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 CONTENTS

Preface xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

Defining Human Behavior 2 Prevention 14
Examples of Behavior 4 Sports Performance 14
Defining Behavior Modification 5 Health-Related Behaviors 14
Characteristics of Behavior Modification 6 Gerontology 15
Historical Roots of Behavior Modification 8 Professional Practice, Certification, and
Major Figures 8 Ethics 15
Early Behavior Modification Researchers 11 The Structure of This Textbook 15
Major Publications and Events 11 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior
Change 16
Areas of Application 12
Basic Principles of Behavior 16
Developmental Disabilities 12
Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 16
Mental Illness 12
Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and
Education and Special Education 12
Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 16
Rehabilitation 13
Other Behavior Change Procedures 16
Community Psychology 13
Chapter Summary 17
Clinical Psychology 13
Key Terms 17
Business, Industry, and Human Services 13
Practice Test 17
Self-Management 14
Child Behavior Management 14

PART 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

Chapter 2 Observing and Recording Behavior 19

Direct and Indirect Assessment 20 Continuous Recording 26
Defining the Target Behavior 21 Percentage of Opportunities 29
The Logistics of Recording 23 Product Recording 29
The Observer 23 Interval Recording 30
When and Where to Record 24 Time Sample Recording 31
Choosing a Recording Method 26 Choosing a Recording Instrument 32

vi
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 CONTENTS vii

Reactivity 36 Practice Test 40

Interobserver Agreement 37 Applications 41
Chapter Summary 39 Misapplications 42
Key Terms 40

Chapter 3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 43

Components of a Graph 45 Alternating-Treatments Design 59
Graphing Behavioral Data 47 Changing-Criterion Design 60
Graphing Data from Different Recording Chapter Summary 61
Procedures 50 Key Terms 62
Research Designs 51 Practice Test 62
A-B Design 52 Applications 62
A-B-A-B Reversal Design 53 Misapplications 63
Multiple-Baseline Design 54

PART 2 Basic Principles

Chapter 4 Reinforcement 65
Defining Reinforcement 67 Schedules of Reinforcement 81
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 70 Fixed Ratio 82
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 73 Variable Ratio 83
Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 73 Fixed Interval 84
Conditioned and Unconditioned Variable Interval 85
Reinforcers 75 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 86
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 87
Reinforcement 76
Chapter Summary 88
Immediacy 76
Key Terms 88
Contingency 77
Practice Test 89
Motivating Operations 77
Appendix A 90
Individual Differences 80
Appendix B 90
Magnitude 81

Chapter 5 Extinction 91
Defining Extinction 92 Factors That Influence Extinction 101
Extinction Burst 95 Chapter Summary 103
Spontaneous Recovery 97 Key Terms 103
Procedural Variations of Extinction 98 Practice Test 103
A Common Misconception about Extinction 100 Appendix A 104
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 viii CONTENTS

Chapter 6 Punishment 105

Defining Punishment 106 Problems with Punishment 120
A Common Misconception about Emotional Reactions to Punishment 121
Punishment 108 Escape and Avoidance 121
Positive and Negative Punishment 109 Negative Reinforcement for the Use of
Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishment 121
Punishers 113 Punishment and Modeling 122
Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment 115 Ethical Issues 122
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness Chapter Summary 123
of Punishment 117
Key Terms 123
Immediacy 117
Practice Test 123
Contingency 118
Appendix A 125
Motivating Operations 118
Individual Differences and Magnitude of the
Punisher 120

Chapter 7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and

Generalization 127
Examples of Stimulus Control 128 The Three-Term Contingency 134
Defining Stimulus Control 129 Stimulus Control Research 135
Developing Stimulus Control: Stimulus Generalization 136
Discrimination Training 131 Examples of Generalization 138
Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 131 Chapter Summary 142
Developing Reading and Spelling with Key Terms 143
Discrimination Training 133
Practice Test 143
Stimulus Discrimination Training and
Appendix A 143
Punishment 134

Chapter 8 Respondent Conditioning 145

Examples of Respondent Conditioning 146 Factors That Influence Respondent
Defining Respondent Conditioning 146 Conditioning 155
Timing of the Neutral Stimulus and The Nature of the Unconditioned Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus 149 Conditioned Stimulus 155
Higher-Order Conditioning 151 The Temporal Relationship between the Neutral
Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 155
Conditioned Emotional Responses 151
Contingency between the Neutral Stimulus and
Extinction of Conditioned Responses 153
Unconditioned Stimulus 156
Spontaneous Recovery 154
The Number of Pairings 156
Discrimination and Generalization of
Previous Exposure to the Conditioned
Respondent Behavior 154
Stimulus 156
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 CONTENTS ix

Distinguishing between Operant and Chapter Summary 160

Respondent Conditioning 157 Key Terms 161
Respondent Conditioning and Behavior Practice Test 161
Modification 160

PART 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

Chapter 9 Shaping 163

An Example of Shaping: Teaching a Child to How to Use Shaping 173
Talk 163 Shaping of Problem Behaviors 175
Defining Shaping 164 Chapter Summary 178
Applications of Shaping 166 Key Terms 179
Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 166 Practice Test 179
Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between Applications 179
Bathroom Visits 167
Misapplications 180
Research on Shaping 169

Chapter 10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 181

An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Stimulus Fading 193
Little Leaguers to Hit the Ball 182 How to Use Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus
What Is Prompting? 183 Control 195
What Is Fading? 184 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control in
Types of Prompts 186 Autism Treatment 198
Response Prompts 187 Chapter Summary 198
Stimulus Prompts 188 Key Terms 199
Transfer of Stimulus Control 190 Practice Test 199
Prompt Fading 190 Applications 200
Prompt Delay 192 Misapplications 200

Chapter 11 Chaining 201

Examples of Behavioral Chains 202 Other Strategies for Teaching Behavioral
Analyzing Stimulus-Response Chains 215
Chains 202 Written Task Analysis 215
Task Analysis 204 Picture Prompts 215
Backward Chaining 207 Video Modeling 216
Forward Chaining 209 Self-Instructions 217
Total Task Presentation 211 How to Use Chaining Procedures 218

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 x CONTENTS

Chapter Summary 220 Applications 221

Key Terms 220 Misapplications 221
Practice Test 220

Chapter 12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 223

Examples of Behavioral Skills Training In Situ Training 231
Procedures 224 Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term
Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the Contingency 232
Professors 224 Behavioral Skills Training in Groups 233
Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from Applications of Behavioral Skills Training
Abduction 224 Procedures 234
Components of the Behavioral Skills Training How to Use Behavioral Skills Training
Procedure 225 Procedures 238
Instructions 225 Chapter Summary 240
Modeling 227 Key Terms 240
Rehearsal 229 Practice Test 240
Feedback 229 Applications 241
Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Misapplications 241
Training 230
In Situ Assessment 231

PART 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Undesirable Behavior
Chapter 13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional
Assessment 243
Examples of Functional Assessment 244 Direct Observation Methods 252
Jacob 244 Experimental Methods (Functional
Anna 245 Analysis) 257
Defining Functional Assessment 246 Functional Analysis Research 261
Functions of Problem Behaviors 247 Conducting a Functional Assessment 265
Social Positive Reinforcement 248 Functional Interventions 267
Social Negative Reinforcement 248 Chapter Summary 267
Automatic Positive Reinforcement 248 Key Terms 268
Automatic Negative Reinforcement 248 Practice Test 268
Functional Assessment Methods 249 Applications 269
Indirect Methods 249 Misapplications 271

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 CONTENTS xi

Chapter 14 Applying Extinction 273

The Case of Willy 274 Reinforcing Alternative Behaviors 287
Using Extinction to Decrease a Problem Promoting Generalization and
Behavior 276 Maintenance 287
Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Research Evaluating the Use of Extinction 288
Effects 277 Chapter Summary 292
Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem Key Terms 292
Behavior through Functional
Practice Test 292
Assessment 277
Applications 293
Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance
of the Problem Behavior 278 Misapplications 293
Taking Account of the Schedule of Appendix A 294
Reinforcement before Extinction 285 Appendix B 295

Chapter 15 Differential Reinforcement 297

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of
Behavior 298 Responding 316
Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 298 Defining DRL 317
When to Use DRA 300 Variations of DRL 317
How to Use DRA 300 How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Different? 318
Alternative Behaviors 304 Implementing DRL Procedures 318
Variations of DRA 306 Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 320
Research on DRA 306 Chapter Summary 322
Differential Reinforcement of Other Key Terms 323
Behavior 309 Practice Test 323
Defining DRO 310 Applications 324
Implementing DRO 311 Misapplications 325
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 313

Chapter 16 Antecedent Control Procedures 327

Examples of Antecedent Control 328 Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable
Getting Marianne to Study More 328 Behavior 333
Getting Cal to Eat Right 328 Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or Cues
for Undesirable Behaviors 334
Defining Antecedent Control Procedures 329
D Presenting Abolishing Operations for
Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (S ) or
Undesirable Behaviors 336
Cues for the Desired Behavior 329
Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable
Arranging Establishing Operations for the
Behaviors 337
Desirable Behavior 331

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 xii CONTENTS

Research on Antecedent Control Strategies 338 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Manipulating Discriminative Undesirable Behavior 348
Stimuli 338 Functional Interventions for Problem
Manipulating Response Effort 341 Behaviors 348
Manipulating Motivating Operations 343 Chapter Summary 349
Using Antecedent Control Strategies 346 Key Terms 349
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the Practice Test 349
Desirable Behavior 347 Applications 350
Misapplications 351

Chapter 17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 353

Time-Out 354 Comparing Response Cost, Time-Out, and
Types of Time-Out 356 Extinction 365
Using Reinforcement with Time-Out 357 Considerations in Using Response Cost 366
Considerations in Using Time-Out 357 Research Evaluating Response Cost Procedures 368
Research Evaluating Time-Out Procedures 361 Chapter Summary 370
Response Cost 364 Key Terms 370
Defining Response Cost 365 Practice Test 370
Using Differential Reinforcement with Response Applications 371
Cost 365 Misapplications 371

Chapter 18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics

of Punishment 373
Application of Aversive Activities 374 Alternative Treatments 387
Overcorrection 375 Recipient Safety 387
Contingent Exercise 377 Problem Severity 387
Guided Compliance 378 Implementation Guidelines 388
Physical Restraint 379 Training and Supervision 388
Cautions in the Application of Aversive Peer Review 388
Activities 381 Accountability: Preventing Misuse and
Application of Aversive Stimulation 381 Overuse 388
Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Chapter Summary 389
Resort 384 Key Terms 389
Considerations in Using Positive Practice Test 389
Punishment 385
Applications 390
The Ethics of Punishment 386
Misapplications 390
Informed Consent 387

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 CONTENTS xiii

Chapter 19 Promoting Generalization 393

Examples of Generalization Programming 393 Providing Cues in the Natural
Defining Generalization 395 Environment 404
Strategies for Promoting Generalization of Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of
Behavior Change 395 Generalization 405
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 395 Implementing Strategies to Promote
Generalization 406
Training Skills That Contact Natural
Contingencies of Reinforcement 397 Promoting Generalized Reductions in Problem
Behaviors 407
Modifying Contingencies of Reinforcement and
Punishment in the Natural Chapter Summary 409
Environment 399 Key Terms 410
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus Practice Test 410
Situations in Training 400 Applications 410
Incorporating Common Stimuli 403 Misapplications 411
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent
Responses 403

PART 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

Chapter 20 Self-Management 413

Examples of Self-Management 414 Social Support 422
Getting Murray to Run Regularly 414 Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 423
Getting Annette to Clean Up Her Mess 414 Steps in a Self-Management Plan 424
Defining Self-Management Problems 416 Clinical Problems 427
Defining Self-Management 418 Chapter Summary 428
Types of Self-Management Strategies 418 Key Terms 428
Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring 419 Practice Test 429
Antecedent Manipulations 419 Applications 429
Behavioral Contracting 420 Misapplications 430
Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 421

Chapter 21 Habit Reversal Procedures 431

Examples of Habit Behaviors 432 Habit Reversal Procedures 435
Defining Habit Behaviors 432 Applications of Habit Reversal 436
Nervous Habits 433 Nervous Habits 436
Motor and Vocal Tics 433 Motor and Vocal Tics 437
Stuttering 434 Stuttering 438

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 xiv CONTENTS

Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 439 Practice Test 444

Other Treatment Procedures for Habit Applications 445
Disorders 442 Misapplications 445
Chapter Summary 444
Key Terms 444

Chapter 22 The Token Economy 447

Rehabilitating Sammy 447 Staff Training and Management 456
Defining a Token Economy 449 Practical Considerations 456
Implementing a Token Economy 449 Applications of a Token
Defining the Target Behaviors 449 Economy 457
Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 451 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token
Economy 464
Identifying Backup Reinforcers 451
Chapter Summary 464
Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of
Reinforcement 453 Key Terms 465
Establishing the Token Exchange Rate 454 Practice Test 465
Establishing the Time and Place for Exchanging Applications 465
Tokens 454 Misapplications 466
Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 455

Chapter 23 Behavioral Contracts 469

Examples of Behavioral Contracting 470 Negotiating a Behavioral Contract 477
Getting Steve to Complete His Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence
Dissertation 470 Behavior? 478
Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along Applications of Behavioral Contracts 479
Better 471 Chapter Summary 483
Defining the Behavioral Contract 472 Key Terms 483
Components of a Behavioral Contract 473 Practice Test 483
Types of Behavioral Contracts 475 Applications 484
One-Party Contracts 475 Misapplications 484
Two-Party Contracts 476

Chapter 24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 487

Examples of Fear and Anxiety Reduction 488 Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety 492
Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Relaxation Training 492
Speaking 488 Systematic Desensitization 498
Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders 488 In Vivo Desensitization 499
Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems 490

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 CONTENTS xv

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Key Terms 506

and In Vivo Desensitization 503 Practice Test 506
Other Treatments for Fears 504 Applications 506
Clinical Problems 505 Misapplications 507
Chapter Summary 505

Chapter 25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 509

Examples of Cognitive Behavior Cognitive Coping Skills Training 520
Modification 510 Acceptance-Based Therapies 522
Helping Deon Control His Anger 510 Clinical Problems 523
Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 511 Chapter Summary 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification 513 Key Terms 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior 513 Practice Test 524
Functions of Cognitive Behavior 514 Applications 524
Cognitive Behavior Modification Misapplications 525
Procedures 515
Cognitive Restructuring 515

Glossary 527
References 539
Name Index 557
Subject Index 563
Quizzes Q1

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 PREFACE

I am gratified that the first five editions of Behavior Modification: Principles and
Procedures received positive reviews from students and professors. The sixth
edition has kept the positive features of the first five editions, has been revised to
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated to reflect the latest
research in behavior modification.
The goal of this sixth edition (as with the earlier editions) is to describe basic
principles of behavior so that the student learns how environmental events influ-
ence human behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so that
the student learns the strategies by which human behavior may be changed. The
text is divided into 25 relatively short chapters, each of which covers a manageable
amount of information (for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modification, applied behavior
analysis, behavior management, or behavior change.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory level so that it may be under-
stood by students with no prior knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for under-
graduate students or beginning graduate students. It would also be valuable for
individuals working in human services, education, or rehabilitation who must use behav-
ior modification procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their care.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to be gender neutral. When dis-
cussing case examples, I include males and females about equally as often.

Features of the Text Continued from the First

Five Editions
The following features of the text are intended to help the reader learn easily.

Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to the field in

Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present information on behavior recording,
graphing, and measuring change. This information will be utilized in each
subsequent chapter. Next, Chapters 4–8 focus on the basic principles of operant
and respondent behavior. The application of these principles forms the subject of
the remaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establish new behaviors are described in
Chapters 9–12, and procedures to increase desirable behaviors and decrease
undesirable behaviors are considered in Chapters 13–19. Finally, Chapters 20–25
present a survey of other important behavior modification procedures.

Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing behavior are
based on the fundamental principles of behavior established in experimental
research over the last 80 years. In the belief that the student will better understand
the procedures after first learning the fundamental principles, the principles
xvi
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 PREFACE xvii

underlying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters 4–8; the
application of the principles in the behavior modification procedures is described
in Chapters 9–25.

Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of real-life examples—
some relevant to college students, some chosen from the author’s clinical experience—
to bring the principles and procedures to life.

Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and the most up-
to-date research on behavior modification principles and procedures are integrated
into the text.

Quizzes Accompany Each Chapter Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10

questions are provided for each of the 25 chapters. The quizzes provide students
with further exercises for self-assessment of their knowledge of the chapters’ con-
tent. The quizzes are on perforated pages, which can be easily torn out so that
the instructor can have students hand the quizzes in as homework assignments or
have students take the quizzes in class.

Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have short-answer essay
questions, complete with page numbers where the answers can be found.

Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where procedures are taught
(Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application exercises are provided. In each exer-
cise, a real-life case is described and then the student is asked to apply the proce-
dure described in the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to
think about how the procedures are applied in real life.

Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed by misapplica-

tion exercises. In each one, a case example is provided, and the procedure from
the chapter is applied to the case in an incorrect or inappropriate manner. The
student is asked to analyze the case example and to describe what is wrong with
the application of the procedure in that case. These misapplication exercises
require the student to think critically about the application of the procedure.
Answers to Applications and Misapplications are in the Instructors Manual, mak-
ing them valuable tools for instructors as they assess their students’ abilities to
apply the information provided in the chapter.

Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular behavior modifi-

cation procedure is taught, the implementation of the procedure is outlined in a
step-by-step fashion, for ease of comprehension.

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information from a chapter is

summarized in a box that has been set off from the text. These boxes are intended
to help the student organize the material in the chapter.

Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information that is consistent

with the opening questions in each chapter.

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 xviii PREFACE

Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic principles

(Chapters 4–7), there are tables with examples of the principle discussed within that
chapter. Later in the chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the student is directed to
return to a specific table and, using the new information being presented in the chap-
ter, to analyze specific aspects of the examples provided in that table.

Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text, students are pre-

sented with self-assessment questions. To answer these questions, students will
need to utilize the information already presented in the chapter. These questions
will help students assess their understanding of the material. In most cases,
answers are presented in the text immediately following the question.

Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research literature to illustrate
important principles or procedures. Students must use information from earlier chap-
ters on behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs.

Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important behavior modifica-
tion terms used in the text. Each term is followed by a succinct and precise
definition.

Improved Test Bank The test bank includes multiple-choice questions, fill-
in-the-blank questions, true-false questions, and short-answer essay questions.

For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For Further Reading box.
In this feature, interesting articles that are relevant to the content of the chapter
are identified and briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been
provided. These articles are from JABA (or JEAB), so they can be easily accessed
online by students. Instructors can assign these articles for extra credit or as reading
assignments for when more advanced students use the textbook.

List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there is a list of the
new terms that were used in the chapter. The list of key terms shows the page
number on which each term was introduced. Although these terms are all found
in the Glossary at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page num-
bers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the student to have an easy refer-
ence to the terms when reading the chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.

New Features in the Sixth Edition

Highlighting There is new highlighting of important information in each chap-
ter to draw the students’ attention to the information. In addition, in-text questions
are highlighted with a ? icon. Finally, more text boxes are provided highlighting
important information.

Motivating Operations The term motivating operation was introduced in the

last edition. In this edition, more detail is provided on the two types of motivating
operations (EOs and AOs) in Chapters 4 and 6 to help students better understand

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 PREFACE xix

the concept applied to reinforcement and punishment. A table in Chapter 6

provides a succinct summary.

Functional Relationships Provided more detail on how functional relationships

between environmental variables and behavior are assessed. Emphasized how func-
tional relationships are established in each type of research design (Chapter 3) and
how functional analysis procedures identify functional relationships (Chapter 13).

Functional Analysis Provided more information on functional analysis in

Chapter 13. Clarified the distinction between functional assessment and functional
analysis and clinical applications of the functional analysis methodology.

Behavior Recording Added a figure highlighting the difference between inter-

val recording and time sample recording (Chapter 2). Discussed the use of tech-
nology for behavior recording including information on behavior recording apps
for smartphones and tablets, accelerometers and GPS-enabled devices for record-
ing exercise and physical activity, and web-based programs for recording and self-
management (Chapters 2 and 23).

Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics Discussed professional prac-

tice, certification, and ethics in Chapter 1. Provided information on Board
Certified Behavior Analysts as the practicing professional who uses the behavior
modification procedures presented in this text. Discussed ethical principles in
Chapters 1 and 6.

Getting Buy In Discussed the importance of working with care givers to get buy
in for the procedures they are asked to carry out. Emphasized the importance of
treatment acceptability for promoting buy in and the importance of buy in for
enhancing treatment fidelity.

Time Out Added more information on the effective use of time out. Added a
textbox discussing procedures for increasing compliance with time out.

Generalization Added discussion of another strategy for promoting generaliza-

tion; providing cues for the behavior in the natural environment

Other New Features

■ Added more self-assessment questions in the text
■ Updated the definition of behavior modification (Chapter 1)
■ Added brief discussion of behaviorism (Chapter 1)
■ Highlighted that the AB design is not a true research design (Chapter 3)
■ Introduced the terms evoke and abate in the discussion of EOs and AOs
(Chapter 4) and evoke in the discussion of stimulus control (Chapter 7)
■ Moved discussion of instructions before the discussion of modeling in
behavioral skills training (Chapter 12)
■ Clarified the two functions of feedback (Chapter 12)
■ Distinguished between preference assessment and reinforcer assessment
(Chapter 15)

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xx PREFACE

■
Added a brief discussion of the competing responses framework (Chapter 16)
■
Added a brief discussion of team decision making (Chapter 16)
■ Provided discussion of the use of physical restraint as an emergency proce-
dure (Chapter 18)
■ Discussed the use of social media for social support (Chapter 20)
■ Added information on novel uses of habit reversal (Chapter 21)
■ Added a more succinct definition of a token economy (Chapter 22)
■ Added a text box describing three essential components of relaxation proce-
dures (Chapter 24)
■ Added text box introducing behavioral activation treatment for depression
(Chapter 24)
■ Added numerous new references throughout the text
■ Introduced and defined a number of new terms in the text and added them
to the glossary

Accompanying This Text

Online Instructor’s Manual The instructor’s manual contains a variety of
resources to aid instructors in preparing and presenting text material in a manner
that meets their personal preferences and course needs. It presents chapter-
by-chapter suggestions and resources to enhance and facilitate learning.

®
Online PowerPoint Slides These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint® lecture
slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage
using content directly from the textbook.

Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero Cognero is a flexible

online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content as
well as create multiple test versions in an instant. You can deliver tests from your
school’s learning management system, your classroom, or wherever you want!

Acknowledgments
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on this
manuscript and the first five editions: Judith Rauenzahb, Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St. Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton,
University of Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;
Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; Charles Blose, MacMurry College;
Kristine Brady, California School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western
Michigan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd,
Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illinois University; Richard N. Feil,
Mansfield University; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State Uni-
versity; Stephan Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;
Roger Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The University

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE xxi

of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University; Stephen W. Holborn, Univer-

sity of Manitoba; Dorothea Lerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo,
University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern Eastern University;
Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay McIntyre, University of Missouri–
St. Louis; Ronald Miller, Brigham Young University—Hawaii; Robert W.
Montgomery, Georgia State University; Charles S. Peyser, University of the South;
Brady Phelps, South Dakota State University; Joseph J. Plaud, University of North
Dakota; Robyn Rogers, Southwest Texas State University; Johannes Rojahn, George
Mason University; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; Alison Thomas Cottingham,
Rider University; J. Kevin Thompson, University of Southern Florida; Bruce Thyer,
University of Georgia; James T. Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon Van
Leer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer, University of Florida; Robert
W. Wildblood, Northern Virginia Community College; Kenneth N. Wildman,
Ohio Northern University; Douglas Woods, University of Wisconsin–-Milwaukee;
and Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College. I especially want to thank
Marianne Taflinger, senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance and support
throughout the initial development of the text.

For the Behavior Modification Student

To get the most out of this text and out of your behavior modification course, you
are encouraged to consider the following recommendations.
1. Read the assigned chapters before the class meeting at which the chapter is
to be discussed. You will benefit more from the class if you have first read
the material.
2. Answer each of the self-assessment questions in the chapter to see if you
understand the material just covered.
3. Answer the practice test questions at the end of each chapter. If you can answer
each question, you know that you understand the material in the chapter.
4. Complete the end-of-chapter quizzes to assess your knowledge of the chap-
ter content.
5. Complete the application and misapplication exercises at the end of the
procedure chapters. In that way, you will understand the material in the
chapter well enough to apply it or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.
6. The best way to study for a test is to test yourself. After reading and reread-
ing the chapter and your class notes, test yourself in the following ways.
■ Look at key terms in the chapter and see if you can define them without
looking at the definitions in the text.
■ Look at each practice test question at the end of the chapter and see if
you can give the correct answer without looking up the answer in the
text or in your notes.
■ Come up with novel examples of each principle or procedure in the chapter.
■ Make flash cards with a term or question on one side and the definition of
the term or the answer to the question on the other side. While studying,

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xxii PREFACE

look at the term (or question) on one side of the card and then read the
definition (or answer) on the other. As you study, you will find that you
need to turn the cards over less and less often. Once you can supply the
answer or definition on the back of the card without looking, you’ll know
that you understand the material. Electronic flash cards are available at
the publisher’s website that accompanies the book.
■ Always study in a location that is reasonably free from distractions or
interruptions.
■ Always begin studying for a test at least a few days in advance. Give your-
self more days to study as more chapters are included on the test.

The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behavior modification or applied behavior
analysis.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711 Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
http://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.apbahome.net/ Association of Professional Behavior Analysts
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div25.aspx/ APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)
http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy
http://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.txaba.org/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapy
http://www.baojournal.com/ The Behavior Analyst Online
www.autismspeaks.org Autism Speaks
http://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
http://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundation
http://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board

Raymond G. Miltenberger

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 1

Introduction to Behavior
Modification
■ How is human behavior defined?
■ What are the defining features of behavior modification?
■ What are the historical roots of behavior modification?
■ In what ways has behavior modification improved people’s lives?

I n this textbook you will learn about behavior modification, the principles and
procedures used to understand and change human behavior. Behavior modifi-
cation procedures come in many forms. Consider the following examples.
Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their marriage because of fre-
quent arguments. Their marriage counselor arranged a behavioral contract with
them in which they agreed to do several nice things for each other every day. As
a result of this contract, their positive interactions increased and their negative
interactions (arguments) decreased.

1
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 252 THE BOOK OF WISDOM (11. 21. 22 21. For to exercise
great power is thine at all times, And the might of thine arm who
shall withstand ? 22. For asa sway of the balances is the whole world
before ‘thee. ? And as a drop of dew i πα renee upon the ake or tne
tatoo nee elena the plummet.’ Gregg indi ‘ae : follow it up. aregg
indicates a similar explanation, but does not 21. 2, ‘Multum enim val
ibi soli alere tibi soli supererat s } : valet at semper.’ D ΕΠ grees ie
reading is ‘superat’ (?), which si ate tes ee ee and peo arte ‘thou
hast ever had great ght. .V. is unusually loose, ‘Thou cans ares
strength at all times when thou wie” ΕΝ ἄπο εν Brae te este at any
time.’ : ee πεν een Cor. 27, τίς ἀντιστήσεται τῷ κράτει τῆς ἰσχύος
αὐτοῦ, is ish eu ed as the first known patristic quotation of Wisdom
pace pe cor earen den is striking, and combined with the preἘΠῚ a
ere ἐρεῖ αὐτῶ᾽ τί ἐποίησας ; it looks like a reminiscence es me tg erie
latter phrase is found word “ἢ ) 91%, : , and notes on chap. 122, τ
ἀρνὶ μι cer ate la Ora at es hegineies of the verse is , iate receding,
‘Th 1 ee 1 y p 8, ou didst order all a ather with the whole of th es δ
17-20 the power, ‘for,’ etc., but did not exercise it. ΠΡ σεν 5} 22. RV.
‘3 ini i ει ane Ἢ ce ina balance.’ A.V. ‘a little grain of the balance,’ i ἀπ
ὦ weiner μὰ Ἐφ oe oes sense ‘as a small thing that πε amen ΝΟ Sey
Pi is possibly what the writer meant, but ἷ t meaning of ῥοπή, and in
his mi ἀπ μας κ πῶ XAC g of ῥοπή, and had in his mind 1 ying of the
balance ; (2) the tiny grai pee Erne ; (3) the infinitesimal alee. oP Oe
ον γα: pt ΕῚ oe God. % ‘momentum staterae’ is the literal and π ΟΠ,
ἐπῆν ΣΕ is no classical authority for any ¢ Γ e represented by ‘mom ?
aa ΕΙΣ ΤΣ ofa ‘grain’ seems unexampled. "Gi of Tea ae hice pacude
Pe cman seems to have had before him) gives ῥοπὴ ζυγοῦ as a ee
Aa ual & τς small dust of the balance’; and he ) ce. But οπή cannot
mean th ari oe that passage would interpret not ‘something ay lee n
a oo alter the balance.’ naga Arab. has ‘the swayi winking ae ying of
the tongue of the balance.’ ὁ ἢ ‘the pee pat ee three possible
interpretations which may have el ao ors mind: (1) the tiny
momentum required to a ee Ao it represents the smallness of the
world as compared ; (2) the temporary nature of the disturbance
represents te ene hee te AL. 23. 24.) THE BOOK OF WISDOM 253
23. But thou hast mercy on all because thou hast power over all,
And dost overlook the faults of men in order to their repentance. 24.
For thou cherishest all things that are and abhorrest nothing which
thou madest, “For thou never wouldst have formed anything in
hatred thereof. its temporary existence ; (3) th balances of the
earth, and this agrees best with line 3 of v. Margoliouth, 4c, in the
λον "ον thinks Isaiah copicd ‘Wisdom’ and not ‘Wisdom? Isaiah. For
the comparison to the morning dew, presently dried up by the sun,
cf. Hosea 64, ‘Your goodness is as a morning cloud, and as the dew
that goeth early away,’ and 133 (the same words). 23. A.V. and
Genev. ‘Because they should amend’: and ‘because’ in the sense of
‘in order that’ is good Gloucestershire to this day. Cf. A.V. of Matt.
20%, ‘Rebuked them because they should hold their peace.” ἔν, ‘
propter poenitentiam’ is weak. Θ᾿ misunderstands the Greek, ‘takest
away the sins of men when they repent. Cf. the late Latin use of
‘quia’ for ‘ut.’ We have here a totally different reason for the
forbearance of God from that alleged in v. ®. He now appears as
‘lover of souls’ which he has created, and this argument continues in
chap. 12. For the idea of God’s power as conditioned by mercy,
probably the earliest example in Hebrew literature is Ps. 62118, ‘
Power belongeth unto God ; also unto thee, Lord, belongeth mercy.’
Cf. ror}, ‘1 will sing of mercy and judgment’ ; Ecclus. 28, ‘As his
majesty is, so also is his mercy’; 18", ‘The mercy of the Lord is upon
all flesh, reproving and chastening and teaching, and bringing again
as a shepherd doth his flock” But the closest verbal parallel is with
Acts 17%, τοὺς μὲν οὖν χρόνους τῆς ἀγνοίας ὑπεριδὼν ὁ θεὸς τὰ
νῦν ἀπαγγέλλει τοῖς ἀνθρώποις πάντας πανταχοῦ μετανοεῖν. For the
idea of God’s long suffering in order to repentance, 566 Rom. 2 ῦ c
image is that of God holding ‘the 20 4 τὸ χρηστὸν τοῦ θεοῦ εἰς
μετάνοιάν σε ἄγει, 2 Pet. 3°, Philo, Vita Mosis, 1. 19, who might
almost have had ‘Wisdom’ before him. ‘Why,’ he asks, ‘did not God
send bears and lions and leopards, or at least the Egyptians’ own
asps upon them to destroy them?’ and he answers, ὅτι τοὺς
οἰκήτορας ὁ θεὸς νουθετήσαι μᾶλλον ἐβούλετο ἣ διαφθεῖραι. Lapide
quotes Fulgentius Ep. vii. ad Venantium. ‘Deus in quo est
omnipotens misericordia et omnipotentia misericors.’ 4 For the exact
expression ‘to wink at,’ cf. Ecclus. 287, πάριδε ἄγνοιαν (where,
however, ἃ mistranslation is suspected), and the same phrase in
30"). 24. ° and Arab. give the sense: ‘if thou hadst hated anything,
 254 THE BOOK OF WISDOM 25. And how could aught have
endured if thou hadst not willed it, Or that which was not bidden by
thee be preserved ? thou wouldst not have made it’ But & has ‘nec
enim aliquid odiens constituisti aut fecisti’—an unauthorised addition.
It is absolutely impossible to reconcile such a statement with 12111,
‘Their nature by birth was evil and their wickedness inborn’: ‘who
shall accuse thee for the perishing of nations which thou didst
make?’ We have, in fact, as in other instances in this book,
particularism struggling with a sound instinct as to the overruling
mercy of God, as represented in our English collect, ‘who hatest
nothing that thou hast made, and dost forgive the sins of all them
that are penitent,’ which comes, with alterations, from the Sarum
Missal. Lapide presses the passage home: ‘Apage ergo, Calvine, qui
doces Deum reprobos creasse ad damnationem et gehennam’; and
to reconcile the text with 121° adds, ‘ Deus diligit omnes homines
qua homines sunt ; odit vero nonnullos quia peccatores sunt.’ That
the love or goodness of God impelled him to the creation of the
world is one of Philo’s principles. The other passages quoted from
him to this effect are not convincing, but in Ve Cherud., 35, after
some of his vague statements about creation out of matter, he says,
τῆς κατασκευῆς αἰτίαν τὴν ἀγαθότητα τοῦ δημιουργοῦ. The word
κατασκενή may be noted as implying rather ‘formation,’ ‘giving shape
to,’ than ‘creation,’ but the distinction cannot be pressed in ‘
Wisdom,’ who uses κτίζειν and κατασκενάζειν indiscriminately. More
to the point is Grimm’s quotation from Theodoret Ve /’r07'., 2,
᾿Αγαθὸς ὧν καὶ ἀγαθύτητα ἔχων μέτρου παντὸς μείζονα ἠθέλησε καὶ
τοῖς μὴ οὖσι τὸ εἶναι δωρήσασθαι. Grimm takes some pains to prove
that this idea could not have been borrowed from Plato. The
passage quoted to support such a view is 772,1. 29E-30A, and the
reader can judge for himself: it runs— Λέγωμεν δὴ, δι᾽ ἥντινα αἰτίαν
γένεσιν καὶ τὸ πᾶν τόδε ὁ ξυνιστὰς ξυνέστησεν' ἀγαθὸς ἦν, ἀγαθῷ δὲ
οὐδεὶς περὶ οὐδένος οὐδέποτε φθόνος. τούτον δὲ ἐκτὸς ὧν πάντα ὅτι
μάλιστα γένεσθαι ἐβουλήθη παραπλήσια ἑαυτῷ. .. βουληθεὶς γὰρ ὁ
θεὸς ἀγαθὰ μὲν πάντα, φλαῦρον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι κατὰ δύναμιν, οὕτω
δὴ πᾶν ὅσον ἦν ὁρατόν, παραλαβὼν οὐχ ἡσυχίαν ἄγον ἀλλὰ
κινούμενον πλημμελῶς καὶ ἀτάκτως εἰς τάξιν αὐτὸ ἤγαγεν ἐκ τῆς
ἀταξίας. The resemblance of idea is certainly striking. 25. ‘Called of
thee’ in line 2 is the rendering of all the versions, English and
ancient, except %? ‘unless thou didst command’ (Arab. ‘summon’ is
nearly ‘vocare’), and the phrase must be considered a Hebraism : for
xp is sometimes used in the sense of ‘tocall forth’ in creation ; and
this explains passages like Isa. 41‘, ‘who hath wrought and done it,
ca//ing the generations from the beginning’; where xp is used ; as
also in 48", ‘when I call unto them (the heavens) they ΠῚ. 25. pc
whey τε 11. 26. 12. 1.] TIE BOOK OF WISDOM 255 26. But thou
sparest all, for they are thine, O Sovereign Lord, lover of souls. 12.
τ. For thine imperishable spirit is in all things. stand up together.’ So
Rom. 41, θεοῦ τοῦ ζωοποιοῦντος τοὺς νεκροὺς ὶ ῦ τὰ μὴ ὄντα ὡς
ὄντα. ; rahe ἐπι μον Of the verse is slightly different from the preeae
one. Here the continued existence of. created things 15 peer to God,
and not merely their creation; in spite of sin and rebe ἰοῦ God
preserves His creatures. Dahne, i. 226 n. (referring to the Philonian
system), thinks that a perpetual exercise of eyes pee is implied.
‘Wisdom’s’ language 15 probably loose and withou philosophic
content. ote ΠΑΡ simply omits φιλύψυχε. ΑΙ] other versions translate
1 tbs. τ spoiea st is ech dene the Greek is bad; for the es means
‘cowardly.’ No instance can be quoted to support rat s? meaning,
except one cited by Gimm from Pachomius ap. Acta S. . Mat IIT, p.
30B, where the adjective is said to be coupled with eh Joke : The
commonly quoted passage from Ezek. 18 , πᾶσαι α ψυχαὶ ἐμαί εἰσιν,
is not really applicable here: it means all souls are aa my power, so
that I can punish them if it be needful. : More to me purpose is John
17°", οὐ περὶ τοῦ κύσμον ἐρωτῶ, ἀλλὰ “περὶ ὧν δέδωκάς μοι, ὅτι σοί
εἰσιν, καὶ τὰ ἐμὰ πάντα σά ἐστιν καὶ τὰ σὰ ἐμα, καὶ δεδόξασμαι ἕν
αὐτοῖς. a 12. 1. RV. and A.V. have ‘incorruptible’ for ἄφθαρτον, which
is inadequate. ἵν (missing the point altogether) 0 quam τ Ἢ suavis
est, Domine, spiritus tuus in omnibus!’ %° and Arat . also seem to
have read ἀγαθός for ἄφθαρτος. Farrar argues for laa ruptible’: ‘Men
may grieve that spirit and desecrate its aera never wholly lose it.’
This would equally apply to imperisha e. The Arabic, it should be noe
omits ‘thy’ spirit, and renders ‘a irit is present in every thing. Ree se
rae is whether Pzeudo-Solomon is here thinking in aie or in Hebrew.
If the latter, then the ‘spirit of God which move upon the face of the
waters’ (Gen. 12) is meant: the creative power of God (not Wisdom ;
for Wisdom has never the power of oe physical life assigned to her,
Bruch, Weisheitslehre, 346). I ἘΞ philosophy has the upper hand in
our author's mind, then he is referring to the Stoic idea of the ‘soul
of the world ; but as payee with him the same as πρόνοια, ‘God's
providence,’ the result is the same. God cannot wish evil to (1) the
creation which his own spirit has effected, or (2) to the world which
is directed by his own Eee the two comes the idea, also a Hebrew
one, of the. actual breath of life being breathed into the body by
God (Gen. 27), who can recall it when he will. Ps. 104%, ‘Thou
takest away their
 256 THE BOOK OF WISDOM [12. 2. 2. Wherefore thou dost
correct by little and little them that err, And reminding them by the
very things wherein they fail dost chasten them, That being loosed
from their wickedness they may trust in thee, O Lord. breath, they
die and return to their dust’; Job 34", ‘If he gather unto himself his
spirit and his breath, all flesh’ shall perish together ;’ cf. 275; Eccles.
127, ‘The spirit shall return unto God who gave it.’ For the whole
question cf. Additional Note A ‘On the Pre-existence of the Soul.’ But
the idea appears as late as Clem. Rom., 1 Cor. xxi., οὗ ἡ πνοὴ ἐν
ἡμῖν ἐστιν, καὶ ὅταν θέλει, ἀνελεῖ αὐτήν. Reuss thinks that this
Hebraic conception is that of the writer here : it is possible. The
passages in ‘Wisdom’ which seem to refer to the ‘soul of the world’
may be summed up here. 17, ‘The spirit of the Lord hath filled the
world, and that which holdeth all things together hath knowledge of
every voice’; 7 *4, ‘(Wisdom) pervadeth and penetrateth all things
by reason of her pureness’; 81, ‘She reacheth from one end of the
world to the other with full strength, and ordereth all things unto
good use.’ ἐν πᾶσι may be either masculine or neuter. If the latter,
we must suppose that the Greek idea was uppermost in the writers
mind. The adjective φιλύψυχος would scem to point to a reference
to men rather than to things: but this would involve a fresh
contradiction : for the Canaanites are presently represented as
naturally evil of nature. The disentanglement of Pseudo-Solomon’s
theological views is a hopeless task. Cf. Deane ad Joc. 2. R.V. gives
for ἐλέγχεις, ‘convict, which is not the sense: ‘convince’ might
represent the meaning. Other versions have ‘chasten,’ ‘correct,’ or
the like; but iL, S", and Arab. all translate two words. % ‘admones et
alloqueris,” 3? ‘reprove and rebuke, Arab. ‘rebuke and exhort’:
almost certainly some word has fallen out of the text. κατ᾽ ὀλίγον
would, in classical Greek, be κατὰ βραχύ, but there is no doubt as to
its meaning. ἔν ‘in partibus’ (“by degrees’ in late Latin=partim), Ὁ
‘gradually. Arab. mistakes the word altogether. Vatablus (af. A
Lapide) would read δι’ 8 ‘by which’: viz. ‘the spirit.’ An exact parallel
to this would be John 168, ἐκεῖνος (the Comforter) ἐλέγξει τὸν
κόσμον περὶ ἁμαρτίας καὶ περὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ περὶ κρίσεως. Gnmm’s
summary of this and the following verses is excellent: ‘God punishes
sinners gently that they may turn and believe on him: though he
determined on account of their wickedness to drive out and destroy
the Canaanites by the hand of Israel; yet as his own creatures he
dealt so mercifully with them that he destroyed them not at once,
but sent the hornets before his host to warn them . ; 12. 3. 4.) THE
BOOK OF WISDOM 257 3, 4. For the ancient inhabitants of thy holy
land, Hating them for doing their most detestable works of
enchantments and unholy rites, and give them time for repentance,
though he knew their natural wickedness.’ It is useless to try to
reconcile such statements as that in v. 4, ‘hating them because they
practised, etc., with 1134, ‘Never wouldst thou have formed anything
if thou didst hate it. No commentator has explained the application
of line 2. It seems to be a repetition of the maxim enunciated in the
case of the Egyptians, viz. that whereby we sin thereby we shall be
punished. : πιστεύειν ἐπί τινα is not classical. We have the word
used with the dative, and with the prepositions εἰς, ἐν, πρός, and
even παρά, but eh in good Greck with ἐπί. It seems likely that the
meaning is ey varicd by this preposition: that the idea is nat of
believing 2 ὃ (John 14}, πιστεύετε εἰς τὸν θεύν, cf. 1 Ῥεῖ 131), but
rather o εἴ γing on him instead of on their idols and false gods. But
the ver is found with émiin Acts 9%, ἐπίστευσαν πολλοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν
κύριον, ει τ 16 '3, 22, yet only in one chapter of St. Paul’s Epistles,
ee ie Cf., however, Winer (Moulton), § xxxi. 5, note (p. 267), who
thinks that the construction with ἐπί denotes the strongest form of
belief. For the idea of the longsuffering of God in order to
repentance, cf. Amos 4°%!! and Heb. 125}, 3, 4. Versions are
unanimous except the Arabic, which renders the last words
‘inventions devoid of righteousness, plainly ποῖ understanding the
word τελετάς, which 35) translates ‘sacrifices. : The first instance of
the use of ‘ Holy Land,’ the common medizval term for Valestine (cf.
Adrichomius, prac ad Theatrum Terrace Sanctac, quoted by Arnald),
is found in Zech. 2 1 ‘* The herd shall inherit Judah as his portion in
the holy land. So also 2 Macc. 1%, ‘Jason and his company revolted
from the holy land and the kingdom.’ But the word never occurs
elsewhere in the Old Testament anywhere in the New Testament. ’
ee them’ (μισήσας). The difficulty is not one confined to Old
‘Testament theology. Grimm puts the point clearly. The moral
earnestness which refuses to relegate the idea of God toa mere
abstract speculation, must find an antagonism to man’s sin in the
divine consciousness, and expresses this by “anger” or “hatred, or in
a milder form as “displeasure.” So St. Paul, even in his inspired
depiction of the love of God as revealed in the death of Christ, yet
refers to the wrath of God.’ Rom. 53, ‘Much more then, being
justified by his blood, shall we be saved from the wrath of God
through him.’ So, too, Ps. 5°, ‘The Lord abhorreth the bloodthirsty
and deceitful man.’ os : Ἶ φαρμακειῶν undoubtedly means
‘enchantments.’ i ‘per medicamina’ is not enough. There are allusions
to such practices in Exod. 22° and Levit. 18 2427, but the most
definite accusation of the R
 258 THE BOOK OF WISDOM (12. 5. 5. Merciless murderers
of their children, Yea and an entrail-devourers’ banquet of human
flesh and of blood, Canaanites is found in Deut. 18 912. ‘Thou shalt
not learn to do after the abominations of those nations. There shall
not be found with thee any one that maketh his son or his daughter
to pass through the fire, one that useth divination (cf. the case of
Balaam and the ‘rewards of divination’ in Num. 227), one that
practiseth augury, or an enchanter, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, or a
consulter with a familiar spint, or a wizard, or a necromancer. For
whosoever doeth these things is an abomination unto the Lord: and
because of these arose the Lord thy God doth drive them out from
before thee. teXerai might possibly refer to the rites of Moloch, but
the word has a technical meaning in G, viz. the consecrated
prostitutes of both sexes connected with the Canaanitish worship.
The Hebrew for these (masc. OUP) is rendered in 1 Kings 15 12 by
τελεταί (ἀφεῖλε τὰς τελετὰς ἀπὸ της γῆς). Cf. Hos. 4%, where fem.
mvp is translated τῶν τετελεσμένων, and the second rendering of
Deut. 23", οὐκ ἔσται τελεσφύρος (AUP) ἀπὸ θυγατέρων ᾿Ισραήλ, καὶ
οὐκ ἔσται τελισκόμένος (yp) ἀπὸ υἱῶν Ἰσραήλ (the first rendering
has πόρνη... πορνεύων. Cf. Gen. 2831). The ‘mysteries’ of the
Hellenic nations are not here spoken of. They are alluded to later on
in 14 33. 5. For φονέας, the received text, R.V. read φόνους, which
would be a natural change for a transcriber to make in order to co-
ordinate the term with @oivay in the next line; but there seems to
be no MS. authority for it, and Fritzsche’s φονάς with the same
meaning is a mere conjecture. It is equally natural that in the next
line, σπλαγχνοφάγους should be read (as in Compl.) to correspond
to φονέας, inserting also καὶ after it. This latter is, however,
unnecessary. It is possible to translate ‘(hating them) as pitiless
slaughterers of their children and entrail-devourers—a banquet of
human flesh and of blood’ ἔν ‘comestores viscerum.’ Arab. scems to
have read φύνους and σπλαγχνοφάγων. Sis a paraphrase. The
charge of cannibalism is a mere exaggeration; Ezek. 16%, ‘Thou
hast taken thy sons and thy daughters . . . and these hast thou
sacrificed unto them to be devoured’ is probably figurative only. The
accusation of ‘Thyestean banquets’ was brought against the early
Christians, and only a few years ago the Russian Jews were charged
with such offences. But the charge of human sacrifices is
undoubtedly true ; it is difficult to say when such practices ended.
The positive examples from the Bible are found in Judges 11 ®
(Jephthah’s daughter), 2 Kings 33 (Mesha’s sacrifice of his son). For
collateral evidence cf. Abraham’s intended offering of Isaac. So too
I’s. 106 %, ‘They sacrificed their sons and their daughters unto
demons... whom 12. 6.) THE BOOK OF WISDOM 259 6. From the
midst of their orgie, And parents assassins of helpless souls Thou
didst determine to destroy by the hands of our fathers ; they
sacrificed unto the idols of Canaan.’ Micah 67, ‘Shall I give my
firstborn for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my
soul?’ The passages like 2 Kings 16%, ‘made his son to pass through
the fire’ (of Ahab), cf. Lev. 187; 2 Chron. 28° may mean nothing
more than the throwing of the children through the flames ; a
practice which is rumoured still to exist among the peasantry of
Germany at the ‘ Midsummer Fires ’—a genuine relic of heathendom.
The case of Hiel the Bethelite (presumably one of the Canaanitish
stock), who laid the foundation of the new Jericho in Abiram his
firstborn, and set up the gates thercof in his youngest son Segub, 1
Kings 163, is now explained on the ground of recent explorations (cf.
Driver, Schweich Lectures, 67) as referring to the custom of burying
a child, at first alive, later on after it had been slain, in the
foundations of any new public building. It is noteworthy that this
occurred in the reign of Ahab. For further evidence as to sacrifice of
children cf. Jer. 19 45, Isa. 57% 6. The difficulty of the passage lies
inline 1. The general MS. reading is, it may be taken,
ἐκμεσουμνσταθειασου. Now if it were not for the unfortunate
addition of ov at the end this would be quite explicable. The word
μυστάθης is found in Hesychius, and just as PseudoSolomon has
formed ev8pdvea (13 19) from the grammarians’ word evdpavns, so
here he has formed μυστάθεια. Unfortunately some copyist
discovered in the last syllables of a word he had never seen before a
resemblance to the more familiar θιάσου, and moulded the ending
on the supposition that that word was meant. We read therefore ἐκ
μέσου μυστάθειας, leaving the ov out of the question. The
explanation of Hesychius for μυστάθης is εἶδός τι καὶ φρατρία
μαντέων, which plainly refers rather to ἃ noun than to an adjective,
but otherwise gives the meaning required for this passage. : The
common reading ἐκ μέσου μύστας θιάσου may be right (A.V. ‘ priests
out of the midst of their idolatrous crew’), but any conjecture which
does not include the word μέσον (as ἐκμυσοῦς μυστας θιάσον (R.V.),
where ἐκμυσής is an invented word meaning ‘abominable,’ or
Grimm’s ἐκ μύσους μύστας θιάσου, ‘initiated in orgies from sheer
beastliness’ is excluded by the fact that every ancient version
contains the word ‘midst’ in some form or other. 3. has ‘de medio
sacramenti divini tui,’ which is meaningless, but shows that the suffix
ov or gov in the MSS. is very ancient. 3° ‘they performed in the
midst lawless mysteries’ (not ‘sacramenta’ as Walton and Grimm ;
aa? the word regularly means mysteries: ἢ}}}. Arab. ‘When they
 260 THE BOOK OF WISDOM (12. 7. 8, 7. That the land
which with thee is most precious of all Might receive a worthy
inhabitance of God’s children, 8. But these also as being men thou
didst Spare, And sentest wasps as forerunners of thine host, To
destroy them by little and little ; had removed from their midst
knowledge of divine rites.’ > hag ἸΔῈ So «ὦ |ko»> hb Ἰοδο where
Tray has an explanatory note attached, but seems to be a well- i
Lepna τω, ᾿ ell-known word equivalent αἵματος (Boivay, v. 5) of
course incurs the special wr : ‘ s al wrath of the Jew, to whom the
consumption of blood wz i ; : Pepe Ρ d was expressly forbidden,
Gen. 94, αὐθέντας is murderers with their own hand. ἵν has ‘ * whi ;
i t hand. as ‘auctores,’ which is evidently a mistake. Some word like
‘necis’ has dropped out. Arab. understood the word as meaning ‘
suicides,’ which is a possible mening aa aes and Sc.) but not
appropriate here. or similar denunciations of the Canaanites for
idolatry a τ i a and murder, Kohler (Jew. Encycl., art. ‘Book of
Wisdom ἢ refers to Ore Sibyll, 1. 150, 178, ἢ]. 36-40, 761-764; but
the reference to the original inhabitants does not seem very clear.
The passages are mixed up with invectives against the modern s i :
ettlers in the I: ᾿ hated Samaritans. a 7. A.V. has in margin ‘new
inhabitance.’ R.V. keeps to ‘colony.’ Eo ut dignam perciperent (?
subject) peregrinationem puerorum Dei.’ Genev. ‘might be a meet
dwelling for the children of God. which is no doubt the sense, but
ἀποικία is the wrong word and has puzzled all the translators. 9" has
‘Thou didst desire to destroy them by the hand of parents (not ‘our’
parents) that the servants of God might attain a quiet home, the
Jand which thou gavest with honour and glory.” Arab. ‘that the
ée/oved of God might receive a worth habitation.” Note that most of
the versions seem to take ‘the ae of God’ as the subject of the verb.
So probably ἅν. But ee eae the plural as ‘terrae et regiones,’ which is
hardly ἀποικία is not the right word: it means a regular colony sent
forth from a motherland, and Egypt could hardly be considered that
Grimm’s conjecture, ἐποικίαν, has no authority and would be a ἅπαξ
Aey., which, perhaps, is rather in its favour. God’s motive in driving
out the Canaanites here appears different from that alleged in the
earlier verses. ‘The object stated here is simply to clear the country
for the Israelites, 8. RV. translates σφῆκας ‘hornets, adopting the
traditional rendering of pyny in Exod. 23 38, Deut. 7; but the Proper
word for 12. 9.] THE BOOK OF WISDOM 261 9. Not being unable to
make the impious subject to the righteous in battle, Or with dread
beasts or with one stern word to root them out. hornet seems to be
ἀνθήνη (Arist., //. A., ix. 41, or v. 20). ΚΡ has ‘vespas,’ Δ᾽ jaa», which
scems to mean ‘bees,’ and A.V. ‘wasps.’ There seems no reason to
suppose that the ‘hornets’ were figurative —a mere expression for
various plagues which attacked the Amorites. Philo certainly took the
literal meaning (speaking of Messianic victories), Je Prac. ct Pocnts,
ἃ 16, ἐνίους τῶν ἐχθρῶν ἀναξίους ἔσεσθαι ἥττης ἀνθρώπων, ols
σμήνη σφηκῶν ἀντιτάξειν ἐπ᾿ ὀλέθρῳ αἰσχίστῳ προπολεμοῦντα τῶν
ὁσίων. Such creatures were and are still sufficient when in swarms
to inflict terrible harm. Cf. the references in Farrar and A Lapide, who
cites Dlin., M. //, xi. 21, ‘auctores sunt ter novenis punctis interfici
hominem,’ and adds that nine hornets can kill a horse. ‘They were
especially prevalent in certain places. ΠΡῚΝ as the name of a place
in Josh. 15 may mean ‘hornet-town,’ and Σφήκεια or ‘Waspland’ is
piven as an ancient name of Cyprus. For the metaphorical
interpretation there may be cited St. Aug. Qu. tn Exod, 92, 93 (ap.
Deane), ‘aculei timoris intelligendi sunt fortasse quibus ayitabantur
memoratae gentis ut cederent filiis Israel.’ Ζ6 τι. on Exod. 23 has
‘hornets, but the Persian translation printed by Walton renders
‘destruction,’ as also in Deut. 72°. A mysterious passage in Deut. 1,
‘the Amorites ... chased you as bees do’ may refer to the matter. If
so, it points to a literal interpretation of the ‘hornets.’ Lapide quotes
a most apposite instance of the use of bees to repel an attack, from
Portuguese history. Even more to the point is the citation in Cornely
of Aelian, 7715. Antu, ii. 28, who tells a story of the people of
Phaselus in Pamphylia being driven from their city by swarms of
wasps. Cornely’s statement that this plague is nowhere mentioned in
Scripture is marvellous in the face of Deut. 7” and Josh. 24'% His
reference to the tsetse-fly is apt. Gregg remarks that the
‘metaphorical interpretations rely on the use of the simile of bees in
Deut. 14, and in Ex. 23%, “the terror.”’? The latter, however, is
possibly explained by the next verse as actually meaning ‘the
hornet.’ g. There is no important variation in the text or in the
versions except $", which has ‘ But this was not because the impious
are (or were) harder than the just that they should slay them, or
with fierce beasts or with the slaughter of a word of the mouth be
destroyed.’ What the translator meant is doubtful. ἐν παρατάξει, ‘in
pitched battle, implies that they were not conquered so much in war
as by the plagues spoken of. On the other hand, the hornets would
seem to come under the heading of dreadful ‘beasts’; but no doubt
larger creatures are meant. Cf. 2 Kings
 262 THE BOOK OF WISDOM το. But executing judgment
upon them by little and little thou gavest them a place of
repentance, Not being ignorant that their generation was evil And
their wickedness inborn, 7 ΠΥ ΗΝ their way of thinking could never
change for ever. of the Samantans), ‘They feared not the Lord ; Lord
sent lions among them, which slew some of hoy tea I will send the
beast of the field among you, which shall rob 5 ou of χοῦν Ae and
Reape your cattle, and make you few in number? . 3274, where, Ὁ
8." i i ings ΔΙ the fk 32 a cola ας οϑ rene the poison of crawling
things ὑφ ἕν is a most extraordinary phrase, for which i Hellenistic
example is quoted. Tike eaien ΟΝ in Anstotle’s usc of ὑπό with the
accusative as meaning ‘comin under a category.’ Grimm’s ‘during one
moment’ is untenable al mpis μίαν ῥοπὴν in 18” is quite irrelevant. It
is probably a slan expression which Pscudo-Solomon had picked up,
but & ef eu understood it. The first has ‘simul,’ the second ‘ina single
moment.’ Lapide refers, in passing, to the double meaning of 494 in
Hebrew—‘a word’ and ‘a pestilence,’ but thinks it unimportant The
latter meaning would certainly co-ordinate the two forms of
judgment in line 2, but it lacks all authority, unless indeed the vague
paraphrase of ΘΓ above quoted, containing ‘slaughter’ and Conde 1s
really a double translation. , το. A.V. is justified in translating κρίνων
as m ‘judging’; cf. 1 Cor. 1131, ‘When εἱξ ore de Fecha R.V.) we are
chastened of the Lord,’ that we may not be coudermned with the
world. Here κρίνω is distinguished from κατακρίνω, but in pops
Trach., 724, τὴν δ᾽ ἐλπίδ' ob χρὴ τῆς τύχης κρίνειν mapés, and in eo
de Falsa Leg., § 232, the meaning seems the same. Cf. κατὰ βραχύ
as before in ν. "' ὃν ‘partibus judicans,’ as in v.? for Kar ὀλίγον. The
Latin expression is peculiar and docs not represent Mbt as Looe
mite: but rather ‘piecemeal,’ a use for which ere seems to be no
classical authority wl ich i ih oe y whatever, and which is not The
reason given for the gradual expulsi i i on g c adua pulsion of the
Canaanites in Exod. 23 * is widely different, ‘I will not drive them out
from before thee in one year; Jest the land become desolate and the
beast of the field multiply against thee.’ Judg. 27! gives yet another
reason, ‘I also will not henceforth drive out any from before them of
the nations ey Joshua με wen he died ; that by them I may prove
Israel, whether they will keep the way of the Lord to wi i their
fathers did keep it, or not.’ οὐ εκ ea ‘A place of repentance.’ τόπος in
this 5 : i i : i ense (‘opportunity ’) is not classical Greek. The one
passage quoted to support it pone [12. 10. wae ta ee 12. 11.J THE
BOOK OF WISDOM 263 11. For it was a seed accursed from the
beginning : Nor being afraid of any man didst thou grant them
impunity for the things wherein they sinned. vi. $4, ἐν τόπῳ τινι
ἀφανεῖ Means ‘in some dark corner’ or the like. The term seems to
have been transferred bodily from the Latin. Cf. Livy, xxiv. 26, ‘locus
poenitendis’; xliv. 10, ‘poenitentiae relinquens locum” In Hellenistic
Greek the usage is frequent. Heb. 12", μετανοίας yap τόπον οὐχ
εὗρεν. Clem. Rom., 1 Cor. 7, ἐν γενέᾳ καὶ γενέᾳ péravoias τόπον
ἔδωκεν ὁ Δεσπύτης τοῖς βουλομένοις ἐπιστραφῆναι ἐπ᾿ αὐτόν.
Ecclus. 3812, ‘Give place to the physician’ is not quite the same use,
nor is 19 "7, ‘give place to (1.6. make room for) the law of the most
high’ But Rom, 12.}", δύτε τύπον τῇ ὀργῇ, and Eph. 477, μηδὲ
δίδοτε τύπον τῷ διαβύλῳ, correspond more closcly. γένεσις Siegfricd
translates ‘origin, with reference to v. NN, The word is, as we have
secn, capable of many explanations. R.V. ‘nature by birth, ‘natio
eorum, %" ‘origin,’ Arab. ‘their nature,’ which is probably nearest the
mark. The absurdity of God’s giving ‘a place for repentance’ to
people of inborn ΜΕΝ and accursed nature is too obvious to require
comment. ‘ Wisc om’s’ natural theory of the Freewill of Man is in
conflict with his conviction that all nations except the Jews are
naturally evil. When he is philosophical he takes the former view ;
when he is historical, the latter. Ἔμφυτος in the next verse implics a
strong expression of the doctrine of original sin, if taken as meaning
‘inborn.’ In James 131, however, it has a different sense, viz.
‘implanted,’ which will not serve here. Farrar’s remark that ‘to talk
here of the doctrine of original sin is an anachronism’ is erroneous.
Even a passage like Ecclus. 1'', ‘to fear the Lord... was created
together with the faithful in the womb,’ shows that such ideas were
current long before. The Rabbinic theory of the descent of the Jews
from Adam and the Spirit of God, and that of the heathen from the
evil one and the spirit of impurity, is later no doubt (cf. Grimm ad
/oc.), but the idea of the curse upon Canaan (see next verse)
contains the germs of the theory. It is of course absolutely at
variance with 11%, ‘ Ungodly men called death unto them.’
Churton’s comment is remarkable, ‘there may have been mercy even
in the command to Joshua to exterminate the race, including infants
and sucklings (Deut. 2%, 20 16), for if they had survived they would
have corrupted themselves and others.’ λογισμός is variously
rendered. % and A.V. ‘cogitation, Genev. ‘thought, R.V. ‘manner of
thought, and so, roughly speaking, %? and Arab. Margoliouth thinks
it a translation of wry? ‘ (evil) desire,’ cf. 13, σκολιοὶ yap λογισμοὶ
χωρίζουσιν ἀπὸ θεοῦ. So Gen. 82, ἔγκειται ἡ διάνοια τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
ἐπιμελῶς ἐπὶ τὰ πονηρὰ ἐκ νεότητος αὐτοῦ. 11. A.V. ‘grant them
pardon’ is inaccurate. R.V. ‘leave them unpunished’ is better. ἵν
‘veniam dabas’; but $°, which may be
 264 TILE BOOK OF WISDOM 12. For who shall say ‘What
didst thou?’ Or who shall oppose thy judgment? And who shall
arraign thee for the perished nations whom thou didst make? Or
who shall come to stand before thee as a champion of unrighteous
men? (12. 12. translated (as also Arab.) ‘grant them a reprieve,’ is
nearest to the sense, though not to the Greek. The two parts of the
verse have no coherence, and the latter is rightly treated by Gnmm
as belonging to the subject of vv. 121%, The curse of Canaan in
Gen. 9 25:7 is no doubt referred to. ‘Cursed be Canaan; a servant of
servants shall he be unto his brethren,’ etc. Canaan, it is to be
noticed, is (Gen. 10°) the son of Ham, who was the onginal culprit
(Jos., Az, I. vi. 3). There is nothing in the curse as to moral
deyradation, which is what Pseudo-Solomon is here insisting on.
Grimm, in whose time the echoes of the great dispute over the
Apocrypha in Germany had hardly died away, thinks that any
attempt to argue from this passage that ‘some souls are created
bad,’ proceeds from mere ‘hatred of the Apocrypha.’ He points out
(on too familiar lines) that God's foreknowledge (οὐκ ἀγνοῶν) is
different from predestination. Cf. 191, ‘Unto the ungodly there came
indignation without mercy; for their future also God foreknew.’ The
theory of Farrar and Gregy, ad /oc., that room was left for individual
amendment, as in the case of Rahab (Josh. 2; Heb. 115!, ‘By faith
Rahab the harlot perished not with them that were disobedient’;
James 2%, ‘Was not also Rahab the hafot justified by works ?’) does
not improve matters: if one could be saved all could be saved. We
are dealiny with the tentative utterances of an unscientific
theologian, and there is no more to be said. We havea similar
contradiction in Exod. 347, ‘Keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving
iniquity and transgression and sin, and that will by no means clear
the guilty ; visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children,’ etc.
EtAaBovpevos τινα, ‘for fear of any one,’ is quite classical. The word
occurs in 178 in the form εὐλάβεια, where it has the very strong
sense of ‘craven fear.’ Throughout this passage there prevails an
anthropomorphic idea of God, to be discovered more in the sense
than in the actual words. 12. & alters the order of the last two lines.
SP? has, in line 3, ‘Who shall plead for the children of the nations
when thou hast destroyed them?’ Arab., ‘Who out of all the nations
destroyed which thou didst create, can complain of thee?’ ἐποίησας
is a very weak word for ‘to create, and exhibits the real poverty of
our authors Greek vocabulary. Arnald, not without reason, renders ‘
who shall call thee to account for the things which thou hast done
against the nations,’ peat 12. 13] TIIE BOOK OF WISDOM 265 ither
is there any God but thee ; ᾿ ω Ὁ vasist for all, to show that thou
judgest not un righteously : 1 ὰ ἔθνη ὅσα and so Siegfried ; but Ps.
86 9 has the same eke pales ΟἹ a a ἐποίησας. 935" (omitting το dee
oid or who s 1 i icked men ἜΝ ΣΡ. ἄν ἜμεΣ taken direct from & of
Igo 8 μὴ on αὐτῷ τί ἐποίησας and τίς hae τὰ ae Nay bi There 1s 1
suppose that Rom. ) et ee meant God,’ etc., is taken LG are Clem.
Rom., 1 Cor. 27 which seems (Gregg) " ἐδ πὸ δ this line and of 112,
‘The might of thine ae i 5 re nee certainly is. Such questions are
common. | cc ce Pee aa word hath power; and who may say unto
him, aaa gare eee Dan. 4™, ‘None can ee Big hand, or say unto him,
Wi ? itional Note C. . Oe ey “thy bar’) and ἔκδικος Roe to cage ee
terms. i ‘in conspecta tuo,’ and A.V. margin ἢ ἀπο Ὁ δες too weak ;
but they are followed by S" and Arab. Sa ae ie by A Lapide,
discovers in this and v.!! the four reas “ae ες is at times too lenient—
(1) fear of reversal οἵ, ως Ν᾿ τὰ, court (εὐλαβούμενός τινα); (2) fear
of appea Ἢ ae ' a Peat ‘visitation’ by superiors, line 3: poe ΠΊΣΩ τι
4) τ Δ πὸ μοὶ rebellion against a legal decision : line 4. The divis! but
it is ingenious. 13. We have here two distinct interpretations, See
oumee τὴ he ‘carest’? of Genev. and the ‘careth’ of A.V. ἈΠῸ Spain
ἴω former the meaning is, ‘Thou hast the care of all unin Es aaaee
god has; thou art no god of one Peake εν aol ἘΠ 3 that should s art
the God of all the earth, and tha \ ἸῸΝ ας δ in thy judgment, not
favouring one nation ules ἘΠ panther! So A Lapide, ‘Deum a neminc,
posse repre oe injustitiae accusari. . . eo quod rinse orm cassis ΠΝ =
ide omnium sit pater et provisor ἢ hee S!, ‘there a no other God but
thee and thou carest for all. and hast shown that thou hast judged
ponent ae mere A slight variant of this rendering 1s adopted by aes
eames: carest for all in order to show thine impartiality. τ οι an
‘Neither will he reverence Se Echt for. ues ei nas ik taketh tho all’; a :
both small and great, and alike he ἱ i ὁ careth for you. 7 ‘Casting all
your care upon him because he ¢ τ τ other rendering depends ont
ne ee ren i ῦ y then have τ πάντων not to σοῦ but to θεός. We Flag
abe T i hee who careth for a ἃ, and R.V., ‘There is no god beside t 1
᾿ the ia that thou shouldst have to prove to him thy just dealing. Lz
 266 TIIE BOOK OF WISDOM [12. 14. 15. 14. Neither is
there king or tyrant that shall be able to confront thee concerning
those whom thou hast punished. 15. But being just thou disposest
all things justly, Decming it inconsistent with thy power To condemn
him who deserveth not to be punished. uncertain, ‘non est alius
Deus quam tu, cui cura est de omnibus ut ostendas quoniam non
injuste judicas judicium.’ Arab. favours this rendering, and Deut. 32 *
1s cited to support it: ‘See now that I, even I, am he, and there is
no god with me; I kill, and 1 make alive ; I have wounded and I
heal; and there is none that can deliver out of my hand.’ Siegfried
renders this meaning best: ‘there is beside thee no God whose
business it should be to care for all, so that thou wouldst have to
prove that thou hast not judged unjustly’; but it is doubtful if ἵνα
δείξης would bear that meaning, and, as Deane remarks, it is
difficult to see where A.V. gets “10 whom thou mightest shew.’ So
R.V. ‘that thou mightest shew ufo him, for which there is not the
slightest warrant in the Greek. 14. The alternative reading ἀπώλεσας
for ἐκόλασας probably comes from ἀπολωλύτων in ν. 12, So i has
‘perdidisti’; it, however, translates κολάζειν in v. 2" by ‘exterminare,’
so that nothing can be gathered from this rendering. Arab. has
distinctly ‘punished’ 3° ‘destroyed.’ There is probably no more
difference between ‘kings’ and ‘tyrants’ here than between St. Paul’s
‘principalities’ and ‘powers,’ but in classical Greek τύραννος is the
upstart in contradistinction to the hereditary king. The versions,
except the Arab., which has ‘dare to raise his eyes against thee,’
completely neglect the force of the strong word ἀντοφθαλμῆσαι.
(Ἦν has ‘in conspectu tuo inquirent.’) It is hardly classical, not
occurring before Polybius, but is well attested in later Greek. ὁ
ἀντοφθαλμῶν ἡδοναῖς is quoted from the Compl. of Ecclus. 19%,
but does not appear in the ordinary texts. In Acts 27 δ it means ‘to
face the wind.’ In Clem. Rom., 1 Cor. 34, a lazy workman ‘cannot
look his employer in the face.’ Barn., v.!°, οὐκ ἰσχύουσιν els tas
ἀκτῖνας αὐτοῦ (ἡλίου) ἀντοφθαλμῆσαι. For the last few words
Siegfried has the extraordinary rendering ‘concerning the
punishments which thou hast inflicted,’ which is supported by SP ‘in
that which thou didst justly decree,’ but does not represent the
Greek. 15. R.V. ‘alien from thy power’ represents the Greek
ἀλλότριον but not the sense. A.V. ‘not agreeable with thy power.’ i
‘exterum aestimas a tua virtute.” S$? takes ἀλλύτριον as masculine,
‘a stranger,’ and translates ‘Thou disposest all things fitly even in a
matter where it behoved to exact punishment proportioned to thy
power from strangers.’ Arab. follows the text. 42. 16. 17.) THE BOOK
OF WISDOM 267 ‘wht is the origin of justice ὼ ma Lae thou art lord
of all maketh thee to spare all. isbeli to the 17. For thou displayest
thy power when disbelieved as to ] of thy might, ; ; ἂν lege of fer
that know thou dost convict their rashness. 7 ¢ A ’ Here, as in many
other places (cf. Farrar’ auetat an be secms to have had Seneca’s
tragedies in mind. 3 ΔΝ 705» ς a sceptro (?) duro saevus impcrio
regit, timet on es, ΠΕΡ auctorem redit.” Cf. Jos., vf, 1V. vill. 14, τοῦ
θεοῦ tax — i i in the “The assage, especially line 3, was of some
pulled og bis Predestinarian controversies. Lapide al ase a Sa cas
Calvin on the text with many quotations from Fat ἘΠ Cee "Philo’s
view of God’s dealings even with the hated Egyp a ae in Pita Mosts,
i. 24, οὔτε yap ca eee Ἄδα a bess fe θετῆσαι μόνον. So in general,
Legis 50. We 34, οὐ aT ieee εὐδὺς ἐπέξεισιν ὁ θεὸς των μασὼ ee ae
pane i xa “he latter part of the verse is almost an ¢ ’ t Ὡς of Matt.
7}, ‘Judge not, lest ye be ee Cae in 18%, ‘Shouldest thou not have
had Hee kere! eee ᾿ tc., an ᾿ en as I had mercy on thee?’ etc., Ἰὼ ἐν
ὑπο mercy to him that hath showed no mercy. Ecclus. 28 16, R.V.
‘maketh thee to forbear all, which is tet θ τα consistent with the
acceptance of πάντων as neuter. ee Ae gracious unto all.’ WL takes
the word literally spare,’ an ee reason to depart from this meaning.
ΕΣ 56 ΕΠὶ5 simply missed the last three words. Arab. has ee which
means “spare, ᾿ ) in the sense of ‘be niggardly.” wetpe hades a is
variously rendered ΕΣ ΚΕ πὴ aie camel 1 iegfri ‘foundation’ (Deane),
but a i ᾿ (Grimm and Siegfried), foundatiot ee i um. The unfortunate
n up under the Latin “princip! ay Ge ἰσχύ ‘yirtus’ led early
commentators, unacquc } eke neve tink is ; eant, and an entirely
false believe that God’s ‘mercy’ was mean}, L ly Ἑ eee was the
result. Farrar sums up the real esis eS ee injustice is partly due to his
feebleness and selfis laerar eee being omnipotent has none of that
bias to r ὙΠΕΡ Hes Lal ἐδ } : ᾿ is limited, akness. So Reuss, ‘Man’s
power 1 he eee feel it... . God, because his power 1s anes does not
suffer in the opinion of wise men for using it in moderation. 17. Both
R.V. and AV. are very paraphrastic. me ae aiinealy oF the passage
lies in ἐν τοῖς εἰδύσι. The change frome tig rons ea would be natural
to nine transcribers out of ten, an > τ renee ‘qui nesciunt.’ But some
MSS. of @ have ‘qui sciunt. of
 268 THE ROOK OF WISDOM (12. 18> 18, But thou being
master of might judgest with fairness, And with much leniency dost
govern us : For power is at thy command when thou wilt. quotes it
so, and 3S" and Arab. show no signs of the negative. Rejecting it,
we have a perfectly good rendering; ‘in the case of those who know
and yet will not practically acknowledge thy rule,’ tie. the runagates
of the first few chapters. This is better than ‘conceited wise men,’
which is, however, possible. Bois’ conjecture ἐνδοιάζουσι, ‘for them
that doubt,’ is adopted by Siegfried: it has in its favour that the word
is rare, and therefore likely to have been changed ; but it seems
unnecessary. For a curious rendcring of τοῖς εἰδόσι τὸ θράσος, ‘them
that are acquainted with rebelliousness,’ cf. A Lapide. For the
common rendering cf. Rom. 17, ‘Because that, knowing God, they
glorified him not as God, neither gave thanks ; but became vain in
their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened.’ The first
line is translated by @ ‘ Virtutem ostendis tu qui non crederis esse in
virtute consummatus,’ where ‘qui’ seems to be for ‘quippe qui’ or
‘quum’: ‘Thou showest power when thou art not believed to be
complete in power.’ Arab. plainly read ἀπιστουμένοις and took it for a
middle, ‘who believe not in the fulness of thy eee S" ‘Thou didst
show thy powers and they believed not, ut only in thy completed
(not as Walton ‘last’) powers; those whom thou knewest thou
rebukest sorely.’ ‘The first line is not without sense, and such
renderings tempt one to believe with Dr. Margoliouth that the Syriac
translator had another text (Hebrew or otherwise) before him than
that which we possess in the Greek. 18. © ‘Dominator virtutis,’
which does not, however, imply that the translator took δεσπόζων as
a substantive. S&S? and Arab. both take it as a verb. St. Augustine
(«@/. Deane) has ‘Dominus virtutum,’ which certainly gives a wrong
idea of the meaning. Grimm quotes Luther and others as translating
‘Gewaltiger Herrscher,’ but the meaning is not ‘ measureless’ might
but modcration of that might, as in the next line. ἐν ἐπιεικείᾳ, ©
‘cum tranquillitate,’ which is quite inadequate, as is R.V. ‘gentleness.’
A.V. ‘equity’ is better. 3° has ‘with mildness.’ The whole conception is
that of ‘moderation’ of boundless power. Cf. Song of the Three
Children, 18, ποίησον μεθ' ἡμῶν κατὰ τὴν ἐπιεικείαν σον καὶ κατὰ τὸ
πλῆθος τοῦ ἐλέους gov. Baruch, 22", has nearly the same phrase.
The meaning is plain in Acts 244, συντόμως τῇ σῇ ἐπιεικείᾳ : not
‘clemency’ as R.V., but Roman ‘fairness.’ Phil. 45, τὸ ἐπιεικὲς ὑμῶν
γνωσθήτω πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις, where A.V. ‘moderation’ gives the
proper meaning. R.V. ‘forbearance.’ In 2 Cor. 10! the word is used
certainly with a different meaning. It is coupled with πραύτης and
means ‘gentleness.’ 26 42. 19.J THE BOOK OF WISDOM 9 i le by
such works didst thou teach thy people — “a see) the righteous man
must needs be humane ; hope And madest thy sons to be of good
That thou grantest for sins repentance. it 1 iter is anxious to 19.
‘From what follows it is clear that the wn i i ences narrated in the
attribute to God’s higher desizns the occurr 1 i i to the Pentateuch
and in Joshua, which might well give offence i ings of humanity?
(Grimm). Ε , δ Ely sone in connecting ὅτι διδοῖς (Swete for δίδως,
the ? : : : ὃ is bei losely with eveAmidas. N more usual form, διδοῖς
being Homeric) ¢ y eT ee version, however, except Arab., so takes it.
R.V. ee in ot repentance when men have sinned, which is no Caer ἢ:
Greek ἐπὶ ἁμαρτήμασιν. Ἶν ‘guontant judicans Δ ers peccatis
poenitentiae.’ S? ‘grantest penitence for sins. 4 i , . eae x 1. "Much is
to be said for Gratz’s bce aN a ee Tes i i t the Genti berately sets
himself to combat | ad Oe ann generis” Of this idea we have many
proo i a € é ‘Tac. acc. 74, 6° ἣν ἔχουσιν οὗτοι πρὺς mavTa τὰ ἔθνη
δυσμένειαν. a ay. “5. taupe fides obstinata, misericordia ΠΡ τς
adversus omnes alios hostile odium.’ | Juv., oe ae pea vias eadem
nisi sacra calenti dies aes in his note αὐ oc. ‘This et ΠΣ λων
appeared after their final rebellion and ioc of Jerusalem. But in the
New Testament we have ne Ἵ “It is an unlawful thing for a man that
isa Jew to Me yey Be come unto one that is of ener ey ie ae eee ie
mie gets mata of ‘a strict observer of the ceremonial ᾿ νθρωπος. τ
eal to Christian dence ag an φιλάνθρωπος docs not indeed occur in
the a Το τς ᾿ ee τ 20 we have a fair exposition of the idea. ‘If ama Fa
cea nie and hateth his brother, heis aliar... and this cali Sela eeaie fi
him, That he who loveth God love his brother also. wa as isi ht in
saying that in the words ‘thy sons’ the writer 5 ye "ἢ amie the self-
satisfied prejudice which made the a ea es mankind were created for
their sake’: Pepe τ ἐξ brought upon the scene only to provide object:
i i . De sere ἌΣ of Philo on this point are pale ἘΠ ΠΝ Ἐπ Abrah., §
37, τῆς γὰρ αὐτῆς φύσεως ἐστιν εὐσεβὴ τε Sew a ἢ τὴν a ί ὅτερον
τῇ κατ᾽ ἀνθρώπους ἀρετῇ, De Profugts, ἃ 6, γνωρίσθητε οὖν
πρότερον TY καὶ τῇ πρὺς θεὺν συσταθῆτε.
 270 THE BOOK OF WISDOM (12. 20. 21. 20. For if on the
enemies of thy servants and on them that were due to death Thou
didst execute judgment with so much carefulness and supplication,
Giving them times and place to change from their wickedness ; 2τ.
With how much circumspection didst thou judge thy sons, To whose
fathers thou gavest oaths and covenants of good promises ? 20. ©
omits καὶ δεήσεως, not understanding it ; and so A.V., probably
following Compl. But Genev. has it ‘requesting unto them.’ The
rendering given above may appear remarkable, but it represents the
received text, and is supported by the paraphrases of S? and Arab.
‘when they supplicated thee.’ These are no doubt wrong, but they
represent the reading δεήσεως. Ample justification for the idea of
‘supplication’ of God to humanity is found in Isa. 652, ‘I have spread
out my hands all the day unto a rebellious people’; Prov. 13), ‘I have
called and ye refused ; I have stretched out my hand and no man
regarded.’ Cf. Rom. 102!, which repeats the passage of Isaiah.
Grimm’s explanation of the passage is practically this. The objection
to this is that God would not supplicate to the Canaanites ; but with
‘Wisdom’ all things are possible. R.V. translates the variant διέσεως
(GX) ‘indulgence,’ which is the obvious correction of a scribe who,
like 1, could not understand δεήσεως. A third reading is διέσωσας
(some MSS. of & have ‘et liberasti’), which is said to be the reading
of Arm., but this is altogether at variance with the sense of the
passage: ‘Thou didst execute judgment on them with so much
deliberation and didst preserve them throughout’ is nonsense. ; The
passage is undoubtedly difficult. Accepting δεήσεως as the reading,
Wahl! and others compare Hebrew ΠΣ ΠῚ which may mean either
‘mercy’ or ‘supplication for mercy.’ For the first meaning cf. Jos. 117,
Ezra g*® If we could accept this the text might be made to mean
‘heedfulness (R.V.) and answer to supplication.’ For χρόνους καὶ
τόπον ‘times and opportunity,’ @&* reads χρύνον καὶ τόπον, an
obvious change, which Grimm would adopt on the ground of the
verbal assonance of which Pseudo-Solomon 15 fond. i has ‘tempus.’
Arab. ‘times and natural inclination.’ S* ‘times and place by means of
which to change.’ 21. The stress is laid on ἀκριβείας, which in
accordance with the argument cannot mean ‘sharpness’ or
‘exactness,’ but rather carefulness’ (R.V.) or ‘diligentia’ (iL), the idea
being rather that of sparing than of exacting the full penalty of the
law. The slow but continued Ἷ i ' ᾿ Ἢ 4 2 3 7 $ τῷ ι 271 12. 22. 23.]
THE BOOK OF WISDOM 7 i mies 22. Us therefore chastening, thou
dost scourge our ene dfold, That ae quads we may carefully ponder
on thy dness, ; Bit when we are judged may look for pity. ived ὁ i {
life, wicked 23. Wherefore also them that lived in foolishness 0 men
; oe Thou didst torment through their own Δ ὈΟΠΠΠΔΙΙΟΗΒ
judgment of Israel by the oppressions of neighbouring nations, Meet
i be meant. ; ; ates en ie I δι’ ἐμαυτοῦ ὥμοσα λέγει ὁ bala peice ’ jae
For ‘covenant’ the word used by G is = nen. Συνθήκη is unusual, and
does not σεαις ἰδ the ee ts of τος eer i itive of remote rela F ant: T
ΩΝ Sale both in classical and Hellenistic Greek. Winer ( bon) ot %
has for the unusual word Ἶ is no variant of importance. ries ae alg ‘
multipliciter.’ Ὁ ‘with ten thousand δἰ ἀβυ εν. ἐν " racer 4» There is
no reason for the lea Bi eluate Ἷ , “ten thousand times’ 7707re 5 eid
that Israel is ica eae ἐν all but ‘chastened. Deane 15 right aaa ay a
Ἐπ πον as children .. . ‘thou scourgest ie slav Tes " ote hatin Prov.
312 the two words are applied to the sane ae sien nt ; but ‘Wisdom’
has his own. way of applying ἥ ΤῊΝ Se Ἐπ ἢν Wad in mind rather
Ps. 31 ἢ πολλαὶ Πῶσ ἡ Ἂν i ae καῖ τὸν δε ἐλπίζοντα ἐπὶ κύριον ἔλεος
κυκλώσει. n ap ’ i e loses words are recognised as forming a strong
contrast, the passag' ag ne cf. Deut. 85, ‘Thou shalt consider in thine
heart that or παι . . ’ i Lord thy God chasteneth thee. tencth his son
so the is asa a ners to be a ἅπαξ dey, and Snide πο ἐς ἘΠΙῸΝ
substitutes given by Grimm, ἐμ. ἐν ee ἀράς ae eal ng-suffering, and
ἐν μακροθυμίᾳ (Nachtiga ) wi annals ne ‘i oth are utterly opposed ae
anette ee ae sae
 272 TITE BOOK OF WISDOM (12. τὶ 24. For they went
astray even farther than the ways of error, Taking as gods those
which among the beasts of our enemies are despised, Deceived like
silly children. the very insects by which they were plagued, and
ὅθεν, ‘wherefore,’ takes up the idea of v. 3325, ‘thou scourgest our
enemics.’ Some have thought that the Canaanites are still in
question, and that the fishgod Dagon of the Philistines, and
Baalzebub ‘the lord of flies’ worshipped by the Ekronites (2 Kings
12"), are referred to. But there is no mention of plagues inflicted on
the Canaanites through such creatures, unless we take the ‘hornets’
as ‘flies.’ ἀδίκους seems to be an afterthought of the writer, tacked
on at the end of the line, to designate particularly the Egyptians,
whom he considers as especially ‘unrighteous,’ because they
wronged their guests who had done them no harm (19"). A
transcriber would not understand this, and we have consequently
the variant ἀδίκως accepted by iL, ‘insensate et injuste vixerunt. 3S?
is questionable. Arab. has the adjective. Grimm, who adopts the
adverb, cites also Arm. in its favour. ἱ βδελύγματα is not translated
by @. SP has ‘filthiness.’ It is the word employed by @& (without
much reference to the Hebrew) to designate heathen idols.
Sometimes it represents ny3yin, ppv, and in Jer. 118 ppp. Det 24.
This is Grimm’s translation of line 1, ‘Longius aberraverunt quam
erroris viae ferebant, ipsas erroris vias egressi sunt,’ 2.6. their error
was simply incredible. This, however, is not the sense given by the
versions. Only R.V. has in margin ‘even beyond the ways of error.’ So
Deane, A Lapide, and writers cited by the latter. It may be ἐνὸν μων
if the comparative denotes more than it docs in 314, κλῆρος
υμηρέστερος. In that case the rendering of A.V. and R.V., ‘they went
very far astray 7 the paths of error,’ will be correct. : Line 2 has
given some trouble, chiefly because all the versions translate ἔχθρων
‘ fieir enemies.’ That the Egyptians should worship things which
¢/v7r enemies (e.g. the Israelites) despised was no great proof of
folly. The translation given is that of Freudenthal (JQ. X. ubi supra).
‘Our enemies’ are the Gentiles. The Egyptians wor. shipped beasts
which even Gentiles like themselves generally despised —not merely
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