Chapter 1: Environment

Introduction to Environment

●​ Definition: Environment refers to everything that surrounds an organism. It is our basic

life support system, providing the air we breathe, water we drink, food we eat, and land
we live on.
●​ Components:
○​ Natural Environment: Comprises elements created by nature, such as
mountains, rivers, trees, and animals.
○​ Human-made Environment: Includes objects created by people, like roads,
cars, clothes, and books.
○​ Human Environment: Consists of individual human beings, families,
communities, religion, educational, economic, and political situations.
●​ Modification by Humans: Human beings modify the natural environment to fulfill their
growing needs. For example, car fumes pollute the air, water is collected in pots, food is
served in vessels, and land is used to build factories. Humans make cars, mills,
factories, and manufacture containers.

Components of Environment

●​ Natural:
○​ Land (Lithosphere): The solid crust or the hard top layer of the Earth, made up
of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil. It provides forests,
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements, and is a
source of mineral wealth.
○​ Water (Hydrosphere): The domain of water, comprising various sources and
bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans. It is essential for all living organisms.
○​ Air (Atmosphere): The thin layer of air surrounding the Earth, held by
gravitational force. It protects from harmful solar rays and heat, consisting of
gases, dust, and water vapour. Changes in the atmosphere produce changes in
weather and climate.
○​ Living World (Biosphere): The plant and animal kingdom together forming a
narrow zone of the Earth where land, water, and air interact to support life.

Ecosystem

●​ Definition: An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms

with each other and with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which
they live, all linked by the transfer of energy and material.
●​ Examples of Ecosystems: Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem,
desert ecosystem, mountain ecosystem, etc.
●​ Interdependence: All plants, animals, and human beings depend on their immediate
surroundings and are also interdependent on each other.
Barter System

●​ Definition: It is a trade in which goods are exchanged without the use of money

Chapter 2: Inside Our Earth

1. The Earth's Interior

●​ Dynamic Planet: The Earth is a dynamic planet, constantly undergoing changes both
inside and outside.

●​ Layers: The Earth's interior is made up of several concentric layers, similar to an onion.
○​ Crust:
■​ Outermost layer over the Earth's surface.
■​ Thinnest of all layers.
■​ About 35 km on the continental masses and 5 km on the oceanic crust.
■​ Continental Crust: Mainly consists of Silica and Alumina (sial - Si for Silica
and Al for Alumina).
 ■​ Oceanic Crust: Mainly consists of Silica and Magnesium (sima - Si for
Silica and Ma for Magnesium).
○​ Mantle:
■​ Located just beneath the crust.
■​ Extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the crust.
○​ Core:
■​ Innermost layer.
■​ It has a radius of about 3500 km.
■​ Mainly made up of Nickel and Iron (Knife - Ni for Nickel and Fe for ferrous
i.e. iron).
■​ It has a very high temperature and pressure.

2. Rocks and Minerals

●​ Definition of Rock: Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the Earth's crust
is called a rock.

●​ Types of Rocks: Rocks can be of different colour, size, and texture.

○​ Igneous Rocks (Primary Rocks):
■​ Formed when molten magma cools down, solidifies, and becomes rocks.
■​ Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
■​ Formed when molten magma cools down deep inside the Earth's
crust.
■​ Cool slowly, forming large grains.
■​ Example: Granite, used for grinding paste of spices and grains.
■​ Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
■​ Formed when molten lava (fiery red molten magma coming out
from the interior of the earth on its surface) comes on the Earth's
surface, cools rapidly, and becomes solid.
■​ Have a very fine-grained structure.
■​ Example: Basalt (Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt rocks).
○​ Sedimentary Rocks:
■​ Formed when rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other, breaking into
small fragments called sediments.
■​ These sediments are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc..
■​ Loose sediments are compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks.
■​ Example: Sandstone (made from grains of sand).
■​ May contain fossils of plants, animals, and other microorganisms.
○​ Metamorphic Rocks:
■​ Formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to great heat
and pressure.
■​ Example: Clay changes into slate, and limestone changes into marble.

3. Rock Cycle

●​ Definition: The process of transformation of the rock from one type to another under
certain conditions in a cyclic manner is known as the rock cycle.

●​ Process:
○​ Molten magma cools and solidifies to form igneous rocks.
 ○​ Igneous rocks are broken down into small particles (sediments), transported, and
deposited to form sedimentary rocks.
○​ Igneous and sedimentary rocks change into metamorphic rocks under great heat
and pressure.
○​ Metamorphic rocks, under great heat and pressure, melt down to form molten
magma.
○​ This molten magma again cools and solidifies to form igneous rocks.

4. Uses of Rocks

●​ Used for making roads, houses, and buildings.

●​ Used in games like seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapoo/kit kit), five stones (gitti).
●​ Red Fort is made of red sandstone.
●​ Taj Mahal is made of white marble.

5. Minerals

●​ Definition: Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have certain physical
properties and definite chemical composition.

●​ Importance: Very important to humankind.

●​ Uses:
○​ Used as fuels (e.g., coal, natural gas, petroleum).
○​ Used in industries (e.g., iron, aluminium, gold, uranium).
○​ Used in medicines and fertilizers

Chapter 3: Our Changing Earth

1. Endogenic and Exogenic Forces

●​ The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates called Lithospheric plates.

●​ These plates move around very slowly, a few millimetres each year, due to the
movement of the molten magma inside the Earth.
●​ This movement causes changes on the surface of the Earth.
●​ Forces:
○​ Endogenic Forces: Forces acting in the interior of the Earth, sometimes
producing sudden movements (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes) or slow movements
(e.g., mountain building).
○​ Exogenic Forces: Forces that work on the surface of the Earth (e.g., erosion
and deposition by water, wind, ice).

2. Volcanoes and Earthquakes

●​ Volcano: A vent (opening) in the Earth's crust through which molten materials erupt
suddenly.

●​ Earthquake: When lithospheric plates move, the Earth's surface vibrates. These
vibrations, travelling all around the Earth, are called earthquakes.
○​ Focus: The place in the crust where the movement starts.
○​ Epicentre: The place on the surface directly above the focus.
○​ Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves, with the greatest
damage closest to the epicentre.
○​ Earthquakes cannot be predicted, but their impact can be minimised by
preparedness.
○​ Local Prediction Methods: Studying animal behaviour (e.g., fish in ponds
getting agitated, snakes coming to the surface).
○​ Measurement: Measured with a seismograph on the Richter scale.
■​ An earthquake of 2.0 or less can be felt only a little.
■​ An earthquake over 5.0 can cause damage from falling objects.
■​ A 6.0 or higher magnitude is considered very strong, and 7.0 is classified
as a major earthquake.
○​ Earthquake Preparedness (Safe Spots): Under a kitchen counter, table or
desk; against an inside corner or wall. Stay away from fireplaces, chimneys,
windows that shatter, mirrors, and picture frames.

3. Major Landforms

●​ The landscape is continuously worn away by two processes: weathering and erosion.

●​ Weathering: The breaking up of rocks on the Earth’s surface.

●​ Erosion: The wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind, and
ice.
●​ The eroded material is carried away (transported) and eventually deposited, creating
different landforms on the Earth's surface.

Work of a River:

●​ Running water in the river erodes the landscape.

 ●​ Waterfall: Formed when the river tumbles at a steep angle over very hard rocks or down
a steep valley side.
○​ Highest waterfall: Angel Falls of Venezuela in South America.
○​ Other significant waterfalls: Niagara Falls (border between Canada and USA),
Victoria Falls (borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa).
●​ Meanders: As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns, forming large bends.
●​ Ox-bow Lake: Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the
meander, the ends of the meander loop come closer. In time, the meander loop cuts off
from the river, forming a cut-off lake.
●​ Floodplain: When a river overflows its banks, it floods the neighbouring areas,
depositing layers of fine soil and other material called sediments, forming a fertile
floodplain.
●​ Levees: Raised banks formed by the deposition of sediments along the river banks.
●​ Distributaries: As the river approaches the sea, its speed decreases, and it begins to
break up into a number of smaller streams.
●​ Delta: The collection of sediments from all the mouths of the distributaries, forming a
triangular landmass at the river's mouth.

Work of Sea Waves:

●​ Sea Caves: Formed when sea waves continuously strike at rocks, cracks develop and
enlarge, creating hollow-like caves on the rocks.

●​ Sea Arches: When cavities become larger, only the roof of the caves remains, thus
forming sea arches.
●​ Stacks: Further erosion breaks the roof, leaving only the walls, which are called stacks.
●​ Sea Cliffs: Steep rocky coasts rising almost vertically above sea water.
●​ Beaches: Sea waves deposit sediments along the shores, forming beaches.

Work of Ice (Glaciers):

●​ Glaciers: Rivers of ice that erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose
the solid rock below.

●​ They create deep hollows, which fill with water and become beautiful lakes in the
mountains.
●​ Glacial Moraines: The material carried by the glacier, such as rocks (big and small),
sand, and silt, gets deposited, forming glacial moraines.

Work of Wind:

●​ Wind is an active agent of erosion and deposition in deserts.

●​ Mushroom Rocks: Rocks in the desert that have a narrower base and a wider top,
shaped like a mushroom. This is because wind erodes the lower section of the rock
more than the upper section.
●​ Sand Dunes: When wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another.
When the wind stops, the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill-like structures called
sand dunes.
●​ Loess: When fine and light sand is carried over very long distances and deposited in
large areas, these deposits are called loess. Large deposits of loess are found in China.
Chapter 4: Air
1. Composition of the Atmosphere

●​ Definition: Our Earth is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called the atmosphere.
●​ Importance: It is essential for our survival, providing the air we breathe and protecting
us from the harmful effects of the sun's rays.
●​ Gases Composition:
○​ Nitrogen (78%): Most abundant gas. Plants need nitrogen for their survival
(bacteria in soil and roots convert atmospheric nitrogen for plant use).
○​ Oxygen (21%): Second most abundant gas. Humans and animals take oxygen
from the air for respiration.
○​ Carbon Dioxide (0.03%): An important gas. Green plants use it for
photosynthesis. Humans and animals release it.
■​ Greenhouse Effect: Carbon dioxide creates a greenhouse effect by
trapping the heat radiated from the Earth, which is crucial for keeping the
planet warm enough to live.
■​ Global Warming: Excess CO2 due to burning fuels (coal, oil) leads to
increased global temperatures.
○​ Other Gases (1%): Includes Argon (0.93%), and other trace gases.
●​ Other Constituents: Besides gases, the atmosphere also contains tiny dust particles.

2. Structure of the Atmosphere

●​ The atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the Earth’s surface:
 ○​ Troposphere:
■​ The most important layer.
■​ Average height: 13 km.
■​ Almost all weather phenomena (rainfall, fog, hailstorm) occur within this
layer.
○​ Stratosphere:
■​ Located above the troposphere, extending up to a height of 50 km.
■​ Free of clouds and associated weather phenomena, making it ideal for
flying aeroplanes.
■​ Contains the ozone layer, which protects us from the harmful ultraviolet
(UV) rays of the sun.
○​ Mesosphere:
■​ The third layer of the atmosphere, extending up to a height of 80 km.
■​ Meteors burn up in this layer upon entering from space.
○​ Thermosphere:
■​ Temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height in this layer.
■​ Ionosphere: A part of this layer, extending between 80-400 km.
■​ Helps in radio transmission by reflecting radio waves transmitted
from the Earth back to the surface.
○​ Exosphere:
■​ The uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
■​ Has very thin air.
■​ Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.

3. Weather and Climate

●​ Weather: Refers to the day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere (e.g., hot or cold, sunny
or cloudy). It can change dramatically from one day to the next.
●​ Climate: Defined as the average weather condition of a place over a longer period of
time.

4. Elements of Weather and Climate

●​ Temperature:
○​ The degree of hotness and coldness of the air.
○​ Insolation: The incoming solar energy intercepted by the Earth. It significantly
influences the distribution of temperature.
■​ Temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles.
■​ Temperatures in cities are often higher than in rural areas due to factors
like concrete and asphalt heating up, high-rise buildings trapping heat,
and emissions from vehicles and factories.
○​ Measurement: Measured by a Thermometer.
●​ Air Pressure:
○​ The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the Earth’s surface.
○​ High Pressure: Associated with clear and sunny skies.
○​ Low Pressure: Associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
○​ Measurement: Measured by a Barometer.
●​ Wind:
○​ The movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
○​ Types of Winds:
 ■​ Permanent Winds: Blow constantly throughout the year in a particular
direction (e.g., Trade Winds, Westerlies, Easterlies).
■​ Seasonal Winds: Change their direction in different seasons (e.g.,
Monsoons in India).
■​ Local Winds: Blow only during a particular period of the day or year over
a small area (e.g., Land and Sea Breeze).
○​ Measurement: Wind direction is measured by a Wind vane.
●​ Moisture:
○​ Humidity: Moisture in the air in the form of water vapour. Water evaporates from
land and various water bodies to become water vapour.
○​ Precipitation: When water vapour rises, it starts cooling, leading to
condensation and the formation of tiny water droplets that form clouds. When
these droplets become too heavy to float, they come down as precipitation.
○​ Types of Precipitation: Includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail.
○​ Types of Rainfall:
■​ Convectional Rainfall: Occurs when air heated at the surface rises,
cools, and condenses, leading to rain.
■​ Orographic Rainfall: Occurs when moist air is forced to rise over
mountains, leading to cooling, condensation, and precipitation.
■​ Cyclonic Rainfall: Associated with cyclonic activity, characterized by the
convergence of air masses.
○​ Importance of Rain: Very important for the survival of plants and animals, and
brings fresh water to the Earth’s surface.
○​ Measurement of Rainfall: Measured by a Rain gauge.
Chapter 5: Water
1. Water Distribution on Earth

●​ The "Blue Planet": Earth is referred to as the "blue planet" because over two-thirds of
its surface is covered by water.
●​ Saline Water: Most of the Earth's water (approximately 97.3%) is saline (salty) and is
found in oceans, making it unfit for direct human consumption.
●​ Freshwater: Only a small percentage (about 2.7%) of the Earth's water is freshwater.
 ○​ Distribution of Freshwater:
■​ Ice-caps: 2.0%
■​ Groundwater: 0.68%
■​ Freshwater lakes: 0.009%
■​ Inland seas and salt lakes: 0.009%
■​ Atmosphere: 0.0019%
■​ Rivers: 0.0001%
●​ Water Scarcity: Despite the abundance of water on Earth, many regions experience
water scarcity due to the uneven distribution and the high salinity of most of the available
water.

2. Water Cycle

●​ Definition: The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates
between oceans, atmosphere, and land is known as the water cycle (or hydrological
cycle).
●​ Process:
○​ Evaporation: Water evaporates from land surfaces and various water bodies.
○​ Condensation: Water vapour rises into the atmosphere, cools down, and
condenses to form tiny water droplets, which collectively form clouds.
○​ Precipitation: When these water droplets in clouds become too heavy to float,
they fall back to Earth's surface as precipitation (e.g., rain, snow, sleet, hail).
○​ Runoff/Infiltration: The precipitated water then flows back into rivers, streams,
and eventually oceans (runoff), or seeps into the ground to become groundwater
(infiltration).

3. Ocean Circulation

●​ The movements that occur in oceans can be broadly classified into waves, tides, and
ocean currents.
○​ Waves:
■​ Formed when winds blow across the ocean surface, causing the water to
rise and fall alternately.
■​ The intensity of the wave is directly proportional to the strength of the
wind.
■​ Tsunami: A huge tidal wave (giant sea wave) most commonly caused by
an earthquake, a volcanic eruption, or underwater landslides.
■​ The great Tsunami of 2004, triggered by a massive earthquake off
the western boundary of Sumatra, caused widespread devastation
in the Indian Ocean.
■​ Mangrove forests can effectively absorb the impact of Tsunamis
and protect coastal areas.
○​ Tides:
■​ The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water, typically twice in a day.
■​ Primarily caused by the strong gravitational pull exerted by the Sun and
the Moon on the Earth's surface.
■​ High Tide: Occurs when water covers much of the shore by rising to its
highest level.
■​ Low Tide: Occurs when water falls to its lowest level and recedes from
the shore.
 ■​ Spring Tides: Occur during the Full Moon and New Moon days, when the
Sun, Moon, and Earth are in the same line, resulting in the highest high
tides and lowest low tides.
■​ Neap Tides: Occur when the Moon is in its first and last quarter (at right
angles to the Sun and Earth), resulting in more moderate tides.
■​ Benefits of Tides: Help in navigation (by raising the water level near
coasts), aid fishing (by bringing more fish closer to the shore during high
tide), and can be harnessed to generate electricity in specific locations.
○​ Ocean Currents:
■​ Streams of water flowing constantly in definite directions on the ocean
surface.
■​ Can be classified as warm or cold.
■​ Warm Ocean Currents: Originate near the equator and flow towards the
poles (e.g., Gulf Stream). These currents bring warmth to coastal areas.
■​ Cold Ocean Currents: Originate near the poles or higher latitudes and
flow towards the equator (e.g., Labrador Ocean Current, which makes the
areas where it flows cold).
■​ Influence on Climate: Ocean currents significantly influence the
temperature conditions of the coastal areas they affect.
■​ Fishing Grounds: Areas where warm and cold ocean currents meet are
considered the best fishing grounds in the world (e.g., around Japan and
the eastern coast of North America). Such areas often experience foggy
weather, making navigation difficult.

Chapter 6: Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

1. Ecosystem and Vegetation

●​ Interdependence: All plants, animals, and human beings are interdependent on each
other for their survival within the biosphere.
●​ Natural Vegetation: Refers to plants that grow naturally without human interference or
cultivation.
●​ Wildlife: Encompasses animals that live in their natural habitat.

2. Distribution of Natural Vegetation

●​ The growth of natural vegetation is primarily dependent on factors like temperature and
moisture.
●​ Major types of vegetation are broadly categorized into forests, grasslands, scrubs, and
tundra.
○​ Forests: Thrive in areas with abundant temperature and rainfall, supporting a
dense tree cover.
○​ Grasslands: Occur in regions receiving moderate rainfall.
○​ Shrubs/Scrub Vegetation: Thorny shrubs and scrubs are found in dry areas
with low rainfall.
○​ Tundra Vegetation: Characteristic of cold polar regions with very low
temperatures.

3. Types of Forests

●​ Forests are categorized based on when their trees shed leaves: Evergreen (do not shed
simultaneously) and Deciduous (shed leaves in a particular season).
○​ Tropical Evergreen Forests:
■​ Location: Near the equator and close to the tropics.
■​ Climate: Hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year, with no
distinct dry season.
■​ Trees: Do not shed their leaves simultaneously. Characterized by dense,
hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, and mahogany.
■​ Wildlife: Rich in biodiversity, including elephants, monkeys, lemurs, and a
variety of birds and snakes.
■​ Example: Amazon rainforests are the largest of this type.
○​ Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests):
■​ Location: Large parts of India, northern Australia, and Central America.
■​ Climate: Experience seasonal changes. Trees shed their leaves in the
dry season to conserve water.
■​ Trees: Composed of medium hardwood trees such as sal, teak, neem,
and shisham.
■​ Wildlife: Home to tigers, lions, elephants, langurs, and monkeys.
○​ Temperate Evergreen Forests:
■​ Location: Found in the mid-latitudinal coastal regions (e.g., south-eastern
USA, South China, south-eastern Brazil).
 ■​ Trees: Contain both hardwood and softwood trees like oak, pine, and
eucalyptus.
○​ Temperate Deciduous Forests:
■​ Location: Found in higher latitudes (e.g., north-eastern USA, China, New
Zealand, Chile, and also the coastal regions of western Europe).
■​ Climate: Trees shed their leaves in the dry season.
■​ Trees: Common trees include oak, ash, and beech.
■​ Wildlife: Inhabitants include deer, foxes, and wolves.
○​ Mediterranean Vegetation:
■​ Location: Primarily found around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe,
Africa, and Asia, and in regions with similar climates such as California
(USA), Southwest Africa, Southwest Australia, and Central Chile.
■​ Climate: Characterized by dry hot summers and mild rainy winters.
■​ Trees/Plants: Citrus fruits (oranges, figs, olives, grapes) are widely
cultivated, often replacing natural vegetation. Trees are adapted to dry
summers with thick barks and wax-coated leaves to reduce transpiration.
○​ Coniferous Forests (Taiga):
■​ Location: Found in the higher latitudes (50°-70° N) of the Northern
Hemisphere, often referred to as "Taiga" (e.g., parts of North America,
Asia, Europe).
■​ Climate: Characterized by very cold climates.
■​ Trees: Dominated by tall, softwood evergreen trees such as pine, cedar,
spruce, and fir, which are commercially important for pulp (used for paper
and newsprint) and matchboxes.
■​ Wildlife: Includes animals like silver fox, mink, and polar bear.

4. Grasslands

●​ Tropical Grasslands:
○​ Location: Found on both sides of the equator, extending to the tropics.
○​ Climate: Regions of moderate to low rainfall.
○​ Vegetation: Characterized by tall grasses, often 3-4 metres high (e.g., Savannah
grasslands of Africa).
○​ Wildlife: Home to elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, and leopards.
●​ Temperate Grasslands:
○​ Location: Situated in the mid-latitudinal zones and the interior parts of
continents.
○​ Vegetation: Consists of short and nutritious grass.
○​ Wildlife: Includes wild buffaloes, bison, and antelopes.

5. Thorny Bushes (Deserts)

●​ Location: Found in dry, desert-like regions.

●​ Climate: Characterized by low rainfall and scorching heat.
 ●​ Vegetation: Primarily thorny bushes and scrubs with deep roots and waxy leaves to
minimize moisture loss.
●​ Wildlife: Animals like camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, wolves, wild asses, snakes, and
lizards are adapted to these conditions.

6. Tundra Vegetation

●​ Location: Exclusive to polar regions, which have a very cold climate.

●​ Vegetation: Consists of mosses, lichens, and very small shrubs.
●​ Wildlife: Common animals include polar bears, musk-oxen, Arctic owls, seals, and
walruses.

7. Wildlife Conservation

●​ Threats: Natural vegetation and wildlife face various threats including deforestation, soil
erosion, construction activities, forest fires, tsunamis, landslides, poaching, and pollution.
These lead to the loss of natural habitats and endangerment/extinction of species.
●​ Conservation Measures:
○​ Protected Areas: Establishment of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and
Biosphere Reserves to protect natural habitats and their inhabitants.
○​ Awareness Programmes: Initiatives like 'Vanamahotsava' promote tree planting
and environmental awareness.
○​ Legal Frameworks: Implementation of laws against poaching and illegal trade of
animals and birds. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement that lists
species for which trade is prohibited or restricted to prevent over-exploitation.
Chapter 7: Human Environment-Settlement, Transport and Communication

1. Settlements

●​ Definition: Settlements are places where people build their homes.

●​ Early Human Settlements: Early humans lived on trees and in caves. They began to
make fixed homes when they started cultivating crops.
●​ Factors Influencing Settlements: Natural conditions favorable for establishing
settlements include:
○​ Favorable Climate
○​ Availability of Water
○​ Suitable Land for building and farming
○​ Fertile Soil for agriculture
●​ Types of Settlements:
○​ Permanent Settlements: Homes built to be lived in for a long time.
○​ Temporary Settlements: Occupied for a short period. Examples include people
living in deep forests, hot/cold deserts, mountains, or those practicing
transhumance.
■​ Transhumance: The seasonal movement of people with their animals,
typically from plains to mountain pastures in summer and back to the
plains in winter, in search of grazing land.
●​ Rural Settlements:
○​ Where people are primarily engaged in activities such as agriculture, fishing,
forestry, crafts, and trading.
○​ Clustered Settlements: Houses are built very close to each other.
○​ Scattered Settlements: Dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
●​ Urban Settlements:
○​ Where people are mainly engaged in manufacturing, trading, and service sectors.
○​ Characterized by dense populations.
●​ Dwellings based on environment:
○​ Thick mud-walled houses with thatched roofs: Common in hot climate
regions, where thick walls help keep the interior cool.
○​ Stilt houses: Built on raised platforms in areas experiencing heavy rainfall or
prone to flooding.
○​ Igloos: Houses made of ice (snow) found in very cold climates.

2. Transport

●​ Definition: The means by which people and goods move from one place to another.
●​ Early Transport: Early humans relied on walking and carrying goods on their backs or
using animals. The invention of the wheel significantly revolutionized transport.
●​ Major Modes of Transport:
○​ Roadways:
■​ The most common means of transport, especially for short distances.
■​ Can be metalled (paved with asphalt or concrete) or unmetalled (muddy).
 ■​ Roads exist in diverse terrains, including high mountains (e.g., Manali-Leh
highway, one of the highest roadways in the world).
■​ Modern developments include expressways for high-speed travel.
○​ Railways:
■​ Efficiently carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and
affordably.
■​ The invention of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution greatly
boosted railway development.
■​ Modern railways use diesel and electric engines, including superfast
trains.
■​ Railway networks are well-developed in plain regions.
■​ Trans-Siberian Railway: The longest railway system, connecting
Western Russia to the Pacific Coast.
○​ Waterways:
■​ The cheapest mode for transporting heavy and bulky goods over long
distances.
■​ Inland Waterways: Comprise navigable rivers and lakes (e.g., the
Ganga-Brahmaputra river system, the Great Lakes in North America, and
the Nile river in Africa).
■​ Sea Routes/Oceanic Routes: Primarily used for transporting goods and
commodities between countries. These routes connect through major
ports worldwide (e.g., Mumbai, Singapore, New York, London, Rio de
Janeiro, Durban, Sydney).
○​ Airways:
■​ The fastest but most expensive mode of transport due to high fuel costs.
■​ Can reach remote and inaccessible areas, crucial for air-dropping aid
during natural calamities.
■​ Operations can be affected by bad weather conditions.
■​ Major international airports include Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London,
Paris, Frankfurt, and Cairo.

3. Communication

●​ Definition: The process of conveying messages to others.

●​ Early Communication: Primitive methods included beating drums and using smoke
signals.
●​ Modern Communication:
○​ Mass Media: Newspapers, radio, and television are powerful tools for
communicating with a large number of people simultaneously.
○​ Internet: Has rapidly transformed communication, providing instant access to
information and interactive entertainment.
■​ E-mails: Electronic mail facilitates quick digital communication.
■​ Wireless communication: Mobile cellular phones are widely popular for
personal communication.
○​ Satellites: Play a crucial role in various applications, including oil exploration,
surveys of forests, underground water, and mineral wealth, weather forecasting,
and disaster warnings.
○​ Global Connectivity: The internet has fostered a "global society" where
communication is virtually instantaneous across the world.
Chapter 8: Human Environment Interactions: The Tropical and the
Subtropical Region

1. Life in the Amazon Basin

●​ Location: The Amazon Basin lies in the equatorial region, spanning from 10°N to 10°S
latitudes. The River Amazon, along with its numerous tributaries, forms this vast river
system.
●​ Countries in the Basin: Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Columbia, and a small
part of Venezuela are located within the Amazon Basin.
●​ Climate: The region experiences a hot and wet climate throughout the year.
Temperatures are high, coupled with high humidity. Days and nights are almost equally
hot and humid, and it rains almost every day without much warning.
●​ Rainforests (Selvas):
○​ Due to heavy rainfall, the forests are dense. Trees grow so closely that their
leaves and canopies form a thick roof, preventing sunlight from reaching the
ground, which remains dark and damp.
○​ Vegetation: Mainly includes epiphytes like orchids and bromeliads that grow on
tree branches.
○​ Wildlife: The region is exceptionally rich in diverse fauna, including birds
(toucans, hummingbirds, birds of paradise), various species of monkeys, sloths,
ant-eating tapirs, snakes (pythons, anacondas, boa constrictor), crocodiles,
alligators, numerous fish species (like piranha), and a wide array of insects.
●​ People of the Rainforests:
○​ Indigenous people live in scattered, small clearings within the forest.
○​ Agriculture: They practice slash and burn agriculture (shifting cultivation).
Farmers clear a plot of land by cutting trees and bushes, and then burn them.
The ashes add nutrients to the soil. Crops like tapioca, pineapple, and sweet
potato are grown. After the nutrients are exhausted, farmers move to a new plot.
○​ Main Food: Manioc (also known as cassava or tapioca), which is similar to a
potato, is their staple food. They also eat queen ants and egg-sacs.
○​ Cash Crops: Coffee, maize, and cocoa are grown as cash crops.
○​ Housing: Some live in thatched houses that are beehive-shaped, while others
reside in large apartment-like houses called "Maloca" with steeply sloping roofs
designed to withstand heavy rainfall.
○​ Life Changes: The construction of the Trans-Amazon Highway has opened up
the rainforest interior, but development activities are leading to the gradual
destruction of these vital rainforests.

2. Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

●​ Location: This basin is situated in the subtropical region, extending between 10°N and
30°N latitudes.
●​ Rivers: Formed by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries.
○​ Tributaries of Ganga: Ghaghra, Son, Chambal, Gandak, Kosi.
 ○​ Tributaries of Brahmaputra: Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri.
●​ Physical Features: The plains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra, the mountains and
foothills of the Himalayas, and the Sunderbans Delta are the main geographical features
of this basin.
●​ Climate: The region experiences a monsoon climate, characterized by hot summers and
cool winters.
●​ Topography: The basin exhibits varied relief, encompassing mountains, plains, and
plateaus.
●​ Population: Due to its fertile plains, this region is highly populated.
●​ Agriculture: Agriculture is the main occupation.
○​ Paddy: The main crop, requiring sufficient water, and cultivated in areas with
high rainfall.
○​ Other crops: Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram, and millets.
○​ Cash crops: Sugarcane and jute.
○​ Plantations: Banana plantations are found in some areas, while tea plantations
are prominent in West Bengal and Assam.
○​ Silk Cultivation: Practiced through the cultivation of mulberry trees in Bihar and
Assam.
●​ Vegetation:
○​ Tropical Deciduous Forests: Common in the basin, with trees like teak, sal, and
peepal.
○​ Mangrove Forests: Found in the Sunderbans Delta.
○​ Coniferous Trees: Pine, deodar, and fir trees grow in the mountainous areas of
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
●​ Wildlife:
○​ Elephants, tigers, deer, and monkeys are common animals.
○​ The one-horned rhinoceros is found in the Brahmaputra plain (e.g., Kaziranga
National Park).
○​ Crocodiles and alligators inhabit the rivers and lakes.
○​ Aquatic Life: Rohu, Catla, and Hilsa are popular varieties of fish. Fishing is a
major occupation, especially in the delta and plain areas.
●​ Cities: Several large towns and cities are located along the River Ganga, including
Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, and Kolkata, many with populations
exceeding 10 lakhs.
●​ Environmental Concern: Waste water from these towns and industries is discharged
into the rivers, leading to pollution.
●​ Transport:
○​ Roadways and Railways: Well-developed infrastructure for transport.
○​ Waterways: The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers are navigable. Kolkata is an
important port situated on the River Hooghly.
○​ Airports: The basin is served by several airports.
●​ Tourism: An important activity. Key tourist attractions include the Taj Mahal (Agra), the
confluence of Ganga and Yamuna at Allahabad, Buddhist stupas in Uttar Pradesh and
 Bihar, Imambara in Lucknow, Kaziranga and Manas wildlife sanctuaries in Assam, and
the distinct tribal culture of Arunachal Pradesh.

Chapter 9: Life in the Temperate Grasslands

1. Temperate Grasslands

●​ Location: These grasslands are found in the mid-latitudinal zones and the interior parts
of continents.

●​ Vegetation: The grasses in these regions are typically short and highly nutritious.
●​ Regional Names: Temperate grasslands are known by different names across various
regions:
○​ Prairies: North America
○​ Pampas: Argentina (South America)
○​ Velds: South Africa
○​ Downs: Australia
○​ Steppe: Central Asia
○​ Canterbury: New Zealand

2. The Prairies
 ●​ Location: These are the temperate grasslands of North America. They are bounded by
the Rocky Mountains in the west and the Great Lakes in the east, covering parts of the
USA and Canada.

●​ River Systems: The Prairies are drained by the tributaries of the River Mississippi (in
the USA) and the River Saskatchewan (in Canada).
●​ Climate:
○​ Extreme Temperatures: Summers are warm (around 20°C), while winters are
very cold (averaging -20°C).
○​ Rainfall: The region receives moderate rainfall.
○​ Chinook: A local hot wind, known as Chinook, blows in winter, raising
temperatures and aiding grazing.
●​ Flora and Fauna:
○​ Vegetation: The Prairies are generally treeless, though woodlands of willows,
alders, and poplars can be found along river valleys.
○​ Crops: Rainfall is sufficient for maize cultivation. Maize (corn) is the major crop.
Other crops include potatoes, soybeans, cotton, and alfalfa (a type of grass).
○​ Animals: Historically, the region was home to vast herds of Bison (American
buffalo), which were nearly hunted to extinction. Other animals include prairie
dogs (which live in burrows) and coyotes.
●​ People and Economy:
○​ The inhabitants are known for their hard work.
○​ Agriculture: Scientific methods of cultivation, utilizing modern machinery like
tractors, harvesters, and combines, are employed.
○​ "Granaries of the world": The Prairies are often referred to as the "Granaries of
the world" due to their substantial surplus production of wheat.
○​ Dairy Farming: A significant occupation in the western parts, particularly where
the undulating land is less suitable for extensive agriculture. The dairy belt
extends from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Coast. Milk is processed into
products like butter and cheese in modern factories.
●​ Cities: Major cities in the Prairies include Chicago, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Kansas,
Denver (USA), Edmonton, Saskatoon, Calgary, and Winnipeg (Canada).

3. The Velds

●​ Location: The Velds are the temperate grasslands of South Africa. They are
characterized by rolling plateaus with varying heights, ranging from 600 meters to 1100
meters. The region is drained by the Limpopo and Orange rivers and their tributaries.

●​ Climate:
○​ Mild Summers: Summers are warm, with an average temperature of 20°C.
○​ Cold and Dry Winters: Winters are typically cold and dry, with average
temperatures between 5°C and 10°C.
○​ Rainfall: Most rainfall occurs in summer (from November to February),
influenced by warm ocean currents.
●​ Flora and Fauna:
○​ Vegetation: The Velds have a sparse cover of vegetation, predominantly grass,
with red grass growing in certain areas known as bushvelds.
○​ Trees: Acacia and Maroola trees are found in the region.
○​ Animals: Common animals include lions, leopards, cheetahs, and Kudu.
●​ People and Economy:
 ○​ Cattle Rearing: This is the primary occupation, favored by moderate rainfall and
less fertile soil in some areas. Cattle are reared in the warmer and wetter regions,
with dairy farming being important for producing butter and cheese.
○​ Sheep Rearing: Prominent for wool production, especially in the cooler, drier
regions. The Merino sheep is a well-known breed in this area.
○​ Mining: The Velds are rich in mineral resources.
■​ Diamonds: Kimberley is particularly famous for its diamond mines.
■​ Gold: Johannesburg is widely known as the "gold capital of the world"
due to its extensive gold reserves. The mineral wealth has significantly
contributed to the development of transport and industrial sectors in the
region.
●​ Major Cities: Key cities in the Velds include Kimberley and Johannesburg
Chapter 10: Life in the Deserts

1. Deserts

●​ Definition: Deserts are areas characterized by scanty rainfall, scorching temperatures,

and sparse vegetation.
●​ Types: Based on temperature, deserts can be broadly classified as hot deserts or cold
deserts.

2. The Hot Desert - Sahara

●​ Location: The Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world, located in Africa. It covers a
vast portion of North Africa, spreading across 11 countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya,
Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.
●​ Climate:
○​ Extremely Hot and Dry: The Sahara experiences an extremely hot and dry
climate with a very short rainy season.
○​ Temperature Extremes: Days are unbelievably hot, with temperatures often
exceeding 50°C, while nights are freezing cold, sometimes dropping close to
0°C.
○​ Moisture Loss: The absence of moisture leads to rapid evaporation.
●​ Flora and Fauna:
○​ Vegetation: Vegetation is sparse, mainly consisting of hardy plants like cactus,
date palms, and acacia.
○​ Oasis: Oases are fertile depressions in the desert where underground water
comes to the surface. These spots support the growth of date palms and other
crops, creating small, habitable areas.
○​ Animals: Wildlife includes camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, and various
species of snakes and lizards.
●​ People:
○​ Despite the harsh climate, diverse groups of people inhabit the Sahara.
○​ Nomadic Tribes: The Bedouins and Tuaregs are nomadic tribes who rear
livestock such as goats, sheep, camels, and horses. They depend on these
animals for milk, hides (for leather), and hair (for making mats, carpets, and
clothes).
○​ Oasis Settlements: Permanent settlements thrive around oases (e.g., Siwa
Oasis in Egypt), where people cultivate date palms, rice, wheat, barley, and
beans.
○​ Modern Developments: The discovery of oil and natural gas (in Algeria, Libya,
and Egypt), along with deposits of iron, phosphorus, manganese, and uranium,
has brought significant economic development.
○​ Tourism: Tourism has also become an important activity.
○​ Lifestyle Changes: Increasingly, nomadic herdsmen are transitioning to urban
life.
3. The Cold Desert - Ladakh

●​ Location: Ladakh is a cold desert located in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of
Jammu & Kashmir.
○​ Mountain Ranges: It is flanked by the Karakoram Range to the north and the
Zanskar Mountains to the south.
○​ River: The Indus River flows through Ladakh.
○​ Altitude: The altitude varies significantly, from approximately 3,000 meters in
Kargil to over 8,000 meters in the Karakoram range.
●​ Climate:
○​ Extremely Cold and Dry: Ladakh experiences an extremely cold and dry climate
due to its high altitude.
○​ Thin Air: The air is thin at high altitudes, meaning less oxygen.
○​ Intense Insolation: The region receives intense sunlight and heat during the
day.
○​ Freezing Nights: Nights are freezing cold, with temperatures often dropping well
below 0°C (e.g., -30°C in winter).
○​ Scanty Rainfall: It receives very little precipitation (less than 10 cm annually)
because it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas.
○​ Frozen Precipitation: Winters are characterized by blizzards and freezing
winds.
●​ Flora and Fauna:
○​ Vegetation: Vegetation is sparse due to the high aridity. Only small patches of
grasses and shrubs are found. Willows and poplars grow in the valleys.
○​ Fruit Trees: During summer, fruit trees like apple, apricots, and walnuts are
cultivated.
○​ Animals: Wildlife includes wild goats, wild sheep, yak, and special breeds of
dogs.
■​ Yak: Used for milk, meat, hides, and as a beast of burden.
■​ Chiru (Tibetan antelope): An endangered species, hunted for its
'shahtoosh' wool, which is known for being extremely light and warm. Its
trade is banned.
●​ People:
○​ Population: The population is predominantly composed of Buddhists (with
numerous gompas or monasteries) and Muslims.
○​ Agriculture: The growing season is short (mainly summers), during which crops
like barley, peas, potatoes, beans, and turnip are cultivated.
○​ Economy:
■​ Sheep Rearing: Important for wool production.
■​ Tourism: The main economic activity. Tourists visit gompas, enjoy
trekking, explore glaciers, and attend traditional ceremonies.
○​ Capital: Leh is the capital and is well-connected by road and air.
○​ Roads: National Highway 1A connects Leh to the Kashmir Valley via the Zojila
Pass.
●​ Challenges: Increasing tourism poses environmental challenges and pressure on local
resources.