM334.G76 2015 615.1—dc23 2014043657

BRITISH LIBRARY CATALOGUING DATA ARE AVAILABLE

© 2015 David W. Group. All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Cover image © 2015 Pixologic Studio

Printed in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
 Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Joe Cannata of Payless Repairs for remov-

ing the viruses and malware that seemed to plague my computer
on a regular basis. This book is dedicated to bookstores present—
Talking Leaves Books—and past—Oracle Junction Bookstore, Cir-
cular Word Books, and The Paperback Trading Post—which have
filled my house with books.

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments v
Preface 1

1. Foods 7
2. Herbs and Spices 45
3. Vitamins, Minerals, and Related Nutrients 85
4. Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 122
5. Lipids 151
6. Nucleic Acids 163
7. Miscellaneous Nutrients 165
8. Hormones and Neurotransmitters 174
9. Essential Oils 192
10. Entheogens 202
11. Medical Drugs 269
12. Nootropics 293
13. Neurobiology and Neurochemistry 334
14. Other 350

Bibliography 367
Index 371

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Humans 2.0 tion. Recent research has identified beneficial

neural changes engendered by exercise, nutri-
In a 2008 poll of 1400 online readers, Na- tion and sleep, as well as instruction and read-
ing. In short, cognitive-enhancing drugs seem
ture magazine found that a full 20 percent of morally equivalent to other, more familiar, en-
them used medical drugs such as Ritalin and hancements.… Given the many cognitive-
Provigil for cognitive enhancement, nearly enhancing tools we accept already, from writ-
twice as many as used these same drugs for ing to laptop computers, why draw the line
their medically prescribed use. And these here and say, thus far but no further?
weren’t just any individuals, Brendan Maher As for concerns, there is only the brief ques-
points out, these were scientists, academics, tion “Do [these drugs] change ‘cognitive style,’
and journalists, among other professionals. as well as increasing how quickly and accu-
This means that the percentage of those using rately we think?” With concerns already being
drugs to improve mental performance far out- expressed about how computers are eroding
strips those using drugs to improve athletic concentration and deep thought (apart from
performance. Aside from the ethical questions the ease of plagiarization and the outsourcing
of using drugs for professional gain, many of of academic work), more consideration should
them knew the risks and took the drugs any- be given to the downside of cognitive-
way, knowing they would suffer side effects. enhancing drugs before such wholesale en-
Despite this, academics from Stanford, Har- dorsement is given. Side effects and harmful
vard, Cambridge, and other universities argue interactions with other common substances
that the use of cognitive-enhancing drugs is can often be severe enough to override the
no different than utilizing good health habits benefits, not to mention any long-term effects
or modern technology in improving academic these drugs may have. As Husain and Mehta
performance. In a commentary in Nature mag- have pointed out in a 2011 article in Trends in
azine, they argue: Cognitive Sciences, “[w]e do not understand
Cognitive-enhancing drugs require relatively cognitive systems well enough to understand
little effort, are invasive and for the time being the potential trade-offs that may exist from
are not equitably distributed, but none of taking a cognitive enhancing drug. There are
these provide reasonable grounds for prohibi-
counter-intuitive findings everywhere. For ex-
tion. Drugs may seem distinctive among en-
hancements in that they bring about their ef- ample, young adults who carry the APOE-4
fects by altering brain function, but in reality allele (which has been associated with a higher
so does any intervention that enhances cogni- risk of dementia later in life) actually have bet-

1
Preface 2

ter performance on decision making tasks than bad temperament, “[b]ut what price will
those carrying the APOE-3 version. There- human nature pay for these nonhuman arti-
fore, it is plausible that drugs targeting mem- fices?” Francis Fukuyama, author of Our
ory systems might have detrimental effects on Posthuman Future, cautions against this “self-
decision making tasks.” esteem in a bottle” when drugs like Prozac al-
To address this issue, the authors of the ready look too much like Brave New World’s
editorial call for accelerated research into the soma. Since we may be only a few short years
effects of these drugs, the formulation of away from the next generation of cognitive en-
guidelines by medical and scientific organiza- hancers, such fears are not mere idle specula-
tions, increased public education and aware- tion. Are we even now enforcing a cookie-
ness of cognitive enhancement, and legal re- cutter mentality as ever more powerful drugs
forms taking into account “emerging social loom on the horizon? Where does your true
norms and information about safety.” These self end, ask critics, and your chemical self
measures need to be instituted because, as begin? And will we eventually evolve into a
Steven Rose, the head of the Brain and Behav- false “chemocratic” utopia of George Lucas’
ior Research Group at Open University, has THX-1138 or Stanislaw Lem’s The Futurolog-
noted, the field is riddled with exaggerated ical Congress, blissfully unaware of the social
claims, shoddy research, and lack of ethical decay around us? In hopes of averting such
standards, and what may work for animals or outcomes, the Institute for the Future in Palo
cognitive-impaired individuals may not nec- Alto, California, has proposed a “Magna Cor-
essarily work for someone who is mentally tica,” or a bill of rights for neurological en-
healthy (he notes that animal studies fre- hancement, and the European Commission
quently involve injecting high doses of drugs, has recently hosted the Neuroenhancement
sometimes directly into the brain, a method Responsible Research and Innovation project,
clearly impractical for humans, even in re- the first of many proposed symposiums deal-
search, and that human trials are often stand- ing with this new technology.
alone studies that are judged based on nar- An individual’s intelligence was once
rowly focused performance or memory tests). thought to be static, unchanging, and not sub-
And should these standards be adhered to, ject to improvement. In 1905, Sir William
there are still the basic moral issues inherent Osler, then aged 55, retired from the medical
in all biomedical research—designing ethical faculty of Johns Hopkins University, asserting
clinical trials, for example—along with those in his farewell speech his belief that men above
specific to neurology, such as whether indi- 40 years of age were useless, and that those
viduals suffering from Alzheimer’s or other over 60 should stop working altogether. This
degenerative diseases can give informed con- belief was commonplace (even Einstein once
sent. Interestingly, a 2002 conference on said, “A person who has not made his great
neuroethics at Stanford focused not on an contribution to science before the age of 30
individual’s autonomy regarding the use of will never do so ”), though it did not prevent
brain scans to determine guilt or innocence in Osler from holding a post at Oxford Univer-
a criminal trial or brain implants to monitor sity until his death at age 70. Little more than
and control a citizen’s behavior (not to men- a century later, Bruce Weinberg, labor econo-
tion the ethics of administering drugs to en- mist at Ohio State University, concluded that,
hance moral behavior) but on enhancing based on an analysis of Nobel laureates in
the ability of “normal” brains. As columnist physics from 1901 to 2008, the average age at
William Safire noted, this “Botox in a brain” which physicists did their ground-breaking
could eliminate such things as shyness and work shifted from the 20s to age 48.
 3 Preface

It was also once thought that we only use on the rise, and much age-related cognitive de-
ten percent of our brain, a statement which cline can be prevented or even reversed
makes little sense either from a commonsense through readily accessible means. (For a par-
or evolutionary standpoint (as one researcher ticularly poignant account of a genius mind
put it, “No doctor has ever said, ‘Thank God succumbing to the effects of Alzheimer’s, read
the bullet went through the ninety percent of the final chapter of Gary Small’s The Naked
the brain he didn’t use.”). This belief persists, Lady Who Stood on Her Head.) It is only in re-
albeit in a somewhat altered form, fueling the cent years that the concept of neuroplasticity,
exploding industry in “brain-training” games or the brain’s ability to change, adapt, and even
which purport to increase memory and other improve under certain conditions, has taken
vital capacities of the mind. This industry was hold. Studies have shown that, with daily brain
given a boost in 2008 by a study led by Su- exercises, the mind can significantly improve
sanne Jaeggi and Martin Buschkuehl which its “fluid intelligence,” which includes such
challenged the notion that intelligence was abilities as problem-solving, abstract thinking,
largely fixed and unchangeable. In this study, and response time. And when coupled with a
they claimed to have increased subjects’ IQ by positive lifestyle—a healthy diet, regular exer-
six points after only several hours of training cise, adequate sleep, meditation, and the avoid-
in specific cognitive tasks. Critics such as ance of tobacco, undue stress, and excessive al-
David Z. Hambrick, an associate professor of cohol consumption—the deterioration of
psychology at Michigan State University, have physical and mental abilities can be reduced
pointed out that significant increases—if they to insignificance. This holds true even for
occur at all—would take years of intense work, those in their 60s and 70s. Even more recently,
and that overall intelligence cannot be meas- studies have found that exercise can not only
ured by a single test of one specific ability (and improve general cognitive functioning, but
this doesn’t begin to address the issue of what promote neurogenesis—the growth of new
IQ is and whether it can really be measured at brain cells, an ability that was once thought
all, given the complexity and subtlety of impossible. For some, however, this is not
human abilities). For this study to have any va- enough. One extreme example is inventor and
lidity, it first needs to be successfully replicated futurist Ray Kurzweil who, among other di-
by other researchers, which has not yet been etary and lifestyle changes, ingests 150 vitamin
done. So the question remains: What can be and mineral supplements a day (down from a
done to increase our intelligence? high of 180 to 210 a day)—so many that he
The brain, which reaches its peak size at had to hire a “pill wrangler” to organize them
around age 25, gradually begins to shrink, los- all on a daily basis. (American billionaire David
ing functions thereafter like most of the organs Murdock, who is 91 at the time of this writing,
and tissues of the body. Creativity, reaction takes a more natural approach, with a daily reg-
time, memory, learning, and the ability to imen of one hour of exercise, exposure to sun-
multi-task begin a long, slow decline (though light for vitamin D, and twenty fruits and veg-
at least some of this “decline” may actually be etables consumed as three smoothies a day.
illusory, as the brain has to dig through more This, along with abstinence from dairy and red
information to deal with a particular problem, meat, is his prescription for living to 125.)
much as a computer with a full hard drive may Closely related to the concept of neuroplas-
take longer to accomplish certain tasks). As the ticity is the Flynn Effect, named after its dis-
Baby Boomer generation reaches retirement coverer, philosopher James R. Flynn. Flynn
age, many realize two things: the incidence of discovered, after analyzing studies of IQ tests
Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias is in the early ’80s, that test scores increased from
Preface 4

generation to generation, by 14 to 17 points terjee of the University of Pennsylvania goes

over a 40- or 50-year period. Various theories even further, foreseeing a day in the not-too-
as to why this was so—better diet, smaller fam- distant future when “cosmetic neurology,” as
ilies, more liberal child-rearing—were consid- he calls it, will be as acceptable as cosmetic sur-
ered and rejected. There seemed to be no di- gery, and neurologists will become “quality of
rect correlation, and none of the studies could life consultants” for those seeking a safer, more
explain why there were large gains in some personalized, approach to mind enhancement.
abilities and insignificant gains in others. With several hundred new drugs being devel-
Flynn, after twenty years of study, believes he oped as neuroenhancers, the effects on society
has found the solution, and that is that we are could be staggering, even if only a small frac-
better at discovering abstract patterns than tion of them pan out. We may be able to erase
previous generations. In essence, “we weren’t bad memories, as in the film Eternal Sunshine
more intelligent than they, but we had learnt of the Spotless Mind, take virtual vacations à la
to apply our intelligence to a new set of prob- Arnold Schwarzenegger in Total Recall, or
lems. We had detached logic from the con- achieve unimaginable success as portrayed in
crete, we were willing to deal with the hypo- the film Limitless. Though it is too detailed to
thetical, and we thought the world was a place summarize here, Ronald Bailey’s article “The
to be classified and understood scientifically Case for Enhancing People” in The New At-
rather than to be manipulated.” Dealing with lantis (No. 32, Summer 2011, pp. 16–38) ad-
technology, he believes, whether it’s program- dresses many of the concerns about the new
ming a VCR or playing a video game, seems to technologies of mind enhancement and life
be accelerating this process. extension.
Even more pervasive than the use of cogni- The downside is readily apparent. The em-
tive enhancers to prevent mental decline is the phasis on improving a particular ability—fo-
use of these drugs to provide an extra little cusing on a task, for example—might come at
boost to those who are already high achievers the expense of another, such as creativity,
or who are working at their optimum level. which depends on daydreaming and lack of
Though there is some debate as to the ethics focus. Individuals might feel pressured to take
of taking drugs for cognitive enhancement, such drugs to keep up with co-workers already
clearly many people—even highly intelligent dosing themselves to improve performance, or
professionals and academics—have no such might even be required by their employers to
reservations, even if it is for such short-term take various enhancement pills in order to im-
gain as overcoming jet lag or stage fright, or prove productivity. Parents would have no
dealing with a day’s heavy workload. A partic- qualms about feeding their kids custom cock-
ularly sticky issue is the use of cognitive boost- tails of prescription meds to ensure their chil-
ers for taking tests or college entrance exams. dren would outperform classmates (or, to take
Already, there is a pervasive atmosphere that this scenario still further into the future, ge-
even the most questionable drugs are seen as netically modifying an embryo for greater po-
no more innocuous than a cup of coffee or a tential, something that may already be on the
multi-vitamin to boost performance. Esti- horizon, as Zhao Bowen of BGI Shenzhen is
mates of college students taking prescription overseeing a project that is sequencing the
drugs to enhance performance range as high genomes of genius IQ individuals to find what
as 25 percent to 35 percent. As William Sale- makes them so smart). A new social structure
tan in Slate magazine has pointed out, “The could emerge—those who could enhance ver-
more common they become, the more they sus those who couldn’t. Proven methods of
feel like necessities.” Neurologist Anjan Chat- maintaining peak mental performance, such
 5 Preface

as adequate sleep, proper nutrition, regular cines or pasteurized milk. After all, they say,
exercise, meditation, and mental discipline, Sir Francis Bacon tried to improve his mind
would fade before the promise of a quick with everything from tobacco to saffron,
fix. Those who have developed a dependency Balzac wrote ninety novels in twenty years
on one or more of these performance boost- while consuming endless cups of coffee, Sartre
ers—surgeons or airline pilots, for example— took speed to help him finish his “Critique of
may suddenly be faced with a crisis if they Dialectical Reason,” Paul Erdos fueled his
are unable to obtain their drug during a criti- career with coffee and amphetamines, and
cal period. Higher and higher doses may Carl Sagan claimed to have gotten some of
be needed to compensate for habituation. A his deepest insights after smoking marijuana.
more basic concern is the chemical effect And if one willingly takes a drug to enhance
these drugs will have on our brain or, as memory or learning, can that really be so
Steven Rose puts it, “it can be positively dele- bad? Wouldn’t more emotionally balanced
terious to throw chemical spanners into the and intelligent people make better choices in
exquisitely balanced biochemical system that life?
is the human brain.” And then there is the In the dozen or so years since the first edi-
question of how beneficial these drugs really tion of this book, the field has expanded im-
are; as Margaret Talbot has stated in a New mensely, and the result is that this book has at
Yorker magazine article, “Neuroenhancers least 60 percent more information on more
don’t offer freedom. Rather, they facilitate a than 1,000 substances ranging from basic
pinched, unromantic, grindingly eicient foods to the newest wonder drugs, from the
form of productivity.” Are we beginning to see most commonplace substances to the most ob-
the emergence of a cognitive “arms race,” one scure—by far the most complete work on the
in which there may be more losers than win- subject.
ners? In the next few decades, will we see the The chapters are arranged progressively, be-
dawn of a “Neurotopia” or will we descend ginning with the safest and most natural sub-
into a Philip K. Dick world of amorphous stances and ending with synthetic drugs and
nootropic realities? additives that are experimental and potentially
There would be other problems, as well. hazardous.
Higher intelligence would not necessarily lead The entries for the substances are alphabet-
to greater social cohesion or cooperation ized by popular name within the appropriate
among those with opposing viewpoints. The- chapter, and include such information as al-
oretical neurobiologist Mark Changizi and ternative names and forms (scientific, brand
philosopher Mark Walker warn that our ob- names, and so forth), sources (such as foods),
session with superior intelligence could lead effects (benefits), precautions (side effects, in-
to a neglect of social skills and behavior, re- teractions, overdosage, medical conditions
sulting in a loss of morals and empathy and an that may render the substance ineffective or
increase in evil and psychosis. Mental illness toxic), and dosage. In the interest of brevity, I
and crime would continue to be problems with have eliminated much of the history, folklore,
no simple solutions, and those who lack moral background, detailed analysis of individual
or social standards would only up the ante if studies, and non-cognitive benefits, dealing
given access to a higher IQ. only with that information that can help the
In one sense, mankind has always been using reader evaluate each substance.
cognitive enhancers, whether it is caffeine or This book does not contain a discussion of
nicotine or hallucinogenic drugs, and some how the brain works and the various theories
argue that it is no more unnatural than vac- of aging. Neither does it deal with all the vi-
Preface 6

tamins and nutritional supplements required brain functions, but those that presumably
by the human body—only those that have a help prevent brain damage and degeneration,
more-or-less direct effect on the brain. prevent aging and extend the human lifespan,
As for what to include, I have cast as broad enhance social skills and moral behavior, in-
a net as possible. Included are substances that duce altered states of consciousness, and im-
not only claim to improve thinking and other prove mood, stamina, and energy.
 1

Foods

There is a great diversity of opinion, even spices which, when properly used, can play an
among experts, about what diet remains best important role in human health. It also does
for human health, but research indicates that not deal with food synergy, wherein food com-
the traditional Japanese or Mediterranean binations can either complement or work
diets (Italian and Greek) are the most benefi- against each other.
cial for the average individual, in terms of both Ultimately, the ideal diet should accomplish
physical and mental health. In the latter case, five things—provide adequate amounts of all
according to the Harvard School of Public the necessary nutritional elements needed by
Health, this means large amounts of vegeta- the human body, provide a balance of essential
bles, fruits, nuts, olive oil, and legumes, mod- foods and nutrients, give just the right amount
erate amounts of alcohol (a glass or two of of calories to maintain ideal body weight, be
wine during meals), and small amounts of comprised of moderate amounts of all foods,
meat and meat products (Trichopoulos et al., and encompass a wide variety of foods, as well.
2009). The Mediterranean diet, in particular, A healthy diet is especially important in the
has been associated with a reduced risk of de- first three years of life, as that is when most of
pression (Sánchez-Villegas et al., 2009), a bet- the brain’s growth occurs.
ter quality of life (Henríquez Sánchez et al., It is recommended that a person get 8 to10
2012), the ability to maintain memory and servings of fresh fruits and vegetables a day in
thinking ability (Scarmeas et al., 2010; Tsiv- order to get the maximum antioxidant benefits
goulis et al., 2013), and the prevention of cog- of at least 6,000 ORACs a day. An ORAC is
nitive decline in the elderly (Martinez- the oxygen radical absorbance capacity, or the
Lapiscina et al., 2013). Columbia University antioxidant power of food, and the best
researchers found that those eating a Mediter- sources are cranberries, blueberries, raspber-
ranean diet had a 40 percent less chance of get- ries, strawberries, pears, grapefruits, cherries,
ting Alzheimer’s than those whose diet least cinnamon, mustard, oregano, and turmeric.
resembled this Mediterranean ideal. Recent evidence suggests that, contrary to
The Food Guide Pyramid can be a good what was previously believed, antioxidants
starting-off point as to the proportions of may do more harm than good. Studies have
foods that should be eaten, though it does have shown that antioxidants may increase a per-
its drawbacks. For one, it fails to distinguish son’s overall mortality rate, and that free rad-
between nutrient-dense and nutrient-poor icals—once thought to contribute to aging
foods (whole grains vs. refined grains, for ex- and such diseases as cancer and heart disease—
ample), and it does not include herbs and may actually contribute to health by neutral-

7
 8 1. Foods

izing toxins and inhibiting cancer, and may ac- son in the May 26, 2013, New York Times.
tually be a result of the aging process rather Robinson stated that much of our food is lacking
than its cause (Hekimi et al., 2010). There is in phytonutrients, compounds which help fight
even evidence to suggest that taking high-dose four of the biggest health problems facing our
antioxidant supplements may interfere with society today: cancer, cardiovascular disease, di-
chemotherapy and increase the risk of cancer abetes and dementia. She contends that this sit-
by protecting cancer cells against the body’s uation first arose, not 50 or 100 years ago, but
defenses by deactivating the p53 gene (Bergö 10,000 years ago when man stopped foraging
et al., 2014). They may also inhibit fertility in for wild plants and began farming for food. An
women by neutralizing the hormone that trig- analysis of wild foods versus store-bought pro-
gers ovulation (Dekel et al., 2011). A 2008 re- duce is startling: “Wild dandelions, once a
view of dozens of antioxidant studies by an in- springtime treat for Native Americans, have
ternational consortium of scientists known as seven times more phytonutrients than spinach,
the Cochrane Collaboration concluded “We which we consider a ‘superfood.’ A purple po-
found no evidence to support antioxidant sup- tato native to Peru has 28 times more cancer-
plements for primary or secondary prevention, fighting anthocyanins than common russet po-
[and] Vitamin A, beta-carotene, and vitamin tatoes. One species of apple has a staggering 100
E may increase mortality.” The most likely ex- times more phytonutrients than the Golden
planation for this unexpected finding is that Delicious displayed in our supermarkets.”
antioxidants interfere with immune-system Why the disparity in nutrients? Since farm-
cells, which fight infection and cancer. Some ing first began, farmers have shunned plants
nutrition experts, such as Douglas McKay, that tasted the most bitter in favor of those that
N.D., of the Council for Responsible Nutri- were more flavorful. Unfortunately, these bitter
tion, dispute this, stating that a re-analysis of plants had the highest amounts of phytonutri-
the data showed no increase in mortality. ents, while the tastier ones were high in sugar,
Other research conducted at University Col- starch, and oil, and low in fiber and phytonu-
lege London and the University of Texas indi- trients. The extra-sweet corn consumed today
cates that the whole theory of aging caused by is far removed from the teosinte of several
the accumulation of molecular damage due to thousand years ago, and even of the corn eaten
oxidative stress may be wrong, and that there by Native Americans three hundred years ago.
may be other factors at play as well. Others have disputed some of the assertions
Of course, free radicals—or reactive oxygen in her article, claiming that the loss of nutri-
species (ROS)—which are a part of the nor- ents and the remarkable healing properties of
mal process of metabolism (though they are these phytonutrients are not supported by
mainly generated by dietary fat and iron-rich facts. Are we deficient in these nutrients, and
foods) still do a lot of damage. And the studies has our health suffered as a result? Robinson
seem to indicate that it is mainly the supple- presents no solid evidence. As for the claim
ment form of antioxidants, rather than those that bitterness equals healthy, this is an over-
pre-existing in natural foods, which do the simplification, as plants have evolved for their
most harm. So it appears that an individual own benefit, not ours, and many harmful
must find the proper balance of free radicals plants taste bitter as well. Monica Reinagel,
(low levels of which may help protect against MS, LD/N, CNS, of the Nutrition Diva web-
diabetes (Tiganis et al., 2009) and cancer) and site, who is a board-certified, licensed nutri-
antioxidants, mainly by eating a healthy diet tionist, professionally trained chef, and author
and following a healthy lifestyle. of six books on nutrition, challenges the claim
Another controversial aspect of diet was that wild versions of fruits and vegetables are
reignited by an opinion piece titled “Breeding healthier. How can they be healthier, she says,
the Nutrition Out of Our Food” by Jo Robin- if they taste so bad as to be almost inedible?
1. Foods 9 Acai

You won’t get the nutritional benefits of a food Additionally, according to Consumer Re-
you can’t stomach. And rather than breeding nu- ports, the term “natural” is a weasel word that
trition out of our food, scientists are now en- could be applied to almost any food, even junk
gaged in putting more nutrition in. Also suspect food, and “free range/free roaming” could
is Robinson’s assumption that more is better, apply to any animal that merely had access to
when in actual fact there is an optimum level for time outside a barn or cage, regardless of
any nutrient, beyond which higher amounts do whether it actually did spend any time outside.
little or no good, and possibly even some harm. The controversies regarding genetically
Is organic the answer? In order to be labeled modified foods and Paleolithic diets are still
“100% organic,” products should contain all unresolved and beyond the scope of this
organic ingredients; to be labeled “organic,” book.
95 percent of the ingredients must be organic;
and the label “made with organic ingredients” Acai
are applied to products that have at least 70
percent organic ingredients. The situation is AKA: Euterpe oleracea.
complicated by the area where crops are Effects: Contains substantial amounts of
grown, changing weather conditions, and phytochemicals, or non-nutritive compounds,
farming practices. One 2003 study in the Jour- which may protect against brain degeneration.
nal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry found A 2011 study at Tufts University found that
that organically grown (i.e., no herbicides, pes- an extract of acai was “able to combat some of
ticides or fertilizers) and sustainably grown the inflammatory and oxidative mediators of
(i.e., fertilizers but no herbicides or pesticides) aging at the cellular level” in rats. In other
corn, strawberries and marionberries contain words, it helped in the prevention of the de-
significantly higher levels of cancer-fighting velopment of neurodegenerative diseases by
antioxidants than their conventional counter- blocking the harmful effects of substances that
parts, the conclusion being that herbicides and promote inflammation. A New Zealand study
pesticides inhibit the production of these ben- involving 281 healthy young adults found that
eficial compounds. A second study, published eating seven to eight fruits and vegetables per
in the same journal four year later, found that day could lead to improvements in mood
organic tomatoes had almost twice the level within 24 hours (White et al., 2013), and an-
of some flavonoids as did non-organic. How- other study involving 65,000 adults found that
ever, a spokesperson for the Food Standards those eating seven fruits and vegetables a day
Agency cautions that these differences don’t had a decreased risk of death over those who
necessarily mean that organic is healthier. ate just five (Oyebode et al., 2014).
Ashley Mullins, R.D., L.D., CNSC, a regis- Precautions: There have been many exag-
tered dietitian at Baylor All Saints Medical gerated claims about its healthful properties
Center, contends that the higher nutritional (using words such as “miracle” and “super-
content of organic foods has not been fully food”), or misleading information about
proven, and that the levels of pesticides used in where and how it was grown; there is no evi-
conventional produce have not been proven dence that it promotes weight loss, reverses di-
harmful (side note: this last claim may be true abetes, or has any other specific health effect.
for the consumer, but not for the farm workers). Its antioxidant levels are in the mid-range for
And there is evidence to back up her claims. A fruits popular in the Western diet. Any fruit
study conducted by the Danish National Food should be ripe or slightly overripe to get its
Institute’s department of food chemistry at the maximum benefits. According to Leigh Erin
University of Copenhagen found no difference Connealy, M.D., “Because of pesticides and
in a comparison of antioxidant levels of onions, the diminished mineral levels in soils used
carrots, and potatoes (Knuthsen, 2010). today, eating non-organic produce will not
Alcohol 10 1. Foods

provide you with the antioxidants (or vitamins bad memories may have actually be achieving
and minerals) that your body needs. On aver- the exact opposite). It has also been found that
age, organic produce contains nearly 30 per- white wine can be just as beneficial as red.
cent more nutrients than non-organic and is Other evidence, including a University of Wis-
grown without using harsh chemicals that can consin study which found that, among 550 in-
lead to further free radical exposure.” Studies dividuals who had family risk factors for
by the Linus Pauling Institute and European Alzheimer’s, those who averaged one or two
Food Safety Authority conclude that fruit drinks a week scored 6 percent higher on
flavonoids such as anthocyanins (responsible wordlist recall than those who abstained or
for the red, purple, and blue coloring in plants) drank less, indicates that moderate drinkers
are part of the plant’s defense mechanisms, and show less cognitive decline with age than tee-
that they have no antioxidant value to the per- totalers. Several other studies indicate that
son eating them (Simon, 1997; Williams et al., moderate drinking (one to two drinks a day)
2004; Lotito and Frei, 2006; EFSA Panel on can significantly reduce the chance of getting
Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, Alzheimer’s and certain types of dementia
2010). Drinking fruit juices without pulp is (vascular dementia and cognitive decline ex-
not as beneficial as eating the whole fruit, as cepted), even in the elderly; however, epidemi-
juices lack dietary fiber and phytochemicals, ologist Francine Grodstein of the Harvard
have added sugar, and may add excess calories School of Public Health in Boston, Massachu-
if more than a half-cup a day is consumed; a setts found that, in a study involving over
2013 Harvard University study found that 12,000 women aged 70 to 81, those with a ge-
drinking a glass of fruit juice a day increases netic susceptibility to Alzheimer’s (specifically
the risk of diabetes by 21 percent. the gene that codes for apolipoprotein E) ap-
Dosage: One cup per day, or one-half cup peared to derive no mental benefits from mod-
of dried fruit. The average person should con- erate alcohol consumption.
sume at least five servings of different fruits Resveratrol, a bioactive compound in wine
and vegetables per day. (which is found in greater amounts in red wine
than white), also reduces the stickiness of
Alcohol blood platelets and increases the flexibility of
blood vessels. Resveratrol may help prevent
Effects: According to a 2004 study by the age-related disorders such as neurodegenera-
University College of London, a few glasses of tive diseases, inflammation, diabetes, and car-
wine a day can sharpen thought processes, pos- diovascular disease. Johns Hopkins University
sibly by increasing blood flow to the brain. Im- School of Medicine researchers have also
provements in verbal skills, mathematical abil- found that resveratrol may help prevent
ity, and memory can be seen with just one glass stroke-related damage by increasing the level
of wine per week, especially in women. Bene- of heme oxygenase, an enzyme that protects
fits in memory, though, may be limited to sub- nerve cells (Dore et al., 2010). Research by
conscious environmental cues associated with Philippe Marambaud and others at the
drinking; according to neurobiologist Hitoshi Litwin-Zucker Research Center for the Study
Morikawa of the Waggoner Center for Alco- of Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Disorders
hol and Addiction Research at the University in Manhasset, New York indicates that resver-
of Texas at Austin, alcohol triggers the release atrol can also reduce the levels of Alzheimer’s
of dopamine, which enhances synaptic plas- Disease-causing amyloid-beta peptides. Har-
ticity and strength, which in turn reinforces vard Medical School researchers, in conjunc-
the memories and habits of the social situation tion with the National Institute on Aging,
(food, music, people) in which the drinking have found that resveratrol counteracts the ef-
occurs (similarly, those who drink to forget fects of a high-calorie diet in mice to the point
1. Foods 11 Alcohol

where they lived just as long as mice on a stan- ing could rewire the brain, preventing the mice
dard diet (Sinclair et al., 2006) (UCLA bio- from overcoming their fear of a tone previ-
chemists have found that ethanol can double ously associated with an electric shock, leading
the lifespans of Caenorhabditis elegans, a to a form of post-traumatic stress disorder
worm commonly used in aging studies, though (Holmes et al., 2012). Similar research has
it is not known how or why). found that alcohol does not kill brain cells, but
Precautions: Stephen Braun, author of hinders the firing of neurons throughout the
Buzz: The Science and Lore of Alcohol and Caf- entire brain (Braun; Jensen et al., 1993).
feine, says that the body sees alcohol as a poi- Other negative effects, associated mainly
son, and fights back with an enzyme called al- with heavy drinking, include loss of reasoning
cohol dehydrogenase. A full stomach delays ability (resulting in snap judgments and a ten-
the alcohol’s entry into the small intestine, dency to interpret accidental acts by others as
which helps the enzyme break down the alco- deliberate and malicious), inhibited sex drive,
hol. This enzyme is more effective in men than loss of memory and blackouts during inebria-
women, but by age 55 to 60, the reverse is true, tion, disruption of normal sleep (including es-
and one-third to one-half of Asians have a ge- sential REM sleep), hangover, depression, al-
netic mutation which reduces the effectiveness coholism, cirrhosis of the liver, and cancer; a
of the body to render alcohol harmless, which recent study has concluded that even moderate
may result in a flushing of the face, heart pal- drinking (one and a half drinks per day) can
pitations, dizziness, and severe nausea. Women be linked to almost 6000 cancer deaths in the
susceptible to Alzheimer’s may or may not United States each year, specifically, mouth,
benefit from moderate alcohol consumption; throat, and esophageal cancer in men and
more research is needed to come to a definite breast cancer in women (Naimi et al., 2013).
conclusion, as genetics and environment may According to Timothy Naimi, a Boston Uni-
also play a role in the disease. A 2013 Indiana versity School of Medicine and School of Pub-
University study has found that even a tiny sip, lic Health associate professor, for every person
or just the smell, of alcohol can trigger the re- who benefits from alcohol, five to ten people
lease of dopamine in the brain, resulting in die from it, and that studies which show heart
binge drinking as well as the inability of alco- benefits from moderate drinking have failed
holics to quit. to adequately compare moderate drinkers with
According to Dr. Anne Corbett, research teetotalers, or have failed to take into account
manager at the Alzheimer’s Society, it is not yet socioeconomic status (higher status people
clear which types of alcohol have the most ben- having better health and more moderate
eficial effects, or whether other lifestyle factors drinking habits).
play a role in neuroprotection. Too much alco- Alcohol can interact with many drugs, pre-
hol can have the opposite effect; specifically, scription and illegal, resulting in increased or
more than 3 to 5 drinks per day was associated decreased effects of the drug and/or alcohol,
with a greater risk of cognitive impairment and serious side effects, and death. Aspirin, for ex-
dementia. Harvard Medical School researchers ample, can greatly decrease the effectiveness
have found that moderate amounts of red wine of the body to break down alcohol, resulting
activate the SIRT1 longevity gene, but that in a more severe hangover. Always consult with
higher amounts also activate other targets, caus- a medical health professional before combin-
ing negative effects (Sinclair et al., 2012). More ing alcohol with any drug, legal (over-the-
than one drink a day is not recommended. A counter as well as prescription) or illegal.
study conducted by scientists at the National For a detailed discussion of the pros and
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism cons of resveratrol, see the entry under Mis-
(NIAAA) and UNC’s Bowles Center for Al- cellaneous Nutrients.
cohol Studies on mice found that heavy drink- Dosage: Up to 30 units of alcohol (two
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