Culinary Landmarks A Bibliography of Canadian

Cookbooks 1825 1949 1st Edition Elizabeth Driver

pdf download

https://ebookgate.com/product/culinary-landmarks-a-bibliography-
of-canadian-cookbooks-1825-1949-1st-edition-elizabeth-driver/

Get the full ebook with Bonus Features for a Better Reading Experience on ebookgate.com
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Food of London A Culinary Tour of Classic British Cuisine

Food of the World Cookbooks First Edition Hawkins

https://ebookgate.com/product/food-of-london-a-culinary-tour-of-
classic-british-cuisine-food-of-the-world-cookbooks-first-edition-
hawkins/
ebookgate.com

Peel s Bibliography of the Canadian Prairies To 1953 1st

Edition Bruce Braden Peel

https://ebookgate.com/product/peel-s-bibliography-of-the-canadian-
prairies-to-1953-1st-edition-bruce-braden-peel/

ebookgate.com

A Bibliography of Robertson Davies 1st Edition Carl

Spadoni

https://ebookgate.com/product/a-bibliography-of-robertson-davies-1st-
edition-carl-spadoni/

ebookgate.com

Driver Acceptance of New Technology Theory Measurement and

Optimisation Michael A. Regan

https://ebookgate.com/product/driver-acceptance-of-new-technology-
theory-measurement-and-optimisation-michael-a-regan/

ebookgate.com
Germany 1945 1949 A Sourcebook 1st ed Edition Malzahn

https://ebookgate.com/product/germany-1945-1949-a-sourcebook-1st-ed-
edition-malzahn/

ebookgate.com

Mediterranean Cuisine Berryland Cookbooks 1St Edition

Edition Anita Shan

https://ebookgate.com/product/mediterranean-cuisine-berryland-
cookbooks-1st-edition-edition-anita-shan/

ebookgate.com

Culinary Calculations Simplified Math for Culinary

Professionals 2nd Edition Terri Jones

https://ebookgate.com/product/culinary-calculations-simplified-math-
for-culinary-professionals-2nd-edition-terri-jones/

ebookgate.com

Geographies of Entrepreneurship 1st Edition Elizabeth A.

Mack

https://ebookgate.com/product/geographies-of-entrepreneurship-1st-
edition-elizabeth-a-mack/

ebookgate.com

The Oxford Movement and Its Leaders A Bibliography of

Secondary and Lesser Primary Sources Atla Bibliography
Series 2nd Edition Lawrence N. Crumb
https://ebookgate.com/product/the-oxford-movement-and-its-leaders-a-
bibliography-of-secondary-and-lesser-primary-sources-atla-
bibliography-series-2nd-edition-lawrence-n-crumb/
ebookgate.com
 CULINARY LANDMARKS
A Bibliography of Canadian Cookbooks, 1825–1949
This page intentionally left blank
 E L I Z A B ET H D R I V E R

CULINARY LANDMARKS
A Bibliography of
Canadian Cookbooks
1825–1949

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

Toronto Buffalo London
 www.utppublishing.com
© Elizabeth Driver 2008

Published by University of Toronto Press Incorporated

Toronto Buffalo London
Printed in Canada

ISBN 978-0-8020-4790-8

Printed on acid-free paper

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Driver, Elizabeth
Culinary landmarks : a bibliography of Canadian
cookbooks, 1825–1949 / Elizabeth Driver.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8020-4790-8

1. Cookery – Canada – Bibliography. I. Title.

Z5776.G2D74 2008 016.64150971 C2006-902604-1

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the
Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council.

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishing activities of the
Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program (BPIDP).
Contents

List of Illustrations vii

Foreword ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xvii
Chronology of Canadian Cookbook History xxxiii
Explanation of Bibliography Entries xxxv
Abbreviations and Symbols xli
Libraries and Collections xli
References li
Maps of Canada lxi
Plates follow p. 510

The Bibliography:

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR 3 ALBERTA 1030

NOVA SCOTIA 10 BRITISH COLUMBIA 1080
NEW BRUNSWICK 37 YUKON 1146
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND 67 NORTHWEST TERRITORIES 1148
QUEBEC 73 NO PROVINCE OF PUBLICATION 1150
ONTARIO 273 PUBLISHED OUTSIDE CANADA:
MANITOBA 920 Great Britain 1156
SASKATCHEWAN 989 United States 1160

Subject Index 1165

Place-of-Publication Index 1178
Name Index (person, association, institution, or company) 1187
Short-Title Index 1222
This page intentionally left blank
Illustrations

Front cover: Image from the front cover of Dainty and Kathleen Bowker, nd [about 1931] (GB2.1). Credit:
Delicious Dishes, Toronto: Cowan Co. Ltd, nd [1915] Nancy Rahija, Toronto
(O336.1) 11. Margene Recipe Book, by Brenda York, nd [1949]
(O1230.1)
1. ‘The Black Whale’ Cook Book, by Mrs Ethel Renouf, 12. D M S Cook Book, by the Daughters of the Mid-
Montreal, 1948 (Q314.1). Credit: Nancy Rahija, night Sun, Yellowknife, [1947] (NWT2.1)
Toronto 13. Oil painting of the fictional Rita Martin, repro-
2a. Five Roses Cook Book, Lake of the Woods Milling duced in Robin Hood Prize Winning Recipes (Q306.1)
Co., Montreal and Winnipeg, 1915 (Q79.3). Credit: 14. La cuisinière bourgeoise, by Menon, Quebec City,
Nancy Rahija, Toronto 1825 (Q1.1). Credit: Library and Archives Canada,
2b. La cuisinière Five Roses, Lake of the Woods Mill- Ottawa
ing Co., Montreal, 1915 (Q79.4). Credit: Nancy 15. La cuisinière canadienne, Montreal, 1840 (Q3.1).
Rahija, Toronto Credit: Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa
3a–b. The Canadian Economist, by the Ladies’ Associa- 16. Directions diverses données par la révérende mère
tion of Bank Street Church, Ottawa, 1881; two Caron, Montreal, 1878 (Q15.1). Credit: Library and
facing colour lithographs, between pp vi and vii Archives Canada, Ottawa
(O28.1). Credit: Nancy Rahija, Toronto 17. The Cook Not Mad, Kingston, Upper Canada, 1831
4. Watercolour illustration by the Toronto artist Au- (O1.1). Credit: Toronto Reference Library
gusta Helene Carter in ‘Cowan’s Cocoa Recipes,’ 18. The Frugal Housewife’s Manual, by A.B. of Grimsby,
Cowan Co., Toronto, nd [1921], p 44 (O468.1). Toronto, 1840 (O2.1). Credit: Toronto Reference
Credit: Nancy Rahija, Toronto Library
5. An up-to-date kitchen illustrated in McClary’s 19. The Female Emigrant’s Guide, by Mrs Catharine
Household Manual, McClary’s, London, Ontario, Parr Traill, Toronto, 1854 [1855] (O5.1). Credit:
1922, p 9 (O488.1). Credit: The J.J. Talman Re- University of Toronto, Thomas Fisher Rare Book
gional Collection, The D.B. Weldon Library, The Library
University of Western Ontario 20. Dr Chase’s Recipes, by Dr Alvin Wood Chase,
6a–d. Four cover designs for editions of The Magic twenty-third edition, London, 1865 (O8.1). Credit:
Cook Book and Housekeepers Guide, E.W. Gillett Co. University of Toronto, Thomas Fisher Rare Book
Ltd, Toronto, published in the period 1912–27 Library
(O285.3, O285.10, O285.12, O285.18). Credit: 21. The Home Cook Book, by ladies of Toronto and
Nancy Rahija, Toronto other cities and towns, Toronto, 1877 (O20.1).
7. The Magic Cook Book, E.W. Gillett Co. Ltd, Toronto, Credit: Kings County Historical Society Museum,
nd [about 1930–5] (O702.3). Credit: Nancy Rahija, Hampton
Toronto 22. Cuisine, by the ladies of Saint John, New Bruns-
8. The Art of Sandwich Making, Canada Bread Co., wick, 1878 (NB2.1). Credit: Legislative Library of
Toronto, nd [about 1926] (O576.1). Credit: Nancy New Brunswick, Fredericton
Rahija, Toronto 23. Advertisement for Mrs Clarke’s Cookery Book, by
9. Canadian Grown Apples, Department of Agri- Mrs Anne Clarke, Toronto, 1883, in Toronto World
culture, Ottawa, 1939 (O496.13). Credit: Nancy 13 November 1883 (O35.1). Credit: Toronto Ref-
Rahija, Toronto erence Library
10. The Maple Leaf Canadian Recipe Book, by Mrs 24. Church of England Institute Receipt Book, by Mrs
viii / ILLUSTRATIONS

Mary Jane Lawson and Miss Alice C. Jones, 37. Mlle Jeanne Anctil, author of 350 recettes de cui-
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1888 (NS1.1). Credit: His- sine, 1912 (Q73.1). Photograph courtesy Marcel
tory Collection, Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax Anctil
25. Jubilee Cook Book, by the Ladies’ Aid Society of the 38. Miss Nellie Lyle Pattinson, author of Canadian
First Methodist Church, Charlottetown, Prince Cook Book, 1923 (O506.1), as pictured in the
Edward Island, 1897 (P1.1) school’s 1943 yearbook, p 28
26. The Souris Branch Cook Book, by the Ladies’ Aid 39. Soeur Sainte-Marie Edith/Sister St Mary Edith,
Society of Carnduff, Melita, 1901 (S1.1) author of Les secrets de la bonne cuisine, copyright
27. Blue Ribbon Cook Book, Blue Ribbon Manufactur- 1928 (Q171.1). Photograph courtesy Le service
ing Co., Winnipeg, 1905 (M7.1). Credit: Wellington des Archives de la Congrégation de Notre-Dame,
County Museum and Archives, Fergus Montreal
28. Cobalt Souvenir and Cook Book, by the ladies of 40. Miss Gertrude Dutton depicted in Specially Se-
the Presbyterian Church, Cobalt, Ontario, 1908–9 lected Recipes, [about 1931] (M70.1)
(O204.1). Credit: Una Abrahamson Canadian 41. Photograph of Jessie Read, reproduced in her
Cookery Collection, Special Collections, Univer- first book, Three Meals a Day Recipe Review, [1934],
sity of Guelph Library p 1 (O830.1)
29. Cartoon in The ‘Shamrock’ Girl, P. Burns and Co. 42. Miss Edith Elliot, compiler of several recipe col-
Ltd, Calgary, nd [about 1918] (A31.4) lections, the first being Canadian Vegetables for
30. Famous Pointe Mouillée Club Recipes, [Bainsville, Every Day (O665.1). Photograph courtesy Lenore
October 1919] (O422.1). Credit: Library and Ar- Newman, Merrickville
chives Canada, Ottawa 43. Miss Laura Pepper, author of several culinary
31. The P.L.A. Cook Book, by the Ladies’ Aid Society of titles, beginning with Milk Desserts (O676.1). Pho-
St Andrew’s Presbyterian Church, St John’s, New- tograph courtesy Lenore Newman, Merrickville
foundland, 1925 (NF5.2) 44. Mrs Mary Moore, photographed in about 1943,
32. 9th Annual Edith Adam’s Wartime Cook Book, pub- in the decade she wrote The Bee Hive Cook Book
lished by Vancouver Sun newspaper, nd [1943] (O1054.1) and Fruit-Kepe Recipes (O1104.1). Pho-
(B114.1). Credit: Vancouver City Archives tograph courtesy Peter Moore, Mary Moore’s son
33. Image of Mother Caron in 1855, author of Direc- 45. Mrs Kate Aitken in her kitchen at Sunnybank
tions diverses, 1878 (Q15.1), reproduced in Insti- Acres, near Streetsville, Ontario, 1955, ten years
tute of Providence, Vol. 3, Montreal: Providence after the first edition of Kate Aitken’s Canadian
Mother House, 1930, opposite p 36 Cook Book (Q292.1). Photograph courtesy Kate
34. Elizabeth McMaster, contributor of the ‘Preface’ Aitken family
to The Home Cook Book, 1877 (O20.1). Photograph 46. Mrs Marianne Linnell (right), the person behind
courtesy Hospital for Sick Children archives the fictional Edith Adams at the Vancouver Sun
35. Dora Stevenson, author of Dora’s Cook Book, 1888 from 1 February 1947 to about 1960, with her
(O43.1). Photograph courtesy Bonnie Adie, Dora colleague Zazu Pitts (left). Photograph courtesy
Stevenson’s great-granddaughter Robert Linnell, Marianne Linnell’s son; credit:
36. Photograph of Mrs Grace Denison, author of The Harry Filion Photograph, Vancouver
New Cook Book, 1903 (O130.1), in Saturday Night (7
February 1914): p 26
Foreword

Even in my own lifetime, indeed in the latter half of present one. More than twenty years ago I was one of
it, the quality and status of bibliographies of cookery only a dozen or so people who had become aware of
books have changed dramatically. Throughout most Elizabeth Driver’s talents as a bibliographer. She was
of the twentieth century such few of them as existed just starting work on what was to become her Bibliog-
were patently intended as references for librarians raphy of Cookery Books Published in Britain 1875–1914,
and private collectors, most of whom were interested and I could tell from the way that this was being
in the actual books, as artifacts which called for iden- planned (with the help of yet another Canadian, Dr
tification and accurate descriptions, rather than in Lynette Hunter) that it was going to be a model of its
their context and content. This is not to belittle in any kind. In 1989 my wife and I had the privilege of being
way the work of earlier bibliographers. They did what the book’s publishers. We had never published a book
they set out to do, with diligence and occasionally so large, nor one on which we had had to contribute
with hints of the broader perspectives in which the so little editorial work. It was a masterpiece.
books they catalogued could be viewed; but only hints. The same could and will be said of the present
In reality, a good bibliography with accurately de- volume, but in my opinion it deserves special and
fined boundaries, whether of subject, language, geo- additional praise on two counts. First, its geographic
graphical area, or period (or of course all four), can be and ethnic scope is so much wider, giving it a more
used as a sort of prism through which to perceive, international flavour. It is remarkable how a reading
with a fresh illumination, many matters other than of the chapters on the provinces conveys what might
the publishing history of the books. As Elizabeth be called their various personalities, reflecting the
Driver says herself, the range of relevant interests, varied origins of the communities which settled in
besides food history, is great: ‘women’s studies, social them. Second, like Elizabeth’s earlier book but per-
history, archaeology, museum studies, folklore, eth- haps even more, the present one does so much to
nology, even English literature.’ To her list I would bring alive the books which it catalogues and their
add the work of mainstream political historians (how authors. I will never forget mère Caron, still less her
often are great political events found to be partly nun who wept when cooking because the flame un-
explicable by food matters!), that of both general der the pan reminded her of the fires of Hell which
economists and students of economic botany, and she had so often deserved. Catharine Parr Traill is
that of dietitians and practitioners of medicine, in- another outstanding figure, now firmly imprinted in
cluding nursing. And I would further add agricul- my memory. These are but three characters from a
ture, and those many forms of biology, including cast of hundreds.
ichthyology, which are relevant to the use of animals Here, then, is a book which is a precious gift to
as food. Finally, I warmly endorse the idea that stud- Canada and which will also be useful to and cher-
ies of food in literature can be greatly helped by good ished by many people outside Canada. I wish it the
bibliographies. I am, as it happens, just embarking on success it deserves – although this wish may seem
an investigation of food in novels, and find that the superfluous in the case of a book of such manifest
only relevant bibliography (by the late Professor excellence and with such a long life assuredly ahead
Norman Kiell) is just about indispensable. of it.
Of course the extent to which a bibliography fulfils
the manifold purposes to which it can be put de- Alan Davidson
pends on how good a bibliography it is. On this, I am Chelsea, London
happy to say that they don’t come any better than the October 2002
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

Culinary Landmarks is the offspring of my first publi- mitment to preserving Canadian cookbooks were a
cation in the field, A Bibliography of Cookery Books constant inspiration and extended beyond the formal
Published in Britain 1875–1914, which appeared in 1989 limits of the project when, with the co-operation of
as one title in a series under the imprint of Prospect the Archival and Special Collections department of
Books in London, England. To Alan Davidson, founder the University of Guelph Library, she helped to found
of the publishing house and the person who con- the Canadian Cookbook Collection, which became the
ceived of the idea of the British bibliographical series, repository for donations of cookbooks from the public
and to Dr Lynette Hunter, the series editor, I am and an ongoing legacy of this bibliography. Since her
indebted for introducing me to the world of antiquar- retirement from the university, I have continued to
ian cookbooks. Alan contributed the Foreword to this benefit from her encouragement and advice.
bibliography well in advance of its publication and From 1999 to 2002 the bibliography’s home was
about one year before his death on 2 December 2003. I Massey College in Toronto. I am grateful to John
regret that Alan could not see the work in its final Fraser, the college’s master, for welcoming the project,
form and dedicate Culinary Landmarks to his memory. and to Peter Lewis, the bursar, for overseeing the
I thank Lynette in particular for pursuing queries on account. Lunch breaks in the college’s dining hall, in
my behalf at the British Library. the company of Massey fellows, nourished the body
The research for Culinary Landmarks began in spring and replenished the spirit.
1990, when I proposed the idea of a bibliography of The project’s association with the University of
Canadian cookbooks to Jo Marie Powers, then Asso- Toronto Press dates almost from the conception of the
ciate Professor at the School of Hotel and Food Ad- project. Over the years, Bill Harnum’s letters
ministration at the University of Guelph, and we of support, his trust that the project would be com-
launched the project together. Over more than a de- pleted, and his good humour were appreciated more
cade since then, many generous individuals, associa- than he could ever know. I am also beholden to the
tions, institutions, and businesses have helped to bring experienced and skilful team that transformed the
the work to a successful conclusion. manuscript into its final published form, especially
My heartfelt thanks go to Jo Marie, who supported editors Suzanne Rancourt, Barbara Porter, and Judy
the project in countless ways, practical and intan- Williams, designer Val Cooke, and production man-
gible, over the entire course of the research. At the ager Ani Deyirmenjian. Byron Moldofsky, Jane Davie,
outset, she arranged for the bibliography to be lo- and Mariange Beaudry at the Cartography Office, De-
cated at the University of Guelph, whose long con- partment of Geography, University of Toronto, con-
nection with agriculture, food, and home economics verted raw data into informative maps in record time.
made it a perfect base. As I am an independent scholar, Many public institutions have participated in the
the association with the university was crucial for the project. Most of the Canadian libraries, archives, and
fund-raising process and also for gaining the assis- museums listed under ‘Libraries and Collections’ on
tance of others for research purposes. It was an ad- p xli sent information, and, when I was able to visit,
venture to carry out the early stages of the research the staff invariably made my research trips as effi-
with Jo Marie, and I am especially grateful to her for cient and profitable as possible. I made intensive use
enlarging the scale of the search through her many of certain collections and reference services. First
useful contacts and for shouldering the burdens of among these is Library and Archives Canada, Ot-
project administration and grant applications. Above tawa, where I spent many fruitful hours in the stacks
all, her enthusiasm for culinary history and her com- near the start of the project. Later, Michel Brisebois
xii / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

and Elaine Hoag helped track down volumes in the House Museum, Dorchester; Peter Dickinson, Kings
Rare Book Collection; Mary Bond introduced me to Landing Historical Settlement, Fredericton; Jean-
the AMICUS database before it was possible to search Claude Arcand and Margaret Pacey, Legislative
it from my home computer; Nicole Watier in the Ref- Library, Fredericton; Patricia Belier and Patricia
erence and Information Services Division responded Ruthven, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton;
to all manner of queries; Anne Goddard, Patricia Kelly McKay, York-Sunbury Historical Society Mu-
Kennedy, and Wilma MacDonald dealt expertly with seum, Fredericton; Brenda Orr, Moncton Museum;
archival matters; and the staff at the Canadian Insti- Cheryl Ennals, Mount Allison University, Sackville;
tute for Historical Microreproductions, based at Li- Andrea Kirkpatrick, New Brunswick Museum, Saint
brary and Archives Canada, happily fielded questions. John; Marcia Koven, Saint John Jewish Historical Mu-
The Archival and Special Collections department of seum; in Prince Edward Island, Mary Beth Harris,
the University of Guelph Library has been a partner University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown;
in the project from the beginning, first under the in Quebec, Miss Phelps and Arlene Royea, Brome
leadership of Tim Sauer, then Bernard Katz, and Lorne County Historical Society, Knowlton; Lucille Potvin,
Bruce, and it was a challenge to keep up with the Soeurs des Saints Noms de Jésus et de Marie, Service
donations of cookbooks that flowed to the library as central des archives SNJM, Longueuil; Daniel Olivier,
word of the project spread. I thank the staff of McGill Bibliothèque de la ville de Montréal, Salle Gagnon;
University’s Rare Books and Special Collections for Ron Finegold and Eddie Paul, Jewish Pub-lic Library,
their assistance as I worked my way through the Montreal; Florence Bertrand, Le service des Archives
many cookbooks there, especially Bruce Whiteman de la Congrégation de Notre-Dame, Montreal; Victoria
during my first visits and then Raynald Lepage, for Dickinson, McCord Museum, Montreal; Lan Tran,
answering questions of all sorts. I also thank the staff Musée de la civilisation, Quebec City; Jules Morin,
of the Bibliothèque nationale du Québec in Montreal, Bibliothèque des Frères du Sacré-Coeur, Sainte-Foy;
especially Renée Beaumier, Normand Cormier, Jean- Hélène Liard and other staff, La société d’histoire de
René Lassonde, and Richard Thouin, for their aid in Sherbrooke; Sylvia Bertolini and Elizabeth Brock,
capturing all the French-language titles in the library’s Stanstead Historical Society; Germaine Blais, Archives
collection. In Toronto, I became a fixture in the Toronto des Ursulines, Trois-Rivières; Suzanne Girard, Ar-
Reference Library, where I relied on the help of Rita chives du Séminaire de Trois-Rivières; in Ontario, Pat
Ness and Norman McMullen in the Interlibrary Loan Zimmer, Aylmer and District Museum; Jim Quantrell,
department and of the staff in the Special Collections, City of Cambridge Archives; Irene Arthur, Chatham-
Genealogy and Maps Centre, under Christine Mosser. Kent Public Library; Karen Wagner, Wellington
I also depended on the expert knowledge of the staff County Museum and Archives, Fergus, and Ian
at the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Easterbrook, Wellington County Historical Society;
Toronto, especially Sandra Alston and Anne Bev Dietrich, Guelph Civic Museum; Brian Henley
Dondertman; David Bain and John Jakobson at the and Margaret Houghton, Hamilton Public Library;
Gladys Allison Canadiana Room in the North York Stuart Renfrew and Vivien Taylor, Queen’s Univer-
Central Library; and staff at the York University Ar- sity, Kingston; Marcia Shortreed, Elizabeth Hardin,
chives and Special Collections. and Tom Reitz, Doon Heritage Crossroads, Kitchener;
I am also indebted to a host of other librarians, Susan Burke, Joseph Schneider Haus, Kitchener; Su-
archivists, curators, and museum board members san Hoffman, Kitchener Public Library; Glen Curnoe
across the country, some now working at other insti- and Arthur McClelland, London Public Library; Ann
tutions or retired: In Newfoundland, Suzanne Sexty Morris and Theresa Resnier, University of Western
and Jackie Hillier, Memorial University of Newfound- Ontario, London; Jennifer Bunting, Lennox and
land, St John’s; Howard Brown, Provincial Archives Addington County Museum and Archives, Napanee;
of Newfoundland and Labrador, St John’s; in Nova Dan Hoffman, Nepean Museum; Pam Handley, North
Scotia, Elizabeth Boyd and Karen Smith, Dalhousie Bay and Area Museum; Lisa Miettinen, Norwich and
University, Halifax; Garry D. Shutlak, Nova Scotia District Archives; Bill MacLennan, Canadian Agricul-
Archives and Records Management Library, Halifax; ture Library, Ottawa; Joan Hyslop, Grey Roots Mu-
Susan White, Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax; Valerie seum and Archives, Owen Sound; Noreen Gerrish,
Inness, Queens County Museum, Liverpool; Edith Queenston Community Library; Arden Phair, St
Haliburton and Patricia Townsend, Acadia Univer- Catharines Museum; Gail Banjafield and Elizabeth
sity, Wolfville; Laura Bradley, Yarmouth County Mu- Finnie, St Catharines Public Library; Susan McNichol,
seum; in New Brunswick, Sylvia Yeoman, Keillor Heritage House Museum, Smiths Falls; Frank
 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S / xiii

vanKalmthout, Archives of Ontario, Toronto; Jennifer Summerland Museum; Jennifer Jones, BC Sugar Mu-
Rieger, the Grange at the Art Gallery of Ontario, seum, Vancouver; Norah McLaren, Vancouver Mu-
Toronto; Diane Gilday, Archives of the Hospital for seum; Angela Haaf, Elizabeth Johnston, and Andrew
Sick Children, Toronto, who alerted me to the Min- Martin, Vancouver Public Library; George Brandak
utes of the Ladies Committee referring to the Chicago and Anne Yandle, University of British Columbia,
source of O20.1, The Home Cook Book; Roma Dick, Vancouver; Linda Wills, Greater Vernon Museum and
Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire national of- Archives; David Mattison, British Columbia Archives,
fice, Toronto; staff of the United Church of Canada Victoria; Patricia Somerton, Legislative Library, Victoria;
and Victoria University Archives, Toronto; Susan Virginia Careless, Royal British Columbia Museum,
Saunders Bellingham, University of Waterloo; in Victoria; and in the Northwest Territories, Peter
Manitoba, Audrey Harburn, Carberry Plains Museum; Harding, Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre,
Sandra Head, Daly House Museum, Brandon; M. Yellowknife. In the United States, I was aided by Jan
McKenzie, Beautiful Plains Museum, Neepawa; Dr Longone, curator of American culinary history, William
Philippe Mailhot, Le musée de Saint-Boniface; Eva L. Clements Library, University of Michigan; Barbara
Barclay, Hillcrest Museum, Souris; Mary Revel, Teulon Wheaton, honorary curator of the culinary collection,
and District Museum; Ann E. Wheatley, Manitoba Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Schlesinger
Museum of Man and Nature, Winnipeg; Jody Library on the History of Women in America, Cam-
Baltessen and Elizabeth Blight, Provincial Archives of bridge, Massachusetts; and David Schoonover, Cura-
Manitoba, Winnipeg; Roy A. McLeod, Winnipeg Dis- tor of Rare Books, University of Iowa, Iowa City. To
trict Archives, Sons of Scotland; Karen Hunt and Brett all these persons and many unnamed others who, in
Lougheed, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg; in their official capacities, contributed information to
Saskatchewan, Roger Martin, Homestead Museum, the bibliography or otherwise helped in the quest, I
Biggar; Timothy Beech, Biggar Museum and Gallery; extend my thanks.
Marj Redenbach, Melville Heritage Museum; Sandra I was fortunate to have the co-operation of several
Massey, Regina Plains Museum; Elizabeth Kalmakoff, experts in their respective fields, among them: David
Saskatchewan Archives Board, Regina; Maureen Fox, Chun, of the William Cobbett Society, for providing
Saskatchewan Archives Board, Saskatoon; Ruth Bitner, material about the Cobbett family; Nathalie Cooke at
Saskatchewan Western Development Museums, McGill University, for her insights into the use of
Saskatoon; Rose Marie Fedorak, Ukrainian Museum pseudonyms; Gwendolyn Davies at the University of
of Canada, Saskatoon; Margaret Baldock and Shirley New Brunswick, for help with Alice Jones’s biographi-
Martin, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon; cal note; Judy Donnelly, for sharing her knowledge of
Lavine Stepp, Soo Line Historical Museum, Weyburn; almanacs; Dr Serge Durflinger, Historian at the Cana-
in Alberta, M.L. Ludvigsson, Alix Wagon Wheel Mu- dian War Museum, whose answers to queries helped
seum Association; Bill Henderson, Bowden Pioneer to date several wartime books; Janet Friskney, for
Museum; Lindsay Moir, library of the Glenbow Mu- introducing me to the papers of the Methodist Pub-
seum, Calgary; Sylvia Harnden, Heritage Park His- lishing House at the United Church Archives, Victoria
torical Village, Calgary; Apollonia Lang Steele, University; Charlotte Gray, Elizabeth Hopkins, and
University of Calgary; Vera Kunda and Jeanine Green, Michael Peterman, for illuminating aspects of
University of Alberta, Edmonton; Barbara Wilberg, Catharine Parr Traill’s life and writings; Amber
my first contact at the provincial government’s His- Lloydlangston, for sharing information she had gath-
toric Sites and Archives Service, Edmonton, and Bill ered about female employees of the federal Depart-
Gnatovich at the Provincial Museum of Alberta, and ment of Agriculture; Stephen Otto, for searching the
Joy Schellenberg and others at the Ukrainian Cultural Gooderham and Worts archives for information about
Heritage Village; Dianne Vallée, Museum of the Betty Supplee; George L. Parker, for information about
Highwood, High River; D. White, Medicine Hat Mu- the Montreal printer Hew Ramsay and about cook-
seum and Art Gallery; Valerie Miller, Red Deer and book author Sarah Lovell, the wife of another Montreal
District Museum and Archives; in British Columbia, printer; Dr Miriam Ross at the Acadia Centre for
Susan Green, Burnaby Village Museum; Jim Bow- Baptist and Anabaptist Studies, Acadia University,
man, Chilliwack Museum and Historical Society; Wolfville, Nova Scotia, for guidance regarding the
Priscilla Davis, Cowichan Valley Museum; Leigh co-authors Annie Martell and Julia Hamm; Carl
Hussey, Delta Museum and Archives; Elisabeth Spadoni at McMaster University, Hamilton, for addi-
Duckworth, Kamloops Museum and Archives; Ursula tions to entries for McClelland and Stewart imprints
Surtees, Kelowna Museum; Ursula Richardson, and for assistance with an item related to Stephen
xiv / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Leacock (Q95.1, British, French, Italian, Russian, Bel- photographs, came from author’s or publisher’s de-
gian Cookery); Basil Stuart-Stubbs, retired University scendants or relatives: Bonnie Adie, Dora Fairfield’s
Librarian and Director of the School of Librarianship great-granddaughter; Marcel Anctil, a relation of
at the University of British Columbia, for his research Jeanne Anctil; Gordon Bourgard, son of Grace
into the lives of Vancouver co-authors Florence Eliza- Bourgard, one of the several ‘Anna Lee Scotts’;
beth Stewart and Gretchen Day Ross; and Joan Heather Claggett, Jessie Read’s daughter; Mrs Bar-
Winearls for her good counsel about maps. I have bara Kincaide, daughter of Elizabeth Sieniewicz, be-
learned a lot over the years about Ontario’s food hind the 1934 Evangeline Chapter IODE cookbook
history from fellow members of the Culinary Histori- (NS43.1); Shirley Kirby, wife of Frederick Kirby, the
ans of Ontario, especially Fiona Lucas (one of the illustrator of two New Brunswick cookbooks (NB39.1,
founders of the group) and Elizabeth Nelson-Raffaele, NB41.1); W. Gordon Love, son of Robert W. Love,
and from Dorothy Duncan, retired Executive Director founder of Love – The Flavor Man, which published
of the Ontario Historical Society. advertising cookbooks (Gordon Love also provided
The launch of the History of the Book in Canada information about a Love flavours client, Gertrude
project, under the general editorship of Patricia Dutton, a cookbook author); Graeme Miltimore, a
Fleming and Yvan Lamonde, was a boon for Culinary descendant of Grace Miltimore; and Fred Sherratt,
Landmarks. The founding conference for Volume 2 Clarry Hunt’s grandson.
allowed me to develop ideas about the community- Many new titles came to my attention through
cookbook genre, and research carried out by others booksellers, and their contributions of information
for the project, generously shared, strengthened the and their interest in the progress of the research were
text. greatly appreciated. My special thanks go to Hugh
My thanks go to the following Canadian home Anson-Cartwright, Toronto; David Ewens, North
economists, who added to the life stories of past col- Gower, Ontario; Ann Hall of the Bridgeburg Book-
leagues and revealed the identities of the women store, Fort Erie, Ontario, when it was under the name
who worked behind corporate pseudonyms: Kathleen of William Matthews and run by co-proprietors
Hodgins, the original ‘Brenda York’; Christine Robb Matthews and Hall; Jill Reville Hill, when she was
Hindson, the second ‘Martha Logan’; Mary Adams, proprietor of Travellers’ Tales Books in Ottawa; Janet
for information about the fictional ‘Ann Adam’ and Inksetter, Annex Books, Toronto; Denise Kenny, when
‘Anna Lee Scott’; Phyllis Dennett, for explaining the she was in business in Bath, Ontario; Mary Lee
roles of the women who worked at the Vancouver MacDonald and John Townsend, Schooner Books Ltd,
Sun’s Edith Adams Cottage in the late 1940s; and Halifax; David and Ann Skene-Melvin, Ann’s Books,
Beatrice M. Millar, for the history of Jean Mutch at BC Toronto; Garry and Janice Shoquist, Northland Books,
Electric. Ruth E. Berry expanded the biography of Saskatoon; Richard Spafford, Regina; Cameron
Margaret Speechly. Mary Leah DeZwart helped with Treleaven, Aquila Books, Calgary, and his wife,
the lives of Mary Hiltz and Alice Stevens. Helen Wattie Marion; Bjarne Tokerud, Bjarne’s Books, Edmonton;
and Elinor Donaldson Whyte shared their story of and Tom Williams, Calgary. In the later stages of the
the 1953 revision of Nellie Pattinson’s Canadian Cook project, Jim Anderson of Anderbooks (now in Winni-
Book. Jill Snider, at Robin Hood Multifoods Inc. in peg), who specializes in cookbooks, made substan-
Markham, Ontario, facilitated access to the company’s tial additions to the bibliography, for which I am
archives. Joanne Mackie and Marie Tyler dissemi- most grateful.
nated my queries to the community of home econo- Since many Canadian culinary titles have not yet
mists and helped make connections. The Ontario found their way into public institutions, the bibliog-
Home Economists in Business Hall of Fame tribute to raphy would have been much less comprehensive
Elaine Collett was an essential source for her career. without the generous co-operation of many individual
For sharing their personal papers and knowledge of owners of old cookbooks, usually passed down in the
Robin Hood’s history, I am also grateful to Douglas family or sometimes rescued from a neighbour’s
Parker, Toronto, former Vice-President of Robin Hood house-clearing. I received thousands of letters from
Mills, and George Blanchard, Port Colborne, Ontario, the public in response to appeals in the media and, on
former employee of the Port Colborne mill. Not long the research trips I took east and west of Ontario, and
before Helen Gougeon died in May 2000, she told me on shorter forays from my home base of Toronto, I
the story of her first publishing venture, O1137.1, fitted in as many visits as possible to private homes,
Cooking with an Accent. where I not only had the pleasure of examining the
Biographical material, such as family histories and owner’s treasured volumes but would often be served
 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S / xv

a delicious meal. Early in the project, Carol Ferguson Away from my base in Toronto, Julian Armstrong,
and Margaret Fraser let me see the cookbooks they food editor of the Montreal Gazette, let me explore her
had borrowed from friends and colleagues in prepa- home library and further helped by writing several
ration for co-writing A Century of Canadian Home Cook- articles about the project for her Montreal readers,
ing: 1900 through the ’90s (Toronto: Prentice Hall who subsequently sent me details about their books.
Canada, 1992). I am grateful to all these contributors Julian’s article in the 5 July 2000 issue of the newspa-
for contacting me with information, for patiently an- per resulted in the donation of a copy of the rare first
swering my queries about their books, and for their edition of La cuisinière canadienne to the National Li-
hospitality in the case of those I visited. brary of Canada, by André Sylvestre. I also had the
I am also indebted to a number of private cook- privilege of viewing Ruth Spicer’s collection in St
book collectors whose passion for developing their Andrew’s, New Brunswick, before she donated it to
libraries rivalled mine for pursuing the publishing the Kings Landing Historical Settlement in Freder-
history. The weeks spent in autumn 1990 exploring icton, and Eleanor Robertson Smith’s collection in
Una Abrahamson’s magnificent private collection in Shelburne, Nova Scotia. From Brooklyn, New York,
her Don Mills, Ontario, home laid the foundation for Andrew F. Smith, the American author of books about
the bibliography. Later, new titles would be added to tomatoes, ketchup, popcorn, peanuts, and soon tur-
the bibliography and new locations noted, but some key, and editor-in-chief of The Oxford Encyclopedia of
of the titles first seen at Una’s remain the only known Food and Drink in America (New York: Oxford Univer-
copies. Before Una died on 28 February 1999, she sity Press, 2004), sent me reports of new Canadian
donated her books to the University of Guelph, en- titles in his collection (including the only known copy
suring that the collection would remain intact and of the Worcester, Massachusetts, edition of La cuisinière
guaranteeing public access to what is now known as canadienne, which he subsequently donated to the
the Una Abrahamson Canadian Cookery Collection. University of Guelph) and shared his research about
The bibliography is richer for Una’s early and pre- the American family trio, Cora, Bob, and Rose Brown.
scient collecting of culinary Canadiana. From Dunedin, New Zealand, collector Duncan
Over the course of the research, Mary F. Williamson, Galletly sent information about two previously un-
Fine Arts Bibliographer (retired), York University, known editions of The Home Cook Book published in
Toronto, shared information about her personal col- that country.
lection and new acquisitions. Her friendship and For the translation of texts in a language other than
encouragement were an invaluable support and I English or French, several persons freely gave their
depended immensely on her bibliographical exper- help: For Shir Watanabe’s An English-Japanese Con-
tise. The manuscript was greatly improved by her versational Guide and Cook Book (US3.1), Susan Michi
suggestions of avenues of inquiry and by the searches Sirovyak at the Japanese Canadian National Museum
she voluntarily undertook on a variety of fronts, from in Burnaby, Lynne Kutsukake, Japanese Information
combing periodicals to pin down dates of publica- Specialist at the University of Toronto Libraries,
tion to scouring cemetery records for biographical and Toshiko Yamashita at the Japanese Canadian
data. Many entries in the bibliography bear a silent Cultural Centre, Toronto; for ‘Nordwesten’-Kochbuch
acknowledgment to Mary for her help. (M127.1), Richard Mehringer, Malvern Collegiate In-
As Gary Draper’s personal collection grew over stitute, Toronto; and for Ukrainian-language cook-
the years, so did the bibliography, as Gary passed on books, Roma Sanocka, Toronto Reference Library.
news of his many finds, and his friendly and enthusi- For technical advice and assistance I thank Nancy
astic emails from the Department of English at St Crozier, who input the majority of the entries and
Jerome’s University in Waterloo kept the project mov- guided me in the use of software; Nancy Rahija, for
ing ahead at critical times. Assistance also came from designing stationery and for photographing several
Pat Rogal in Toronto, whose collection of culinary of the cookbooks; Ulf Bein at Central Technical School
ephemera enriched the bibliography, and Elizabeth in Toronto, for scanning Nellie Pattinson’s portrait in
Baird, who let me examine her many volumes gath- an old school yearbook; and Dan Taylor of DanT’s
ered during a long career championing Canadian Inferno Foods Ltd, Mississauga, for scanning many
food and cookery in print, radio, and television. The of the images (for individual credits, see p vii). My
inclusion of an article about the project in Canadian husband, Edwin Rowse, his partner, Michael Mc-
Living (October 1991, p 15), where Elizabeth is the Clelland, and their staff at E.R.A. Architects Inc. in
magazine’s food editor, garnered a huge response Toronto gave indispensable office support over the
from the public, adding many new titles to the record. years.
xvi / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

On research trips I enjoyed the hospitality of friends Economics Association for its contribution. The award
and family: in Montreal, David Walker and the late of a Tremaine Fellowship from the Bibliographical
Ann Duncan, and Julian Armstrong; in Ottawa, Society of Canada funded research in British Colum-
Maureen Cech and Carl Toole, Anne Newlands and bia in 1992. The Albert and Temmy Latner Family
Howard Duncan, and Christine and Jack Vanderloo; Foundation, the George Cedric Metcalf Charitable
in Guelph, Jo Marie and Tom Powers; in Woodstock, Foundation, and the T.R. Meighen Foundation con-
Ontario, my aunt and uncle, Jean and Bill Sedgwick; tributed generously to the project. On my behalf,
in Winnipeg, Pat and Bruno Malis; in Saskatoon, my Dr Linda McCargar at the University of Alberta,
cousin Caroline Hlady and her husband, Gerald; in Edmonton, kindly sponsored a request for a grant
Calgary, Janet Wright and Jim Taylor; and in North from the Alberta Heritage Resources Foundation, and
Vancouver, my brother and sister-in-law, Michael and we thank the foundation for assisting with the print-
Susan Driver. ing costs of the Alberta section. Three consecutive
Midway through the project, there was an inter- annual grants from the Women’s Culinary Network
lude where I had the pleasure of working with David gave a helpful boost near the end of the project. I am
P. Silcox on David B. Milne: Catalogue Raisonné of the grateful to Canada’s food producers, notably Best
Paintings (University of Toronto Press, 1998), which Foods Canada Inc. and Nabisco Brands Ltd, who not
he co-authored with David Milne Jr. The experience only provided financial assistance but allowed me to
gained improved the final form of Culinary Land- use their company archives. Support has also come
marks, and when I resumed the research for the cook- from Canada’s bakers and restaurateurs, Ace Bakery
book bibliography, David Silcox supported my efforts (through the Haynes-Connell Foundation) and Pronto
in numerous ways. As someone who had just seen Restaurants Inc. (Barbara Prevedello). And my spe-
published a monumental reference work, his encour- cial thanks go to the following individual donors:
aging comments carried special weight. Christine Bourchier, Alberta; Nathalie Cooke, Mont-
The successful completion of the bibliography de- real; Honor de Pencier, Toronto; Lynda C. Hamilton,
pended on financial support from several sources. I Toronto; Fiona Lucas, Toronto; Harrison McCain,
thank the University of Guelph for funds received Florenceville, New Brunswick; Mary Pratt, St John’s,
over the course of the project, including seed money Newfoundland; Edwin Rowse; and anonymous.
from the School of Hotel and Food Administration I would not have reached the end goal without the
and additional grants from the Office of Research. unwaivering support of my husband, Edwin Rowse,
Crucial aid came from the Social Sciences and Hu- and the patience over the years of our children,
manities Research Council and from E.R.A. Archi- Michael and Alexandra. The publication of Culinary
tects Inc. I am also indebted to the Canadian Home Landmarks is theirs to celebrate, too.
Introduction

This work, Culinary Landmarks, takes its title from tangible and poignant links with the past user of the
two Ontario fund-raising cookbooks of the same book, whether a mother or grandmother, or someone
name, produced by church women’s groups in Sault whose identity is now lost, but with whom one can
Ste Marie and Port Colborne, at the turn of the last still share the common bond of cooking and eating
century (O84.1, O169a.1). Landmarks may be promi- the same dish made from the same recipe. At the
nent features in a landscape, acting as signposts to simplest level, cookbooks are collections of printed
guide the way, or events in history, signalling an recipes – directions explaining how to cook – but
important stage or turning point. Whether in physi- cookbooks should not be mistaken for just instruc-
cal space or time, landmarks help make sense of large- tional manuals. Food is at the very heart of living. It
scale phenomena. Since the story of Canada’s determines our health, defines our cultural and eth-
cookbooks unfolded over a vast expanse of land and nic identity, and binds us together socially. Food is
within the continuum of time, Culinary Landmarks the main subject of the genre, but the cookbooks
seemed a fitting title for this bibliography, which has described in this bibliography also illuminate many
two overarching purposes: to map the publishing other aspects of Canadian life across a broad sweep of
history of the books and to identify the most signifi- time, especially the world of women (in the home, in
cant works. philanthropic and political associations, and in the
Culinary Landmarks describes 2,276 individual cook- workplace), but also developments in agriculture,
books published from 1825 to 1949, all in Canada aquaculture, industry, education, medicine, publish-
except for seven texts about Canadian cooking pub- ing, and literature. Canadian writers who have turned
lished in Great Britain or the United States. The bibli- their pens to the subject of food include Catharine
ography begins in the colonial era with the appearance Parr Traill in Canada West, George Stewart Jr at the
of La cuisinière bourgeoise bearing the imprint of a time of his move from New Brunswick to Ontario,
Quebec City bookseller, but actually an edition of a Mary Jane Lawson and Alice Jones in Nova Scotia,
text from France and printed in France (Q1.1), and Grace Denison of Toronto’s Saturday Night magazine,
ends at the mid-point of the twentieth century, when and Valance Patriarche in Winnipeg, but, with the
the war years were clearly over and new conditions exception of Traill, their contributions, and the contri-
were about to reshape Canadian society. Soon, in butions of many others (named and unnamed), to
1953, the National Library of Canada would be Canada’s culinary literature have gone unremarked.
founded and a new copyright-deposit system put in This bibliography celebrates cookbooks and their au-
place to preserve the country’s printed heritage. The thors as an incontrovertible part of Canada’s literary
body of cookbooks documented here represents an history.
aspect of Canadian publishing that until now has Canadian culinary manuals belong to a long tradi-
remained virtually unknown and unexplored, but tion in the Western world of printed cookbooks. Not
which has a special fascination. No other category of long after Johannes Gutenberg developed a system
book evokes such an emotional response across gen- for printing with movable type and the beginning of
erations and genders and is freighted with so much the mass production of bibles and other religious
cultural and historical meaning. Unlike the typical material in the mid-fifteenth century, cookbooks be-
volumes on a library shelf, cookbooks are meant for gan to issue from presses in Europe. If one were to
daily reference in the kitchen, where they are sub- draw a rudimentary family tree for Canadian cook-
jected to the dangers of water, fire, and spills. The books, one might trace lines back to the first printed
spots and annotations on the most-used pages are cookbook in France, Le viandier by Taillevent, which
xviii / INTRODUCTION

appeared in about 1490, and the first in England, A search of all patent-medicine brochures and almanacs
Noble Boke of Cokery, published in 1500, keeping in produced in the period covered by the bibliography;
mind, however, that there were other early European therefore, items with recipes in the text but no culi-
relations. Searching further into the past, one might nary content mentioned in the title are included only
also note the only known cookery text to survive if they surfaced in the course of other research.2
from the days of the Roman Empire, attributed to Wherever possible, a copy of each edition of every
‘Apicius’ and first published in Milan in 1498.1 Also work was examined and detailed information re-
in the family, but closer in time, is the earliest culi- corded: a transcription of the title-page, dimensions,
nary manual published in what is now the United pagination, whether illustrated, price, type of bind-
States, Eliza Smith’s The Compleat Housewife, an edi- ing, and the contents. Also noted for each edition are
tion of an English text, printed in Williamsburg, Vir- citations in other bibliographies, as many locations as
ginia, in 1742. Other cookbooks would be published possible where copies may be consulted, and the ex-
in the United States before La cuisinière bourgeoise was istence of microfilm copies. Modern facsimile edi-
published in Quebec City in 1825, most notably tions have full entries. Other later editions (1950 and
Amelia Simmons’s American Cookery of 1796, the first after) and foreign editions are listed only. Biographi-
locally authored American text. Documenting the cal information about individual authors, including
publishing history of Canadian cookbooks is crucial their other writings, or information about the history
for understanding Canada’s place in this family tree of publishers, corporations, institutions, and associa-
– its connections with, and differences from, these tions is often provided, especially where it helps to
earlier, but continuously evolving, culinary and pub- establish the date of publication or otherwise illumi-
lishing traditions. nates the context of the book’s creation. See ‘Explana-
tion of Bibliography Entries’ for the rules governing
the presentation of the information.
Scope and Arrangement of the The bibliography is arranged chronologically, by
Bibliography province and territory, to create a picture of cooking
and dining customs in each part of the country over
The bibliography aims to identify every printed cook- one-and-a-quarter centuries. Many of the cookbooks
book of 16 pages or more, published within the described here were local productions and well known
borders of present-day Canada, whether a locally in their own town, but not elsewhere; others had a
authored text or a Canadian edition of a foreign work, regional profile; some were national bestsellers. The
from the beginning to 1949. The handful of texts dis- introductions to each provincial and territorial sec-
covered about cooking in Canada, but published out- tion highlight the most popular or interesting local or
side the country, are also included, for example, The regional recipe collections, note the important devel-
Anglo-Canadian Cook Book (GB3.1), probably for Brit- opments and trends in cookbook publishing in the
ish war brides, and An English-Japanese Conversational province or territory, and identify the nationally dis-
Guide and Cook Book (US3.1), published in California tributed titles. Most (but not all) of the nationally
for Japanese immigrants to the United States and distributed cookbooks were published in Montreal
Canada, especially British Columbia. In addition to and Toronto, Canada’s largest cities in the two largest
cookbooks, the bibliography contains entries for what and most populous provinces; therefore, persons in-
are sometimes called compendia – encyclopaedic terested in cookbooks used in the Atlantic or Western
household reference works, popular in the nineteenth provinces, and in the territories, should also read the
century – if they incorporate a significant amount of introductions for Quebec and Ontario. Similarly, the
culinary information; an example is Richard Moore’s story of Quebec cookbooks is not complete without
The Universal Assistant of 1879 (O23.1), which has a reading the Ontario introduction, and vice versa. Note
‘Baking and Cooking Department’ and a section of also that evidence of where a cookbook was distrib-
‘Grocers and Confectioners’ Receipts.’ Recipes were uted by its publisher (or carried by its owner) may
sometimes printed in almanacs and advertising book- sometimes be gleaned from the ‘Copies’ line in the
lets for patent medicines, and these items are in- individual entries: If the location is for a small mu-
cluded in the bibliography if the culinary content is seum or library – types of institution that invariably
referred to in the title, for example, Northrop and build their cookbook collections through donations
Lyman’s Family Receipt Book of about 1864 (O7.1) and from local residents – the cookbook likely originally
Le livre de ménage, recettes utiles par Mme Winslow, pour belonged to a family in the same province as the
1869 (Q8.1). It was not possible to make a thorough museum or library.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xix

A ‘Chronology of Canadian Cookbook History’ on where she was a librarian; it is certainly a sign of the
p xxxiii helps to link the important events across thoroughness of her research. Publications of the Canada
the country, and maps on pp lxi–lxvi illustrate the Department of Agriculture 1867–1974/Publications du
pattern of publication. Four indexes serve as handy Ministère de l’agriculture du Canada 1867–1974 was a
cross-references to the material: Subject Index; Place- useful guide to the many titles, in multiple editions,
of-Publication Index; Name Index (person, associa- in French and English, from that federal department
tion, institution, or company); and Short-Title Index. (especially as most items were not in the Canadian
Agriculture Library electronic catalogue). I also ben-
efited from Patrick O’Neill’s A Checklist of Canadian
The Search for Canadian Cookbooks Copyright Deposits in the British Museum, 1895–1923;
although the volume including cookbooks is not yet
The hunt for Canadian titles was more difficult than published, the author kindly shared his valuable re-
the search carried out for A Bibliography of Cookery search with me. Three otherwise excellent histories of
Books Published in Britain 1875–1914. Most pre-1950 the Women’s Institutes of Ontario, Manitoba, and
Canadian cookbooks were produced outside of the Alberta were almost silent about or made no mention
conventional publishing realm, by food companies, of cookbooks published by these groups, but their
kitchen equipment manufacturers, and women’s lists of branches, with dates of founding and dis-
groups, not by regular publishers such as McClelland banding, helped to limit dates of publication in the
and Stewart. Many are physically unimpressive, case of undated cookbooks.3 Legacy: A History of
almost ephemeral: small items of under 100 pages, Saskatchewan Homemakers’ Clubs and Women’s Insti-
with paper covers, stapled rather than sewn, and tutes, 1911–1988 offered information about two post-
with a hole punched at the top left corner for hanging 1950 cookbooks from the province’s clubs, but only a
up in the kitchen, on a nail. Until the founding of the passing mention to earlier ‘cookbooks in the past.’4
National Library of Canada, no institution in the coun- Nanci Langford, on the other hand, discusses the
try consistently collected and recorded cookbooks as publishing success of Recipes (A59.1), by the United
did the national copyright-deposit libraries in Brit- Farm Women of Alberta, in her 1997 history, Politics,
ain, France, and the United States, although for a Pitchforks and Pickle Jars: 75 Years of Organized Farm
brief period early in the twentieth century, a small Women in Alberta. When A Century of Canadian Home
number of Canadian cookbooks were deposited for Cooking, 1900 through the ’90s appeared in 1992, it
copyright purposes at the British Library. These joined became the best printed source of references, with
a part of the collection known as the Colonial Dump its ‘Selected Cookbook Bibliography’ and full-page
at the library’s Woolwich Arsenal, but – in a cruel colour photographs of ‘Cookbook Samplers’ for each
twist of fate – the cookbook section was hit by a decade. The co-authors, Carol Ferguson and Marga-
German bomb during the Second World War and ret Fraser, assembled their bibliography and photo-
many were destroyed. graphs mainly from books borrowed from individuals
Bibliographies, the standard tools and usual first across the country – a sort of amalgamated, but tem-
step in the pursuit of publishing history, and other porary, private collection, which they let me examine
printed sources, were generally of little help in my before it was dispersed. At the time I began my re-
research. It was discouraging, for example, to find search, no Canadian bookseller specialized only in
that Bruce Peel, in his 1973 A Bibliography of the Prairie cookbooks or issued catalogues devoted to the sub-
Provinces to 1953, with Biographical Index, included ject. New items occasionally surfaced in booksellers’
just a handful of culinary titles; and the 2003 third catalogues, but I learned about more titles directly
edition, Peel’s Bibliography of the Canadian Prairies to from the bookdealers themselves or by visits to their
1953, prepared by Ernie Ingles and Merrill Distad, shops. A few new titles were revealed through a search
increased the number of titles to just twenty-four. of the Canadian Institute for Historical Microrepro-
Likewise, cookbooks are just as scarce in Margaret ductions database, and the microfilms themselves
Edwards’s 1975 work, A Bibliography of British Colum- provided invaluable access to the texts; however, one
bia: Years of Growth 1900–1950. Agnes O’Dea’s 1986 great satisfaction of my work has been to pass on
Bibliography of Newfoundland was the exception among many previously unknown titles to the Institute for
regional bibliographies. Her good coverage of cook- subsequent microfilming and dissemination. Easy
books may be a recognition of their usefulness in access to, and searching of, on-line databases, such
folklore studies, a long-time special interest at Me- as individual library catalogues and Library and
morial University of Newfoundland in St John’s, Archives Canada’s AMICUS (which incorporates
xx / INTRODUCTION

Canada’s Union Catalogue), only became possible organized to share cataloguing information about their
near the end of the project. A full list of sources cited collections through electronic means, some univer-
in this bibliography is under ‘References’ on p li. sities are devoid of old cookbooks or nearly so, de-
I travelled across the country looking for Canadian spite the potential they offer for scholarly inquiry. It
cookbooks in libraries, museums, archives, and pri- was simple to identify significant collections at pro-
vate collections. The three largest collections of vincial archives, such as the British Columbia Ar-
pre-1950 Canadian cookbooks in the country are (in chives or the Provincial Archives of Manitoba, but it
descending order) at Library and Archives Canada in was difficult to know whether cookbooks might be
Ottawa, the University of Guelph in Ontario, and part of a unique fonds, without the archivist’s assis-
McGill University in Montreal. The strength of the tance and without physically checking the contents
Library and Archives Canada collection is that the of boxes, as, for instance, when cookbooks were
institution continues to collect material from across found in the papers of Ethel McKnight at the Pro-
the country, but it is weak in English-language nine- vincial Archives of Manitoba.5 All public or private
teenth-century cookbooks. The magnificent collection institutions where cookbooks were found are listed
of Canadian, American, British, and French antiquar- in ‘Abbreviations and Symbols’ on p xli. The best
ian cookbooks donated to the University of Guelph collections of pre-1950 Canadian cookbooks in each
by the late Una Abrahamson is a rich resource for province are identified at the end of the introduction
food historians; I was privileged to visit the collection for each province.
in her home at the outset of the project. About 250 Looking for cookbooks in private homes required a
volumes in the University of Guelph’s Canadian Cook- different strategy. In 1991 a press release about the
book Collection were donated by individuals, many project generated a lot of publicity and elicited thou-
of whom first shared their books with me in the sands of letters from individuals, and people contin-
course of my research for this bibliography, and do- ued to come forward with information as they heard
nations continue to flow in. The culinary collection at news of the bibliography. The frequency with which
McGill came from a variety of sources (including, respondents reported the same title, and their ad-
long in the past, prescient purchases by a librarian, dresses, helped me assess the popularity of a particu-
probably from the annual university fund-raising book lar text and how widely it may have been distributed;
sales). The records for many of the titles that were and their letters often contained crucial evidence about
uncatalogued when I first examined them are now dating or comments about the role the book played in
accessible on-line in the ‘Cookery Book Collection,’ their lives.6 Of the 2,275 titles and their various edi-
part of the Digital Collections Program (http:// tions that are described in the bibliography, over
digital.library.mcgill.ca/cookbooks/). Institutional 1,000 were found only in private hands. Can there
collections in Canada tend to be regional in character: be a more dramatic example in the field of Canadian
strict acquisitions policies sometimes limit collections literature of ordinary citizens being the keepers of
to locally produced cookbooks; or collections have the country’s printed heritage? Most cookbooks were
grown by donations from the region and, therefore, written for use in the home; their authors were often
they reflect the cookbooks in use there. I often found homemakers; the books themselves illuminate that
small gold mines of material in local museums where intimate and normally private world; and in the
the curators and supporting community have recog- heart of the home, passed down in families, is also
nized, without question, how eloquently old cook- where many of the books survive. On my research
books express their past. It was impossible, however, trips, I not only visited institutions large and small,
to contact and visit every museum in the country and but also hundreds of individuals who asked me into
no doubt further material remains to be discovered in the warmth of their homes to see their treasured
out-of-the-way and unexpected places. Although volumes. I was also privileged to have access to the
many cookbooks have been preserved in museums, private libraries of several committed cookbook col-
they have usually been treated as artifacts, not books, lectors, who are acknowledged on p xv. Near the
and often are not catalogued in even the most rudi- end of the project, my belief in the importance of the
mentary way. And because books as artifacts in mu- media as an aid to research was reinforced when an
seums are not part of the same system as books in article by Julian Armstrong in the Montreal Gazette
libraries, they have not yet, for the most part, been brought to light a rare copy of the first edition of La
‘captured’ in databases such as AMICUS. This bibli- cuisinière canadienne (Q3.1) in a private collection,
ography is a first effort to bring to light a still largely which the owner subsequently donated to Library
inaccessible body of cookbooks in Canadian muse- and Archives Canada and which is now available on
ums. In contrast, although university libraries are microfilm to any researcher.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxi

The Evolution of the Genre in Canada bec and Ontario, and developments in those prov-
inces are described in detail in their introductions (pp
Before 1825 73 and 273). From 1791 to 1841 the two jurisdictions
were separately administered colonies called Lower
The publication of La cuisinière bourgeoise in Quebec Canada and Upper Canada; in 1841 they were joined
City in 1825 signalled the beginning of cookbook in a legislative union as Canada East and Canada
publishing in Canada, but culinary information was West in the Province of Canada; from Confederation
available to colonists from a variety of sources before on 1 July 1867, they became the provinces of Quebec
(and after) this date. Some early immigrants brought and Ontario in a self-governing Dominion.
manuscript recipes and printed cookbooks with them, The first two cookbooks published in Lower and
and eventually they could buy cookbooks imported Upper Canada were editions of foreign works, and
from overseas and from the United States, before and both were printed elsewhere. La cuisinière bourgeoise
after the American Revolution. In Marius Barbeau’s (Q1.1), by Menon, was a famous eighteenth-century
ground-breaking 1944 study, Saintes artisanes (Q287.1), cookbook from France, which, in the period from its
the Quebec anthropologist recorded the French and first edition to the 1825 Quebec City edition, had been
English eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century reprinted multiple times in France, Belgium, and En-
cookbooks used by the religious orders in Quebec. As gland. The Cook Not Mad (O1.1), published in Kingston,
early as 17 August 1754, the auctioneer William Craft Upper Canada, in 1831, was an edition of a recent
was advertising a book of ‘Cookery’ for sale in the American work, from just across the border in
Halifax Gazette. A notice for the English author Hannah Watertown, New York, and likely not known outside
Glasse’s ‘Cookery’ [i.e., The Art of Cookery Made Plain its own state. These were followed, in 1840, by the
and Easy] appeared in the Nova Scotia Chronicle of 31 first French-language cookbook and the first English-
July 1770, followed by ones for Martha Bradley’s The language cookbook to be compiled in Canada – La
British Housewife in the Nova Scotia Gazette and Weekly cuisinière canadienne (Q3.1) and The Frugal Housewife’s
Chronicle of 22 October 1772 and 15 June 1773; and Manual (O2.1) credited to ‘A.B., of Grimsby.’9 It is
records show an increasing number of imported culi- remarkable that these two landmark works appeared
nary titles, including American texts and American in the same year, but it was coincidental, and the
editions of British texts, available for purchase in the character of their texts and the extent to which they
Canadian colonies in the nineteenth century. Recipes penetrated their respective markets were very differ-
were also being circulated in locally printed and pub- ent. La cuisinière canadienne is unattributed but was
lished almanacs, such as The British Lady’s Diary, and probably compiled by someone in the circle of Louis
Pocket Almanack for 1790, which was advertised in the Perrault, the publisher, and Mme Gamelin, one of the
Quebec Herald of 10 December 1789 as containing ‘sev- founders in 1843 of the Institute of Providence, a
eral useful recipes in cookery, pickling, preserving, religious order. Here, for the first time, was a recipe
&c.’ (no copy located), in Tiffany’s Upper-Canada Al- collection addressed to ‘the Canadian cook,’ i.e.,
manac for 1802 (CIHM A01075), and in The Nova- French-Canadian cook, and featuring familiar dishes
Scotia Almanack for 1820 (CIHM A01160). A recipe for made from local ingredients (for example, Purée aux
that most Canadian of beverages, Spruce Beer, was poix, Beignets, Ragoût de pattes de cochon, Pouding
reproduced on a broadsheet in 1783.7 A section of à la farine de blé d’Inde), plus various English-style
‘Recette [sic] pour quelques poudings’ concludes Traité boiled puddings adopted from Montreal’s English
sur les maladies des enfans, a French translation of a community. It was the only French-Canadian cook-
book by the English doctor Michael Underwood, pub- book on the market up to 1878,10 and continued to be
lished in Quebec City in 1801 (QTS). The Farmers reprinted as late as the mid-1920s, reaching several
Journal of 2 July 1828 (a St Catharines, Ontario, news- generations of Quebeckers through multiple editions
paper) reprinted ‘Receipts for the Ladies ... copied over eight decades. In contrast, The Frugal Housewife’s
from the manuscript receipt book of a first rate house- Manual was not reprinted and only two copies of the
keeper.’ Early sources are discussed in more depth in 1840 Toronto edition survive, despite the fact that
Williamson, History of the Book.8 it was undoubtedly a useful and carefully chosen
collection: the one hundred numbered recipes are
The Beginnings, 1825 to 1876 thoughtfully arranged in two parts, a ‘Housewife’s
Manual’ and a section of entries for vegetables, from
The early history of cookbook publishing in Canada Asparagus to Turnip, with instructions for growing
belongs almost exclusively to the provinces of Que- and cooking.
xxii / INTRODUCTION

Whereas the French-speaking market was well Canada: community cookbooks, also called fund-rais-
served in this early period by several editions of La ing or charitable cookbooks; advertising or promo-
cuisinière canadienne, A.B.’s manual was followed by a tional cookbooks; and texts for cookery classes. The
succession of titles from elsewhere: in 1845, Modern appearance in 1877 of the first example of the com-
Practical Cookery (Q4.1), by the Edinburgh cookery munity type, The Home Cook Book (O20.1), ‘compiled
teacher Mrs Nourse; in 1846, Every Lady’s Book (O4.1), from recipes contributed by ladies of Toronto and
uncredited but by the American Mrs Crowen; in 1848, other cities and towns ... for the benefit of the Hospi-
The Skilful Housewife’s Guide (Q5.1), uncredited but tal for Sick Children,’ marked the beginning in Canada
extracted from a text by the American Mrs Abell; in of a grassroots publishing phenomenon that would
1865, the American Dr Chase’s Recipes (O8.1); and in help to shape Canadian cooking for the next one
1868, The Dominion Home Cook-Book (O11.1), actually hundred years and more. Community cookbooks,
an edition of The American Home Cook Book. In 1861, which first emerged in the United States during the
the Hamilton printer Henry Richards, seeing the need Civil War, are usually a co-operative effort on the
for a cookbook ‘withal local in its aim,’ selected ap- part of an organization (often a church women’s aux-
propriate recipes ‘from the best English, French & iliary, but also many other sorts of group). Recipes
American works’ for publication in The Canadian are solicited from the community and usually cred-
Housewife’s Manual of Cookery (O6.1). ited to the individual contributor; the text is edited
There were only two notable exceptions to this by a committee; then the volumes are sold by mem-
run of ‘foreign’ texts: The Female Emigrant’s Guide of bers of the organization to raise money for a chari-
1854 (O5.1), by Catharine Parr Traill, who lived near table purpose. In Canada, where conventional
Peterborough in Canada West; and Household Recipes publishers routinely issued editions of foreign texts,
or Domestic Cookery (Q7.1), by a Montreal lady community cookbooks were a means by which
[Constance Hart], of 1865. Until the person behind women could produce recipe collections uniquely
the initials ‘A.B., of Grimsby’ is discovered, Traill and suited to their own tastes and cooking practices, and
Hart stand as the only positively identified women they were especially valued as a source of favourite
up to 1877 who were writing in English specifically dishes, making them an important historical record
for Canadian kitchens. Traill’s aim was to character- of Canadian food. They also proved to be effective
ize for immigrants the unique aspects of cooking in fund-raising tools for all kinds of philanthropic
Canada, especially in the ‘backwoods,’ and she wrote projects, through which women could contribute to
in a way that was at once authoritative, detailed, the building of Canada’s fast-growing civil society.
reassuring, engaging, and particular to the country. As the best-selling Canadian culinary manual of the
She gave instructions for growing and cooking and nineteenth century, The Home Cook Book popularized
described eating and dining customs, such as the the concept of the community cookbook in Canada,
preference for Buckwheat Pancakes at breakfast. When although the story is complicated by the fact that the
she contradicts a doctor’s assertion that Dandelion Hospital for Sick Children’s name was removed from
Coffee is ‘equal in ... flavour to the best Mocha coffee,’ the volume after the hospital’s Ladies’ Committee
the modern reader is convinced that her judgment is severed its relationship with the publisher in 1879.
reliable, and her comment that ‘Canada is the land of Nevertheless, the title-page reference to the Toronto
cakes’ (by which she meant a variety of sweet baked ladies was retained and the book continued to be
goods) still rings true. No further editions of The Fe- reprinted, essentially unchanged, up to 1929, and was
male Emigrant’s Guide were published after 1862, partly widely distributed in large numbers.11 Since The Home
because the contents became increasingly out-of-date Cook Book had an early connection with Saint John,
toward the end of the nineteenth century as the back- New Brunswick,12 it is not surprising that Canada’s
woods way of life in Ontario gave way to a more second community cookbook, Cuisine (NB2.1),
settled and technologically advanced society. Hart’s emerged from that city in 1878. Soon, other fund-
father and husband were early advocates for Jewish raisers followed in Ontario (Ottawa, 1881, O28.1),
civil liberties in Quebec, and her Household Recipes is Nova Scotia (Halifax, 1888, NS1.1), and Quebec
the first Canadian cookbook by a Jewish author. (Montreal, 1888, Q21.1). Community cookbooks re-
mained, for the entire period of this bibliography,
The Emergence of New Types, 1877 to 1900 primarily an English-language, Protestant publishing
phenomenon. Relatively few were produced by En-
The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the glish Catholic institutions, and none was found ex-
emergence of three new types of culinary manual in clusively in the French language.13 In the twentieth
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxiii

century, Jewish women’s groups adopted the idea, drew to a close, therefore, advertising cookbooks em-
both as a useful fund-raising tool and as a way to braced the essential manufactured baking ingredi-
share their kosher and festival recipes, but the num- ents: raising agents, fat, and flour.
ber of Jewish community cookbooks was relatively Education in Canada has been a provincial juris-
small, reflecting their proportion of the population. diction since Confederation in 1867; therefore, the
From about mid-century, patent medicine compa- development of cookery teaching in the school cur-
nies had published promotional brochures that con- riculum, within the subject of domestic economy, later
tained a few recipes, sometimes drawing attention to called household science, then home economics (and
the culinary content in the title, such as Family Receipt later in the twentieth century, family studies), fol-
Book by Northrop and Lyman (O7.1). Often, pages of lowed its own path in each province. The history of
recipes alternated with calendars and astronomical the teaching of the subject in the various provincial
information, in what came to be called ‘almanac cook education systems is beyond the scope of this bibliog-
books’ or ‘calendar cook books.’ All these promo- raphy, but textbooks mark some of the changes. The
tional vehicles for medicines were a sort of advertis- earliest English-language textbook in Canada to touch
ing cookbook, and Wrigley’s Practical Receipts in the upon food and cookery was likely Health in the House
Arts, Manufactures, Trades, and Agriculture (O13.1), a (O19.1), authorized by the Ontario minister of educa-
compendium published in 1870 by the Toronto mak- tion and published in Toronto in 1877. It was an edi-
ers of an Antiseptic Solution and Preserving Powder, tion of a British text by Catherine Buckton, the first
might also be considered in this category; however, in female member of the Leeds School Board and a pio-
the 1880s, there was a new development: the neering advocate of cookery classes for girls. (Al-
advent of cookbooks openly promoting cooking in- though several Toronto editions of Health in the House
gredients or kitchen equipment. The earliest ones surfaced, no Canadian edition was located of her 1879
advertised baking powder, which at the time was work, Food and Home Cookery: A Course of Instruction
usually concocted by druggists, the same people who in Practical Cookery and Cleaning, for Children in El-
distributed patent-medicine literature.14 Cook’s Friend ementary Schools, as Followed in the Schools of the Leeds
Cook Book (O29.1), published in Toronto in 1881, fea- School Board.)15 In England, universal public educa-
tured recipes using Cook’s Friend Baking Powder as tion was introduced in 1870, the first training school
an ingredient; and these recipes were later reprinted for cookery teachers opened its doors in 1874 (the
in The Art of Cooking Made Easy (O48.1), various edi- privately run National Training School for Cookery
tions of which, from 1890, advertised different pro- in London), and cookery became a grant-supported
prietary baking powders made by druggists in subject in the Education Code of 1882. Similar devel-
Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. The earli- opments in Canada’s provinces for the training of
est baking-powder cookbook to surface in Quebec, cookery teachers and the support of cookery classes
The Princess Baker for ‘Princess’ Baking Powder in the education system came decades later in some
(Q17.1), dates from about the same time as Cook’s cases. Nevertheless, after Health in the House, locally
Friend Cook Book. In about 1888, a Toronto publica- authored textbooks incorporating cookery began to
tion, The Breadmaker’s Recipe Book (O42.1), promoted be produced, and three English-language titles were
the use of Breadmaker’s Yeast and Baking Powder. found from the period before the turn of the century.
The early 1890s saw recipe collections for a cooking In 1889, Alice Clark, an instructor in the Provincial
fat called Cottolene – a mixture of cotton-seed oil and Normal School of New Brunswick (the institution for
beef fat invented by an American company whose teacher training), saw published her Domestic Economy
Canadian office was in Montreal (Q26.1) – and for and Plain Sewing and Knitting: A Manual for Teachers
Ontario canned goods (O61.1). The earliest cookbook and Housekeepers as an approved text in the New
in this bibliography from a stove maker also dates Brunswick School Series (NB7.1). The ‘Preface’ ac-
from the early 1890s: Happy-Thought-Range Cookery knowledges her debt to another British textbook from
Book (O53.1) by Buck’s Stove Works in Brantford, the 1870s – Domestic Economy: A Class Book for Girls –
Ontario. The first cookbook for Church and Dwight’s and adds that the subjects covered within were
baking soda, a product still marketed today under now required elements on the syllabus for female
the ‘Cow Brand,’ appeared simultaneously in Toronto candidates for school licence. In Ontario, Adelaide
and Montreal in 1897 (O82.1). By 1898, the first cook- Hoodless, motivated by the tragic death of her baby
book promoting Canadian flour was published in son from drinking bad milk, arose as the most vigor-
Peterborough by McAllister Milling Co.: Good Flour ous promoter of the teaching of domestic science to
and How to Use It (O85.1). As the nineteenth century girls. In 1894, she started a school for the subject
xxiv / INTRODUCTION

(outside of the provincial education system) in Orangeville, for The Cook’s True Friend of 1889 (O47.1).
Hamilton’s YWCA, and her 1898 book titled Public Of these, only Mrs Clarke’s Cookery Book made a real
School Domestic Science (O86.1) contributed to the de- impact; it was the first Canadian culinary manual to
velopment of the curriculum in the province.16 In be issued in an American edition, in Chicago, in 1889,
1900, in Hamilton, she opened the Ontario Normal and from 1898 it was a money maker for a variety of
School of Domestic Science and Art for training teach- Toronto publishers and manufacturers, under vari-
ers, the first of its kind in the province, and a few ous titles, such as The Dominion Cook Book and The
years later she was responsible for securing the fund- Hudson’s Bay Cook Book (after Canada’s famous trad-
ing to establish the Macdonald Institute in Guelph in ing and retail company). In Nova Scotia and New
1903, to which her Hamilton teacher-training pro- Brunswick, two lone men produced books with reci-
gram was transferred. Hoodless became famous na- pes and other information: Edwin Lockett compiled
tionally for these and other initiatives (not the least of Cape Breton Hand-Book and Tourist’s Guide in about
which was helping to found the first Women’s Insti- 1889 (NS2.1) and Ely Tree, a steward at Saint John’s
tute in Stoney Creek in 1897). A lesser-known but Union Club, wrote The Little Helpmate or How to Keep
influential figure in Nova Scotia was Helen Bell, Husbands at Home in 1894 (NB13.1). In Quebec in
whose Elementary Text-book of Cookery (NS4.1) was 1895, two anglophone women compiled cookbooks,
published in Halifax in 1898, the year she began teach- both likely for the purposes of earning a living: Sarah
ing in the city what have been credited as the first Allen’s The Common Sense Recipe Book (Q27.1) and
domestic-science classes in a public school system.17 Amy G. Richards’s Cookery (Q28.1). It was more com-
The signal event for French-language cookbooks in mon for Canadians to find for sale in bookstores
Quebec in the last quarter of the nineteenth century reprints of cookbooks by rising American culinary
was the publication in Montreal in 1878 of Directions stars, such as Marion Harland and Sarah Tyson Rorer,
diverses données par la rev. mère Caron ... pour aider ses or occasionally a British author, such as Mary Jewry.
soeurs à former de bonnes cuisinières (Q15.1), which
may be based on cooking classes Caron taught in The Twentieth Century: Cookbooks of All Types,
‘une école ménagère’ that she organized for the sis- from East to West, and North
ters and children at the Institute of Providence in the
1860s, in between her two terms as mother superior. After 1900, culinary titles were published in increas-
Although probably conceived originally as a handy ing numbers and covered a wide range of subjects.
reference for the sisters and not as a formal textbook, The new types of cookbook that had begun to find
Directions diverses was the first recipe manual by a their way into Canadian homes before the turn of the
member of a religious order for use in a Catholic century became familiar and commonplace in the
institution. Caron begins by illuminating the moral kitchen. Soon, community and advertising cookbooks
dimensions of cookery and the scope for practising and school textbooks were joined by recipe collec-
virtue in the kitchen. In Quebec, even after 1950, tions published by various departments of the fed-
cookery instruction for francophones, like female edu- eral and provincial governments. More and more
cation in general, was usually delivered by teaching cookbooks emanated from the Prairie provinces and
nuns, overseen by the Catholic bureaucracy, and the British Columbia as new settlers poured into the West
discourse on Catholic values with which Caron be- and the population boomed in the first few decades
gan her text became a typical feature of textbooks of the century. Many Canadians relocating to the West
produced by Quebec’s écoles ménagères in the twen- brought cookbooks from their old homes with them,
tieth century. Directions diverses quickly found favour and copies of these have sometimes found their way
with the French-Canadian public, running through into the collections of Western libraries, archives, and
eight editions up to 1913. museums. Whereas some recipe collections were in-
Outside of the emerging new categories of cook- tensely local in their expression and limited in their
book (community, advertising, and educational), ones distribution, such as the 1917 fund-raiser How We
by named, local authors were rare in the last quarter Cook in Strathroy (O386.1) by a chapter of the Imperial
of the nineteenth century, as they had been in the Order Daughters of the Empire in a small town in
preceding half-century. In Ontario, accolades go to Ontario or The Powell River Cook Book (B108.1) of 1941
three women for compiling their own texts: Anne from a British Columbia pulp-and-paper town,
Clarke in Toronto for Mrs Clarke’s Cookery Book of others were national in concept and widely dissemi-
1883 (O35.1); Dora Fairfield in Bath, for Dora’s Cook nated in thousands of copies over several years, such
Book of 1888 (O43.1); and Mrs James McDonald in as the 1921 federal government publication How We
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxv

Cook in Canada by Dr Helen MacMurchy (O469.1). Some recorded aspects of local history in words and
Although there were many more Canadian-authored pictures, or marked a royal visit or a coronation.
cookbooks produced in the first half of the twentieth Others were valuable collections of recipes for a par-
century, many of which did enjoy national distribu- ticular ethnic group; for example, the Icelandic spe-
tion, Toronto publishers especially continued to issue cialties in a cookbook from Winnipeg’s First Lutheran
reprints of foreign works. And a growing outside Church (M54.1) and the Ukrainian recipes collected
influence were the Canadian editions of advertising together by St Josaphat’s Ladies’ Auxiliary in Edmon-
cookbooks produced by mostly American, but also a ton (A95.1). Sometimes, a cookbook might be com-
few British, companies with branch plants in Canada. piled for a simple social benefit, as a publication
The concept of the community cookbook was well (O286.1) from North Broadview Presbyterian Church
established in the Maritimes, Quebec, and Ontario by in Toronto explained in about 1912: ‘This book is not
the turn of the twentieth century, and by 1907, ex- only compiled for the raising of funds for our Sunday
amples had appeared in every province (the colony School but as an aid to introduce and enable us to
of Newfoundland included). The genre blossomed become better acquainted with our surrounding mem-
over the next few decades, as all kinds of women’s bers and friends.’ Some charitable cookbooks were
groups across the country turned to compiling and issued in multiple editions, over several decades, were
publishing cookbooks to raise money for building influential locally for a long period, and remain well
projects or their charitable work. Most of these cook- known, such as the Victory Cook Book in New Bruns-
books emanated from churches, the focus of commu- wick (NB51.1), the series of Tested Recipes (listed at
nity life. In the East, growing congregations needed NS29.1) issued by the Evangeline Chapter of the IODE
new or enlarged buildings, while in the West, places in Halifax, the Naomi Cook Book (O627.1) in Toronto’s
of worship had to be constructed in new settlements. Jewish community, or Recipes (A59.1) from the United
As hospitals sprang up in developing towns, the Farm Women of Alberta.
women’s auxiliary attached to the institution often In American Cookbooks and Wine Books 1797–1950,
produced a fund-raising cookbook, just as the Toronto p 32, a catalogue for an exhibition held at the Clem-
ladies had done for the children’s hospital in that ents Library, University of Michigan, in 1984, Janice
city in 1877. Many recipe manuals also came from Longone wrote: ‘In many ways, [charitable] cook-
branches of various philanthropic or patriotic asso- books are an American phenomenon. Although some
ciations that were founded about the turn of the cen- books have appeared in Britain, Canada and other
tury, such as the Women’s Institutes (1897) and the parts of the former British Empire, there are only a
Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire (1900), or, a small number of them, and they do not seem to have gained
little later, organizations of farm women in the Prairie much prominence [italics added]. Nowhere else do
provinces. Cookbooks were also published to boost charitable cookbooks play the major role that they do
tourism, to aid temperance causes and missionary in American cookbook publishing history.’ Longone’s
work, to support the war effort during two World comment is understandable given the lack of infor-
Wars, and even on occasion to benefit a political mation about Canadian cookbooks at the time, but
party – the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation incorrect given the outcome of my research, which
(O1088.1) or the Alberta Social Credit Party (A108.1). shows an astonishing number of community cook-
Some community cookbooks were terrifically suc- books created by Canadian women in the first half of
cessful fund-raisers, such as the second edition of The the twentieth century. Fund-raisers made up a large
Blue Bird Cook Book, whose profits paid for a fur- part of the cookbook landscape in almost every prov-
nished club house for the American Women’s Club in ince, as these percentages (which include the handful
Calgary in the 1920s (see notes for A28.1), or The of nineteenth-century examples) demonstrate: about
Victory Cook Book (NB51.1) by the Women’s Institutes half or more of the total number of culinary titles
of Carleton County, New Brunswick, whose 1942 first published in Newfoundland (50%), Nova Scotia (74%),
edition bought two ambulances for the Canadian mili- New Brunswick (51%), Prince Edward Island (80%),
tary and whose second edition covered the construc- Manitoba (54%), Saskatchewan (83%), Alberta (61%),
tion of a manse and garage for the Anglican church in and British Columbia (44%). The three cookbooks to
Florenceville. But beyond fund-raising, they also surface from the Yukon and the Northwest Territories
served other functions, sometimes as an educational were community cookbooks. In Ontario, 40%
tool for rural women, or as a vehicle to promote the of all culinary titles were the community type, de-
values of the group, such as the ideals of the co- spite the many advertising items produced by the
operative movement or the Zionism of Hadassah. province’s commercial sector and all the cookbooks
xxvi / INTRODUCTION

(Canadian and foreign) emanating from the offices made Five Roses Cook Book (Q79.1) of 1913, by Lake of
of publishers in Toronto, the country’s centre for the Woods Milling Co. Reprintings surpassed 950,000
English-language publishing. In fact, the number of copies. As the publisher’s blurb for the 1915 edition
Ontario community cookbooks discovered – 507 – boasted, there was ‘practically one copy [of the Five
exceeds the total number of cookbooks of all types Roses Cook Book] for every second Canadian Home.’
published in Quebec (or any other province) for the Starting in 1917, Western Canada Flour Mills, which
entire period covered by this bibliography. Quebec is made Purity Flour, published a series of cookbooks
the only province where community cookbooks made (listed at O394.1). The year 1932 saw a head-to-head
up a small proportion (18%), because none appears to marketing battle when both Lake of the Woods Mill-
have been produced by the majority French-speaking ing and Western Canada Flour Mills issued new recipe
and Catholic population and those that were pub- collections – for Five Roses Flour, A Guide to Good
lished by the smaller English-speaking population Cooking (Q203.1), and for Purity, The Purity Cook-Book
(58) were outnumbered by other types. All the per- (O771.1). Robin Hood Mills Ltd, the maker of Robin
centages quoted reflect the findings of my research, Hood Flour, published its first cookbook in about
but the actual number of community cookbooks may 1915 (S16.1, commissioned by the company’s Amer-
be much higher because this type has tended to re- ican owners from Mrs Rorer, a famous American
main in private hands. The numbers are impressive, culinary authority), but Robin Hood Mills made its
but it is also significant that these books arose out of biggest impact in the 1940s, producing ones by the
the grassroots of Canadian society and, therefore, are fictional Rita Martin (a name easy for English and
a powerful and authentic expression of the culture. French Canadians to pronounce, but also used in the
And they show Canadian women engaging, with en- unilingual American market). Editions of cookbooks
thusiasm, in all aspects of book production – as au- for Purity Flour spanned the years 1917 to the mid-
thors, editors, distributors, sometimes even as 1970s. Customers could still order a Five Roses cook-
printers18 – a sophisticated enterprise, which they book in 2008 – ninety-five years after the first edition!
often carried out with style and acumen. Although As each new edition was prepared, the favourite reci-
Longone and other scholars have commented on the pes of the past would be carried forward and other
role of community cookbooks in the United States, recipes added, reflecting changes in fashion or tech-
where the idea began, their importance within Cana- nology, so that in the 1967 edition of The All New
dian cookbook publishing, or, indeed, within the con- Purity Cook Book, for example, the contents included
text of Canadian print culture generally, remains to instructions for baking bread and biscuits with the
be investigated.19 company’s flour, a standard feature of every edition;
The twentieth century saw small, local or regional Carrot Pudding, a version of a recipe from The Home
businesses evolve into national industries, and when Cook Book of 1877; Butter Tarts, a Canadian specialty
these larger entities published cookbooks to promote from the turn of the twentieth century; Jellied Perfec-
food products and kitchen equipment, the publica- tion Salad, popular in the 1920s; a section of ‘Refrig-
tions were usually printed in large numbers for dis- erator Cookies,’ called ice-box cookies in the 1930s,
tribution across the country. Of all the twentieth- when the method was developed for the new cooling
century advertising cookbooks, those produced by appliances; traditional preserving recipes (using
flour companies were the most commonly owned, bottles), but also a section about home freezing as a
the most influential, and the most typically Cana- method of food preservation. The decades-long runs
dian. Canada is famed for its wheat, and it was the of editions of Purity Flour and Five Roses Flour cook-
discovery of the hardy and early-maturing Marquis books, designed to win the customer’s loyalty by
variety in 1903 by Charles E. Saunders and its adhering closely to Canadian traditions and tastes,
commercial use on the Prairies a few years later that illustrate well the evolution of the country’s home
spurred on the opening of the West.20 In the first half cooking through the twentieth century.
of the new century, bread-making was still a vital, Also on offer to housewives were cookbooks ad-
daily chore in most families. Huge milling companies vertising many other kinds of foodstuff, manufac-
fought for market share, and cookbooks – often lav- tured and harvested. A few major brands of baking
ishly illustrated in colour – were an essential part of powder replaced the variety of local brands sold in
their arsenal. Ogilvie’s Book for a Cook (Q55.1) of 1905, the 1880s and 1890s. In Winnipeg, the Blue Ribbon
a recycled American text, was the first widely distrib- Manufacturing Co., which sold its own-name baking
uted flour-company cookbook, but the one that powder, spices, and other dry goods throughout the
reached the most homes was probably the Canadian- West, published The Blue Ribbon Cook Book in 1905
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxvii

(M7.1). In Toronto, in the second decade of the cen- ography convey only a small degree of the invention
tury, E.W. Gillett Co. published Magic Cook Book and and delight found in advertising cookbooks. When
Housekeepers Guide to promote Magic Baking Powder American and British companies promoted their
(O285.1). These were not the only recipe collections brands of food or equipment in Canada, they gener-
for baking powder, but they were the most ubiqui- ally reprinted texts from home, although there were
tous as many editions were issued up to mid-century occasional exceptions. Most of the branch plants for
(and beyond in the case of Blue Ribbon). Other Cana- these foreign concerns were based in Montreal or
dian manufactured products advertised through cook- Toronto and their books are discussed in the provin-
books include corn starch, sugar (from several cial introductions for Quebec and Ontario, on pp 73
different companies), corn syrup (promoted during and 273. Their brands, such as the American Jell-O
the Second World War as a substitute for sugar), and Crisco or the British Oxo and Fry-Cadbury, re-
maple syrup, shortening, margarine (after its legal- main major players in the marketplace.
ization in 1948), milk, cheese, cocoa, flavouring ex- After 1900, cookery became increasingly organized
tracts, vinegar, mustard, canned foods, Tea-Bisk (the as a subject of study for schoolgirls, in tandem with
instant biscuit mix), even marshmallows. Since most the development of home economics in the new
manufacturers were located in Quebec or Ontario, university departments and colleges established for
the majority of advertising cookbooks were compiled the subject. In the East, the Lillian Massey School
and published in those provinces; however, impor- of Household Science and Art at the University of
tant food industries in other parts of the country also Toronto was founded in 1902, the Macdonald Insti-
issued recipe collections, for example, 48 Famous Sar- tute at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph
dine Meals (NB33.1) by Connors Bros Ltd in Black’s opened in 1903, and the School of Household Science
Harbour, New Brunswick, 1925, various titles (listed at Macdonald College at McGill University in
at A31.1) for cooking with Shamrock-brand meat from Montreal accepted its first students in 1907; in the
the famous Calgary meat-packer P. Burns and Co. West, Manitoba Agricultural College in Winnipeg
Ltd, starting in about 1915, or several books for cook- welcomed household science students in 1910. The
ing with British Columbia fruit, such as Yello Fello, the staff of these institutions helped to develop curricula
Apple Elf, about 1920–5 (B46.1). Promotional cook- for schools and wrote cookery textbooks for use in
books for kitchen equipment followed the introduc- their own courses and for school classes, and many
tion of new technologies, usually accompanying the graduates became teachers of cookery in schools (or
purchase of a new appliance. At about the turn of the found a career in the food industry). The pre-eminent
century, gas companies in Ottawa and Vancouver school textbook in English was Canadian Cook Book
published cookbooks to promote the use of the new (O506.1) by Nellie Pattinson, director of domestic sci-
cooking fuel. The 1910s and 1920s were a period of ence at Central Technical School in Toronto. It was
transition for stoves, and the 1915 Moffat Standard republished multiple times from 1923 to 1949, then
Canadian Cook Book (O342.1) introduced women to had a new life after its 1953 revision by Elinor Don-
the variety available, which included ones that ran aldson and Helen Wattie, the last edition appearing
on a single fuel (coal, gas, or electricity), combination in 1991. A close second in popularity and longevity
gas-and-coal or gas-and-electricity, or a combination was The Country Cook or the M.A.C. Cook Book (soon
of all three fuels, but by the 1930s publications from abbreviated to just The M.A.C. Cook Book) (M37.1),
stove manufacturers were for gas or electric cooking first published in 1922 and compiled by Mary Hiltz
only. In the mid-1920s ice-boxes began to give way to and Mary Moxon, both on the staff of the Manitoba
electric refrigerators, although it would be some time Agricultural College. Both Canadian Cook Book and
before every home had this convenience (the hard The M.A.C. Cook Book were distributed nationally21
times of the Depression slowed the technology’s adop- and made the leap from being classroom texts to
tion). The earliest collection of recipes for preparing trusted kitchen bibles in the home; however, there
food using a refrigerator appeared in about 1929–32: were also other English-language textbooks for the
The Miracle of Cold (O656.1), for those lucky enough provinces of Saskatchewan (S28.1) and British Co-
to have a new Kelvinator electric refrigerator, an lumbia (B59.1), and the cities of Saint John, New
American make. Cookbooks also introduced food Brunswick (NB54.1), Toronto (O528.1), and Winnipeg
choppers, cream separators, aluminium saucepans, (M46.1, M98.1), that made a significant impact in their
pressure cookers, and food mixers to the novice pub- jurisdictions. In about 1900–10, the Quebec Depart-
lic. Firms often paid for special artwork to enhance ment of Agriculture published La bonne ménagère
their publications, and the reproductions in this bibli- (Q48.1), lessons for girls in rural schools, but the most
xxviii / INTRODUCTION

influential school textbook in French was Manuel de tion including titles by the federal government in
cuisine raisonnée (Q102.1) (later simply La cuisine Ottawa.
raisonnée), produced in 1919 for the students of the Another notable development in Canadian culi-
École normale classico-ménagère de Saint-Pascal, but nary literature blossomed in the 1930s and 1940s: the
subsequently used in classes and homes throughout individual author as a cooking authority, sometimes
the province of Quebec, and in print up to the 1980s a celebrity, even media star. The advent of radio, the
(plus a 2003 edition). new photographically illustrated women’s magazines,
The earliest provincial governments to publish such as Chatelaine, cookery pages in newspapers, the
recipe collections were Quebec and Ontario (La bonne popularity of cooking demonstrations, the advertis-
ménagère and the Ontario Department of Agriculture’s ing needs of food companies and other businesses,
Uses of Fruits, Vegetables and Honey of 1905, O158.1). and a more developed and mature publishing indus-
From the mid-1910s, the federal and other provincial try – all these factors increased opportunities for
governments also issued cookbooks. These publica- Canadian women to build a reputation, locally or
tions often had two aims: to promote locally pro- nationally. The ingredients common to their success
duced foods and to educate the public. Good examples were, in varying degrees, an entrepreneurial instinct,
of this double purpose are the Use of Honey and of creative flair, energy, and sometimes, but not always,
Maple Sugar in Cooking (Q109.1) published by the training in home economics. Earlier in the century,
Quebec Department of Agriculture in about 1920 and Grace Denison had used her connections as society
Saskatchewan Fish Cookery (S101.1) from that province’s reporter for Saturday Night magazine to collect reci-
Department of Natural Resources and Industrial De- pes from Toronto ladies in the best circles, and pub-
velopment in about 1946. Sometimes, government lished them as The New Cook Book by ‘Lady Gay of
publications were intended more to assist the food Saturday Night’ – her well-known pen name (O130.1).
producer than the public at large, such as Cheese- Of all the authors in this bibliography, the most mas-
Making on the Farm, The Potato, and The Beef Ring, in terful at creating a public profile were Ontario-born
the Manitoba Farmers’ Library, although the book- Kate Aitken and Montrealer Jehane Benoît (whose
lets were available free to any Manitoba citizen (cook- early cookbooks appear here under her maiden name,
ing-related titles in the series are listed at M26.1). Patenaude). Aitken’s nation-wide culinary fame came
Canning, pickling, and other ways of preserving food, largely through radio; she was so successful in the
such as drying and salting, were still an important medium that her work eventually embraced political
part of the seasonal cycle in Canadian kitchens before and cultural affairs and later in life she was appointed
1950, when fresh ingredients were in short supply to the Board of Governors of the Canadian Broadcast-
over the winter. As a British cookbook of 1947 re- ing Corporation. Benoît was a little younger than
marked, ‘In Canada they say, “Use all you can, and Aitken and, although she began publishing and do-
can what you can’t ...”’22 The impetus to conserve the ing radio shows in the war years, her star rose mostly
food supply during the First World War led to the after 1950 through television. Remarkably, this bilin-
publication by the food controller for Canada in 1917 gual French Canadian became as popular in the rest
of Can, Dry and Store for Victory (O376.1), and other of Canada as in her native Quebec. Other cookbook
titles with the same aim. Also in 1917, female employ- authors from the two decades leading up to mid-
ees at the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa be- century who made their names first in radio or print
gan to develop improved canning and pickling journalism include Gertrude Dutton, Mary Moore,
methods (especially from the point of view of safety) Jessie Read, Cynthia Brown (pseudonym of Rose
and the Department of Agriculture published the re- Marie Armstrong Christie), Marie Holmes (pseudo-
sults of their work in cookbooks, beginning in 1919 nym of Marie Wallace), and Helen Gougeon. The
with Margaret Macfarlane’s Preservation of Fruits and United States and Britain had long had their culinary
Vegetables for Home Use (O424.1). Knowing how to experts, whose works were widely available in
preserve food was so essential to the economy, health, Canada. Although the country’s home-grown authors
and safety of the family that publications on the topic had to compete for sales with foreign writers and
were available from the federal Department of Agri- they faced the constraints of a small market, they
culture through the period covered by this bibliogra- shared the advantage that they were attuned to the
phy, and most provincial Departments of Agriculture requirements of Canadian families. In a perceptive
also published them. The variety of federal and pro- 1942 Toronto newspaper review of cookbooks for
vincial government cookbooks is discussed further in Christmas gift-giving, Jean Brodie recommended
the provincial introductions, the Ontario introduc- highly the works of Jessie Read, Marie Holmes, and
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxix

Nellie Pattinson (the Central Technical School teacher) Their relationship with the public, however, was more
for just this reason.23 ‘In Canada,’ she stated, ‘we complex, and was unique for each character.26 Al-
have had far too few cookery books compiled by though the real personalities sometimes authored ad-
Canadians for Canadian households.’ As she ex- vertising cookbooks (Aitken and Benoît), the sole
plained, Canadian cookbooks could not match the purpose of the fictional characters was to promote
high production values of American ones, whose pub- the company’s products. Moreover, whereas Ann
lishers had lower costs because of large print runs in Adam, Anna Lee Scott, Brenda York, and Edith Adams
a larger market. Instead, according to Brodie (who were Canadian creations, the women who wrote
was musing about the plain, blue-cloth binding of cookbooks as Rita Martin and Martha Logan were,
Pattinson’s Canadian Cook Book), they followed the in large part, interpreting material sent from their
British tradition of eliminating some of the attractive companies’ twin test kitchens in the United States,
features to keep the price of the book within the reach making sure that it was adapted for Canadian house-
of most families, but without sacrificing the quality of holds.
the contents. The benefit of cookbooks written for
Canadian households was that the menus appealed
to Canadian appetites, cuts of meat were those found Conclusion
in Canadian butcher shops, recipes for desserts called
for less sugar than Americans liked to use, measure- Culinary Landmarks is a record of the publishing
ments followed the Canadian system (at the time, 20- history of Canadian cookbooks, and the entries that
ounce pints and 40-ounce quarts, not the American 16 make up the whole are based on physical descrip-
and 32 ounces), and the flour specified was Canadian tions of individual volumes. The process of docu-
flour (not the American blended ‘all purpose’).24 menting the books was long and painstaking, yet the
Sharing the limelight with the real personalities stories of the authors, publishers, and readers that
were the fictional characters created by food compa- emerged were a reminder that books, generally, and
nies, such as Anna Lee Scott for Maple Leaf Mills, cookbooks, specifically, are not just objects to be cata-
Brenda York for Canada Packers, Martha Logan for logued, but expressions of the values and aspirations
Swift Canadian Co., and Rita Martin for Robin Hood of the people who produced them. Sometimes, pub-
Flour Mills, or Edith Adams, who was created by the lishing events were momentous, such as when the
Vancouver Sun newspaper. A real woman, usually a anonymous compiler(s) of La cuisinière canadienne and
trained home economist, would be hired to represent its printer, Louis Perrault, produced the first French-
the character on radio, in cookery demonstrations, or Canadian recipe collection in 1840, putting into
in print, with the assistance of others working out of action the ideals of a political movement that aimed
the company’s ‘test kitchen.’ From 1947, Edith Adams to preserve French culture in the British colony.
even had her own ‘cottage’ adjacent to the news- Catharine Parr Traill’s persistence in finding subscrib-
paper’s building, where Vancouver residents would ers and a printer for The Female Emigrant’s Guide,
flock to see Marianne Linnell as ‘Edith’ demonstrate despite her poverty and isolation in the backwoods,
recipes. In one exceptional instance, Kay Caldwell was emblematic of the courage of the early pioneers
Bayley of Toronto formed Ann Adam Homecrafters of Canada West in their quest for a better life. In the
in about 1930, then contracted out services to Canada’s first few years after Confederation, as citizens took on
major food companies, for whom she and her team the task of building a nation, a group of Toronto
of home economists would write cookbooks under ladies displayed an inspiring degree of pluck and
the pseudonym Ann Adam or under the company’s social commitment when they founded the country’s
proprietary pseudonym; and for many decades Bayley first children’s hospital in 1875 and two years later
prepared newspaper columns and ran a radio cook- compiled The Home Cook Book, the first of the fund-
ing school as Ann Adam.25 Although make-believe, raising type, setting in motion a major development
all these characters, through their real-life representa- in Canadian cookbook publishing. Even the hum-
tives, forged a bond with the Canadian public, who blest of the many community cookbooks that fol-
avidly listened to their radio shows, attended their lowed can be read as a small-scale manifestation of a
demonstrations, sent letters to them about cooking larger subject – the importance for Canadian women
problems, and consulted their cookbooks. And like of associational life as a means of contributing to
the real personalities, the professional women stand- their society. And writing cookbooks opened up a
ing in the fictional shoes understood the preferences new path for self-motivated women in the working
of Canadian families and the nature of their kitchens. world, either as employees of a kitchen-related busi-
xxx / INTRODUCTION

ness, of government, or of an educational institution, printed on 24 January 1783 by William Brown for
or as independent food journalists. Aspects of Canada’s Johnston and Purss, but neither Tremaine nor
early economic and industrial development were Fleming and Alston were able to locate a copy.
played out in the pages of cookbooks, especially the 8 All the booksellers’ advertisements, almanac titles,
twentieth-century rivalry of the great flour-milling and the newspaper reference cited here were found
enterprises, and the many copies of flour-company by Williamson in the course of research for her
cookbooks still found in Canadian homes and their entry in The History of the Book in Canada.
owners’ attachment to them are a testament to the 9 In 1834, Richard Hoit published The Canadian
quality of the culinary texts and to Canadians’ baking Farrier, with a section of ‘Valuable Recipes’ (Q2.1).
skills. These are just some of the themes, major and Although it predates The Frugal Housewife’s Manual,
minor, that can be traced through the chronological it is a compendium, rather than a cookbook proper.
sequence of cookbooks described in this bibliogra- 10 Cookery was not the main topic of P. Hirbet’s La
phy. Whether the texts contain a sophisticated dis- chimie of 1859 (Q6.1).
course on gastronomy or offer a basic selection of 11 See O20.1 for the number of variants printed and
recipes, whether they were published long in the past copies sold. In the course of my research, copies
or more recently, whether they are regional or na- of The Home Cook Book have surfaced in all ten
tional productions – each one contributes in some provinces, further evidence of its wide distribution.
way to our understanding of Canadian history. 12 See the New Brunswick introduction, pp 38–9, con-
cerning The Home Cook Book’s connection with Saint
John.
NOTES 13 This phenomenon is discussed in the Quebec
introduction, p 76. In a few rare instances, French-
1 For information about this text, usually called language recipes were incorporated in mainly
Apicius after its supposed author, including a sum- English texts; for example, Mother’s Own Cook Book
mary of published editions, see Alan Davidson’s (NB37.1) and ‘The Black Whale’ Cook Book (Q314.1).
entry for Apicius, in his The Oxford Companion to 14 Baking powder, a combination of bicarbonate of
Food, p 23. See also Sally Grainger and Christopher soda and tartaric acid, was developed in the 1850s
Grocock, eds, Apicius: A Critical Edition with an and available for sale in Upper Canada in that
Introduction and English Translation, Totnes, Devon: decade (Catharine Parr Traill refers to Durkee’s
Prospect Books, 2006. brand in O5.1, The Female Emigrant’s Guide of 1854).
2 For almanacs published in Canada, see the records For more information about this raising agent and
of Anne Dondertman, Patricia Fleming, and Judy its earlier forms, see Davidson, pp 50–1.
Donnelly for A Bibliography of Canadian Almanacs, 15 No. 167.1 in Driver.
1765–1900 [in progress]. 16 ‘Public school’ in Canada means a school sup-
3 For the history of the Women’s Institutes in Ontario, ported by taxes, not a private school as in Great
see Ambrose; for Manitoba, see The Great Human Britain.
Heart: A History of the Manitoba Women’s Institute, 17 The claim is made in NS9.2.
1910–1980, [Winnipeg:] Manitoba Women’s Insti- 18 Women’s groups usually turned to local job print-
tute, 1980; for Alberta, see Cole/Larmour. ers, but sometimes they reproduced the text them-
4 SWI, p 56. selves by various multigraphing methods, such as
5 There was no reason to expect cookbooks in Miss hectograph in the 1940s. In a few cases, they made
McKnight’s papers (she was not a home economist, carbon copies of typed text; for example, M93.1.
for example), but the archivist remembered seeing 19 A 1997 collection of essays by academics from
some, and suggested I search the boxes. various disciplines explored different ways of
6 Correspondence received in the course of my understanding community cookbooks: Recipes for
research will be deposited at the University of Reading: Community Cookbooks, Stories, Histories,
Guelph, along with other documentation related to edited by Anne L. Bower, Amherst: University of
the project. Massachusetts Press. The writers discuss mainly
7 Patricia Lockhart Fleming and Sandra Alston, Early American cookbooks, but ‘Voices, Stories, and
Canadian Printing: A Supplement to Marie Tremaine’s Recipes in Selected Canadian Community Cook-
A Bibliography of Canadian Imprints, 1751–1800, books’ by Elizabeth J. McDougall examines a few
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999, No. 400. Canadian cookbooks from the second half of the
Tremaine identified the broadsheet as having been twentieth century in the context of current literary
 I N T R O D U C T I O N / xxxi

theory. The essay collection contains generaliza- the British Columbia Department of Education
tions about the genre that may be true for commu- Foods, Nutrition and Home Management Manual used
nity cookbooks from any country, but it does not in Alberta and Ontario schools (B59.5, B59.6, B59.14).
illuminate the role of Canadian community cook- 22 Mollie Stanley Wrench, A Winter’s Tale, London:
books within the context of the history of Canadian Porosan Publishing Ltd, April 1947, p 1.
cookbook publishing. For more comment on the 23 Jean Brodie, ‘These Cook Books Can Help You,’
genre in Canada, see Driver 2006. Star Weekly (Toronto) 5 December 1942, Magazine
20 Marquis wheat was sent to the Prairies for testing Section No. 2, p 2.
in 1907 and it was the established crop on farms by 24 The characteristics of a Canadian kitchen men-
1911. tioned by Brodie typify her time, in the 1940s.
21 Other textbooks were also used outside their 25 For further information about Ann Adam
province, as inscriptions by students in the copies Homecrafters, see O877.1.
often reveal; see, for example, the 1913 edition of 26 Nathalie Cooke examines the power and function
Lillian Massey School recipes used at Mount Allison of what she calls these ‘fictional folk’ in ‘Getting
Ladies’ College in Sackville, New Brunswick the Mix Just Right for the Canadian Home Baker,’
(O241.2), and the 1936, 1938, and 1949 editions of Essays on Canadian Writing No. 78 (Winter 2003).
This page intentionally left blank
Chronology of Canadian Cookbook History

1754 Auctioneer William Craft advertises a 1881 Cook’s Friend Cook Book, promoting Cook’s
book of ‘Cookery’ for sale in the Halifax Friend Baking Powder and the first dated
Gazette, 17 August, the earliest reference culinary manual advertising an ingredient
to cookbooks for sale in the British (O29.1; Q17.1, The Princess Baker, may be one
colonies. year or so earlier, but its date is uncertain).
1825 La cuisinière bourgeoise by Menon, Quebec 1888 Church of England Institute Receipt Book by
City, first French-language cookbook Mary Jane Lawson and Alice Jones, Halifax,
published in the area of present-day first locally authored cookbook in Nova
Canada, an edition of a work from France Scotia (NS1.1); Clever Cooking for Careful Cooks
(Q1.1). by a few ladies of the Church of St John the
1831 The Cook Not Mad, Kingston, first English- Evangelist, Montreal, the earliest dated
language cookbook in the area of present-day community cookbook in Quebec (Q21.1);
Canada, an edition of a work from the United Dr Chase’s drittem, letzen und vollständigem
States (O1.1). Recept-Buch und Haus-Arzt, Detroit, Michigan,
1840 La cuisinière canadienne, Montreal, first locally and Windsor, Ontario, first cookbook pub-
authored cookbook in French (Q3.1); The Fru- lished in Canada in a language other than
gal Housewife’s Manual by ‘A.B., of Grimsby,’ English or French, a German-language
Toronto, first locally authored cookbook in edition of a work by an American doctor
English (O2.1). (O40.3).
1860 The Canadian Settler’s Guide by Catharine 1889 Retitled American editions of Mrs Clarke’s
Parr Traill published in London, England Cookery Book of 1883, the first Canadian
(a retitled edition of The Female Emigrant’s cookbook published in the United States
Guide of 1854), the first Canadian cookbook (O35.1; American editions of Richard Moore’s
to appear in a British edition, but most of the compendia, NB1.1 and O23.1, appeared
culinary information is removed by the earlier, but culinary recipes were a fraction of
publisher (O5.1). the text); Australian edition of The Home Cook
1865 Household Recipes by Constance Hart, Mont- Book of 1877, the first Canadian cookbook
real, first by a Jewish author (Q7.1). published in the southern hemisphere (New
1877 The Home Cook Book by ladies of Toronto and Zealand editions followed in 1891 and 1892);
other cities and towns, for the benefit of the Domestic Economy and Plain Sewing and Knit-
Hospital for Sick Children, Canada’s first ting by M. Alice Clark, the first English-
community cookbook (O20.1); see also 1889 language textbook compiled in Canada for
and 1906. teachers of domestic economy, a subject that
1878 Cuisine by ladies of Saint John, first locally included cookery (NB7.1).
authored cookbook in New Brunswick 1896 The Souvenir Cook Book by Ladies’ Aid Society
(NB2.1), although a compendium with of Grace Church, Winnipeg, first locally
recipes had appeared earlier, in 1871 (NB1.1, authored cookbook in Manitoba (M2.1).
Richard Moore’s Secret Knowledge Disclosed); 1897 Jubilee Cook Book by Ladies’ Aid Society of the
Directions diverses données par la révérende First Methodist Church, Charlottetown, first
mère Caron, first cookbook by a member of a locally authored cookbook in Prince Edward
religious order for use in Quebec’s Catholic Island (P1.1).
institutions (Q15.1). 1898 Good Flour and How to Use It, Peterborough:
xxxiv / CHRONOLOGY OF CANADIAN COOKBOOK HISTORY

McAllister Milling Co., the first flour-com- 1917 Ukrains’ko-angliiskyi kukharare by Michael
pany cookbook (O85.1). M. Belegai, Edmonton, earliest known
1901 The Souris Branch Cook Book by Ladies’ Aid edition of first cookbook in Ukrainian
Society, Carnduff, first locally authored language published in Canada (A34.1).
cookbook in the area of present-day 1919 Manuel de cuisine raisonnée, École normale
Saskatchewan (S1.1). classico-ménagère, Congrégation de Notre-
1904 The King’s Daughters Cookery Book by Mrs Dame, Quebec: Saint-Pascal, the most
Margaret McMicking, first locally authored widely used French-language classroom
cookbook in British Columbia (B5.1). textbook, then home-kitchen bible, last
1905 The L.C.A.S. Cook Book by Ladies’ College edition 2003 (Q102.1).
Aid Society of the Methodist Church, St 1923 Canadian Cook Book by Nellie Lyle Pattinson,
John’s, first locally authored cookbook in Toronto, the most widely used English-
Newfoundland (NF1.1); Ogilvie’s Book for language classroom textbook, then home-
a Cook, Montreal: Ogilvie Flour Mills Co., kitchen bible, last edition 1991 (O506.1); see
the first widely distributed flour-company also 1953.
cookbook (Q55.1), but based on an American 1941–2 D M S by Daughters of the Midnight Sun,
source. Yellowknife, first cookbook in the North-
1906 The first Canadian recipe collections pub- west Territories (NWT1.1).
lished in Britain: The Home Cook Book of 1877, 1942 Choice Recipes by Yukon Chapter No. 1,
likely in 1906, and The New Cook Book by Order of the Eastern Star, Dawson, first
Grace Denison of 1903 (O130.1), certainly in cookbook in the Yukon (Y1.1).
1906. 1953 Nellie Lyle Pattinson’s Canadian Cook Book,
1907 Clever Cooking by Woman’s Guild of Holy a revision by Helen Wattie and Elinor
Trinity Church, Strathcona (A5.1), Cook Book, Donaldson, incorporating for the first time
by Ladies’ Branch ‘E’ Aid of Knox Church, in a Canadian cookbook a special section of
Calgary (A6.1), and High River Cook Book by ‘Regional Dishes’ prefaced by comments on
Ladies’ Aid of Chalmer’s Church (A7.1), first culinary history; National Library of
locally authored cookbooks in Alberta (A4.1, Canada founded in Ottawa, Canadian
A Book of Cookery by Union Ladies’ Aid, cookbooks begin to be collected systemati-
Lamont, may be earlier, but its year of publi- cally by a public institution for the first
cation is uncertain; A8.1, Rising Sun Cook time.
Book, 1907, may or may not have been com- 1979 Books for Cooks opens in September at
piled locally). 850 Yonge Street, Toronto, the first store in
1913 Five Roses Cook Book, Montreal: Lake of the Canada to specialize in cookbooks; April
Woods Milling Co. Ltd, first widely distrib- 1983, renamed the Cookbook Store and
uted flour-company cookbook written in continuing under new ownership, in the
Canada (Q79.1). same location.
1914 Fish and How to Cook It, Department of the 1998 Inauguration of annual Culinary Book
Naval Service, Ottawa, first cookbook pub- Awards, the first Canadian cookbook
lished by the federal government (O319.1). prizes, conceived by Jo Marie Powers and
1915 The Economical Cook Book by Ottawa Ladies sponsored by Cuisine Canada, a national
Hebrew Benevolent Society, first collection association of food professionals; since
of Jewish recipes published in Canada 2003, co-sponsored with University of
(O337.1). Guelph.
Explanation of Bibliography Entries

Arrangement of the Entries in the 1930–5; 1931; 1932; about 1932–3. Where more than
Bibliography one book was published in a year or particular span
of years, the entries are arranged by their headings,
The entries are arranged by the province or territory following letter-by-letter alphabetical order. The head-
in which the book was published. In most cases, a ing ‘[Title unknown]’ comes before the start of the
single place of publication is clearly indicated in the alphabetical run. Entries for books with confirmed
book; however, if more than one location is given in and approximate dates of publication, i.e., 1930 and
the imprint, the first-cited city or the city printed in about 1930, are considered the same for the purposes
the largest font, or other clues in the book, have guided of ordering. Occasionally, two or more books with the
the placement of the entry. Where no place of publica- same title were published in the same year. In these
tion is recorded, but the location of the head office of cases, the entries are arranged alphabetically by the
the association or company that originated the book is compiling organization: Selected Recipes, 1934, by the
known from outside sources, the entry is placed in the Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire, Princess of
appropriate provincial section, and the reasons given Wales Chapter (O833.1), precedes Selected Recipes, 1934,
in the ‘Notes’ part of the entry. In a few cases, no by Livingston United Church (O834.1).
province of publication could be determined; these Since entries are arranged chronologically by date
entries are in the section ‘No Province of Publication.’ of publication, entries for two or more titles by the
Occasionally, a book originally published in one same person or organization will be in different places
province was subsequently published in another prov- if they were published in different years. In such
ince, or editions of a book were published simulta- cases, all the titles are listed at the earliest entry and
neously by different publishers in different provinces; there are cross-references from the later entries to the
examples are the first edition of The Home Cook Book earliest one. Also, all titles by an author or organiza-
by a Toronto publisher in 1877, followed the next year tion are listed in the Name Index.
by editions in Saint John, New Brunswick (O20.5,
O20.6), and the multiple editions of Good Bread pub-
lished in about the same year by druggists in Quebec, Elements of a Typical Entry
Ontario, and Nova Scotia (see O321.1). In such cases,
The information in a typical entry takes the following
entries for all the editions are kept together and lo-
form:
cated in the province of the first edition or, if the first
edition is unknown, wherever most appropriate. Heading
Cross-references guide the reader from one provin- Author biography and/or corporate, institutional, or
cial section to the specific entry in another provincial associational history
section where the run of editions is located. Multiple Entry number
provinces of publication are also reflected in the Place- Edition number and date
of-Publication Index. Title-page transcription
In each provincial section, the entries are arranged Description
chronologically by the date of publication of the first Contents
edition. For undated books where the designated ap- Citations
proximate date of publication is a span of time, the Copies
first year in the period determines the placement. Notes
The following is an example of the ordering system Other editions
for dates of publication: 1930; about 1930–3; about Foreign editions
xxxvi / EXPLANATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES

Heading nization produced other works not within the bound-

aries of this bibliography, perhaps because they were
The heading is the name of the person who wrote the too short, published outside of Canada, or not deemed
book or who is designated as the editor or as the cookbooks. These works are listed here if they illumi-
person who compiled or selected the recipes. The nate the trajectory of an author’s culinary career or
author’s place and date of birth and death, if known, an organization’s history.
follow the name (if this information comes from a
source other than Library and Archives Canada, the Entry Number
Library of Congress, or the British Library, then the
source is usually recorded in the biographical part of Each entry has been given a unique identifier, made
the entry immediately below). If the author goes by a up of a letter or letters denoting the provincial (or
pseudonym, then the pseudonym is the heading: York, other) section and a number in two parts, for ex-
Brenda [pseudonym]. If the real name behind the ample: Q3.1, Q3.2, Q3.3. The letters for the sections
pseudonym is known, it follows the pseudonym: are: NF (Newfoundland and Labrador); NS (Nova
Brown, Cynthia [pseudonym of] Mrs Rose Marie Scotia); NB (New Brunswick); P (Prince Edward
Claire Armstrong Christie (Ottawa, Ont., 18 February Island); Q (Quebec); O (Ontario); M (Manitoba);
1894–1939, Toronto, Ont.). In the case of two or more S (Saskatchewan); A (Alberta); B (British Columbia);
named authors, the heading lists the names in the Y (Yukon); NWT (Northwest Territories); NP (no prov-
order given on the title-page. ince of publication); GB (Great Britain); and US (United
If there is no named person as the author and the States). No cookbooks are known to have been pub-
book emanated from a government (federal, provin- lished in the area of what is now called Nunavut
cial, or municipal), then the government department before 1950. The first part of the number refers to the
or other unit is the heading: Ontario, Department of work and these numbers run consecutively to the
Agriculture. If there is no named person and the end of each section. The second number distinguishes
book is not a government publication, then the short- each edition or variant of a work (it does not neces-
title is the heading. The names of corporations, insti- sarily correspond to any edition number recorded in
tutions, and associations are not used as headings, the book). In the case of a few late additions to the
but they are listed in the Name Index, along with all bibliography, the letter ‘a’ makes a new identifier; for
other names. example, O169a.1, which follows O169.1.
If the only extant copy of a book lacks its binding Since the publication in 1989 of A Bibliography of
and title-page, and there are no other clues about Cookery Books Published in Britain 1875–1914, scholars,
author or title, the heading appears as [Title un- booksellers, and others have referred to entries in
known]. that work as, for instance, Driver 300.1. References to
entries in Culinary Landmarks will be distinguished
Author Biography and/or Corporate, by the initial letter(s) signifying the geographical
Institutional, or Associational History section in which the entry is found.

In the course of my research, especially when at- Edition Number and Date
tempting to establish the date of publication of an
undated book, information often surfaced about the Information about edition number and date is
life of the author or about an organization’s history. extracted from the entry for quick reference and
Relevant or interesting aspects of this information are presented to the right of the entry number. If the
recorded after the heading. If there are entries for information comes from a place other than the title-
more than one book by the author or organization at page, the particulars appear in square brackets. For
different places in the bibliography, then the biogra- undated books, an approximate date of publication is
phy or history is at the earliest entry and there are offered in square brackets, and, where possible, the
cross-references from the later entries to this informa- suggested date is limited to a five-year span: nd [about
tion in the earliest one. For example: For information 1905–10] or nd [about 1930–5]; however, for books
about Kate Aitken and her other cookbooks, see judged to be from the period just before the First or
Q214.1. Second World War, the suggested date is usually about
Also included in this element of the entry are cross- 1910–14 or about 1935–9. Often, internal or external
references to all entries for later books by the same evidence limits the approximate date of publication
person or organization. Sometimes a person or orga- to a particular span of years; for example, about
 EXPLANATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES / xxxvii

1930–2. The evidence for an approximate date (per- Household Books Published in Britain 1800–1914, edited
haps a dated testimonial or a company’s address) is by Dr Lynette Hunter, of which my A Bibliography of
stated in the ‘Notes.’ If no evidence is offered, then Cookery Books Published in Britain 1875–1914 was a
the approximate date is based on aspects of the ap- part. The first page of a volume is considered to be
pearance of the book (such as typographic style) or the recto side of the first leaf with any print on either
on the contents (cooking fashions, technologies, or side. The last page of the volume is considered to be
ingredients). the last printed page. The pagination is recorded as it
stands, including any irregularities. The listing of the
Title-Page Transcription pagination follows the printer’s enumeration, with
commas inserted between runs of arabic and roman
A transcription of the entire title-page (title, imprint, numbers or whenever needed for clarity. Pages with-
any quotations or other text) is given for every edi- out numbers are noted in square brackets, follow-
tion of every book that has been seen. If it was not ing the pattern set by the publisher: [i–iii] iv–viii,
possible to examine a book, every effort was made to 1–44 [45–8] for front matter and text, respectively.
obtain a photocopy of the title-page from which to Unpaginated but printed pages, preceding a group of
transcribe the title. If the book has no title-page, the pages enumerated in small roman numerals at the
cover-title is transcribed, followed by ‘cover-title’ in start of the work, are collated in arabic numerals
square brackets. within square brackets: [1–2], i–viii, ... Unpaginated
The transcription reproduces the original spelling, but printed pages, preceding a group of pages enu-
including accents or the lack thereof, and punctua- merated in arabic numerals, are collated in small ro-
tion, but does not preserve the publisher’s differen- man numerals within square brackets: [i–ii], 1–48.
tiation between upper and lower case or the type Similarly, unpaginated concluding pages not part of
style, such as italic or bold. Instead, the title-page the text, such as advertisements, are collated in small
transcription is in all lower case except for the initial roman numerals if preceded by a group in arabic, and
letter of the first word, proper and place names, and in arabic if preceded by a group in roman. If the
the titles of books within the title, which have their entire text is unpaginated, the number of pages is
main words capitalized. A single slash (/) indicates a noted in arabic numerals in square brackets: [1–48];
line ending; a double slash (//) is inserted where the or the number of leaves may be noted.
absence of punctuation may confuse the meaning. Information about illustration occurs in the order:
The title-page transcription of a lone edition or the frontispiece; title-page illustration; plates; full-page
first edition in a run of editions is flush left on the illustrations; illustrations. If no indication is given of
page. A dash precedes all subsequent editions. the colour, then the image is printed in black only.
In the case of unseen books, information about ‘Col,’ or a specific description of the colour, means
edition number, title, imprint, dimensions, and num- the image is printed in colour, not hand-coloured.
ber of pages is presented in square brackets, in place A plate is defined as a full-page illustration, printed
of the title-page transcription: [An edition of The separately from the text, often on different paper.
Canadian Cook Book: Cookery and Domestic Economy, Where plates are unnumbered, they are described as:
compiled by Lucy Bowerman, a graduate of the 6 pls; where they are numbered: 6 numbered pls.
Toronto General Hospital, Toronto: Printed by Na- Numbered and unnumbered plates in one volume
tional Press Ltd for Toronto Graduate Nurses Club, are described separately: 9 numbered pls, 6 pls. Where
copyright 1908]. The source of the information is noted the frontispiece and plates are unnumbered, they are
in ‘Citations,’ ‘Copies,’ or ‘Notes.’ described together: 6 pls incl frontis [i.e., a frontis-
piece and 5 plates]; where both frontispiece and plates
Description are numbered in the same sequence: 6 numbered pls
incl frontis. The term ‘double-sided plate’ means that
The ‘Description’ encompasses the following aspects: images are printed on both sides of a leaf and the leaf
dimensions of the leaves; pagination; illustrations; counts as one: 3 double-sided pls [i.e., images on
price; and binding. both sides of three leaves].
The first measurement is the height of the leaves; An illustration is printed on the same paper as the
the second is the width. Both measurements are text, often with text surrounding it or on the other
rounded to the nearest half-centimetre. side of the page. The presence of illustrations is noted
The system for describing pagination generally fol- as ‘illus’; full-page illustrations are counted: 3 fp illus.
lows the rules developed for the series Cookery and If the price is recorded as part of the title-page
xxxviii / EXPLANATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES

transcription, it is not repeated in the description; listed on p li. The abbreviated citations are arranged
however, if the price is known from the binding, an in alphabetical order.
advertisement, or another source, the price and source
are noted in square brackets: [$1.00, on binding]. Copies
The material of the binding is noted, typically pa-
per, paper-covered boards, cloth (sometimes speci- Locations of copies in institutions are recorded by the
fied as oil cloth, a washable fabric), and limp cloth abbreviation for the institution listed under ‘Librar-
(sometimes limp oil cloth). In the rare case of leather, ies and Collections,’ pp xli–li. Other specified loca-
full leather denotes a volume covered with leather on tions include booksellers’ stock, company collections
all exterior surfaces – front, back, and spine; half (when a copy is in the ownership of the company that
leather, leather on the spine and corners only (cloth is published the book), and private collections, plus mi-
usually the material on the remaining exterior sur- crofiches made by the Canadian Institute for Histori-
faces); and quarter leather, leather on the spine only. cal Microreproductions (CIHM). An asterisk before a
If the original binding has been replaced with a new location denotes the copy examined for the biblio-
binding, the volume is described as ‘Rebound.’ Any graphic information or the copy that was photo-
images on the front face of the binding are noted after copied to obtain the title-page transcription or other
the material: Cloth, with image on front of a loaf of information.
bread. Volumes bound in cloth are assumed to be Locations are arranged by country. Canadian loca-
sewn; other forms of fastening are recorded: Paper; tions always appear first, followed by those in Great
stapled [or] Paper; bound by a ribbon through two Britain and the United States. British and American
punched holes. The fastening is at the left edge of the locations are introduced by the headings ‘Great Brit-
closed book, unless otherwise noted: Paper; stapled ain’ and ‘United States,’ but no heading precedes
at top edge. Often, a book was designed to be hung Canadian locations. (The same system is used, when
from a nail or hook on the kitchen wall (see, for necessary, for listing locations in ‘Notes,’ ‘Other edi-
example, the printer’s order for Dwight’s Cow-Brand tions,’ or ‘Foreign editions.’) Abbreviations for insti-
Cook-Book, quoted at O82.1), in which case the bind- tutional locations and CIHM microfiches are listed
ing description may include the phrase: with hole together alphabetically, followed by Bookseller’s
punched at top left corner for hanging [or] with hole stock, Company collection, and Private collection.
punched at top left corner, through which runs a Wherever possible, the call number, acquisition num-
string for hanging. ber, or fonds information is given in parentheses after
the institutional abbreviation. Some Library and Ar-
Contents chives Canada call numbers end with ‘p***’ to indi-
cate Preservation Collection.
The contents of the volume are described from begin-
ning to end, following the page numbering system Notes
set out in the ‘Description.’ The elements of the front
matter (half-title, title-page, copyright information, This element of the entry presents additional infor-
any preface, etc.) and end matter (glossary, index, mation about the book not recorded elsewhere. The
etc.) are specified, but judgment has been exercised in ‘Notes’ may, for example, contain the reasons for
describing the contents of the body of the text: A run the ordering of a run of editions or the evidence for
of chapters may be specified simply as ‘text’ or as the suggested date of an undated book.
‘recipes credited with the name of the contributor’ (in
the case of many fund-raisers), or the description of Other Editions
the contents may reflect an idiosyncratic arrangement
of the material. The presence of advertisements is Editions that were published in 1950 or later are listed
noted. Where part of the contents is unknown, here, except for modern facsimile editions, which gen-
for any reason, the unknown part is indicated by erally have full entries.
ellipses; for example: 1 tp; ...; 48 index.
Foreign Editions
Citations
Many cookbooks described in this bibliography are
Citations of the cookbook in printed sources are re- Canadian editions of British, American, or French
corded here, using the abbreviations for ‘References’ texts, or occasionally of texts from other countries.
 EXPLANATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES / xxxix

Foreign editions are listed by country, after the coun- readers may find more information in the British bib-
try heading: British editions: Foulsham’s Universal Cook- liography.
ery Book, London: W. Foulsham and Co., [about 1930] Very occasionally, Canadian cookbooks were is-
(Great Britain: LB). ‘Driver,’ the abbreviation for A sued in foreign editions, in which case the foreign
Bibliography of Cookery Books Published in Britain 1875– editions are listed in the usual way, and a statement
1914, is sometimes cited as the source of information in the ‘Notes’ points out the Canadian origin of the
for British and American editions. In these cases, text.
This page intentionally left blank
Abbreviations and Symbols

/ used in a transcription or quotation uncat uncatalogued

to indicate a line break WI Women’s Institute
// used in a transcription or quotation YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association
where the absence of punctuation YWCA Young Women’s Christian Associa-
may confuse the meaning for the tion
reader
* used before a library or other loca- Libraries and Collections
tion symbol to denote the copy
examined for the bibliographic
Canada
information
Acc. Accession [number]
btwn between Abbreviations for libraries and collections in Canada
b/w black and white are the standard library symbols assigned by Library
CIHM Canadian Institute for Historical and Archives Canada and published at its web site
Microreproductions [followed by under Interlibrary Loans. In the case of institutions
microfiche number] for which no symbol has been assigned (usually small
col colour museums and historical societies), abbreviations have
ECO Early Canadiana Online been devised following the same principles; these
(books available on-line at: new abbreviations are distinguished by a plus sign
www.canadiana.org) (+) at the end of the abbreviation.
ed., eds edition(s), editor(s)
fp illus full-page illustration Alberta:
frontis frontispiece AALIWWM+ Alix Wagon Wheel Museum
ht half-title AALM+ Alliance and District Museum
illus illustration(s) or illustrated ABA Whyte Museum of the Canadian
incl including, included Rockies, Archives Library, Banff
IODE Imperial Order Daughters of the ABARRCM+ Barrhead Centennial Museum
Empire ABOM Bowden Pioneer Museum
IOOF International Order of Odd Fellows AC Calgary Public Library
LOBA Ladies’ Orange Benevolent Associa- ACFCHP+ Fort Calgary Historic Park
tion ACG Glenbow Museum, Library, Calgary
micro microfilm or microfiche ACHP+ Heritage Park Historical Village,
OES Order of the Eastern Star Calgary
nd no date ACIA Parks Canada, Western Canada
pl black-and-white plate; ‘double-sided Service Centre, Library, Calgary
pl’ refers to a plate with an image ACU University of Calgary, MacKimmie
printed on both sides Library
pl col colour plate ACUM University of Calgary, Health
publ publisher Sciences Library
rev. revised ADEAHM+ Anthony Henday Museum,
tp title-page Delburne
xlii / ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

ADTMP Royal Tyrrell Museum of BDEM Delta Museum and Archives

Palaeontology, Drumheller BDUCVM Cowichan Valley Museum, Duncan
AE Edmonton Public Library BFSJNPM+ North Peace Museum, Fort St John
AEAG Alberta Agriculture and Public BKM Kamloops Museum and Archives
Works, Neil Crawford Library, BKOM Kelowna Centennial Museum and
Edmonton National Exhibition Centre
AEARN Alberta Association of Registered BLCK Kaatza Historical Museum, Lake
Nurses Museum and Archives, Cowichan
Edmonton BNEM Nelson Museum
AEE Alberta Government Library, Devo- BNW New Westminster Public Library
nian Building Site, Edmonton BPAM Alberni Valley Museum, Port
AEEA City of Edmonton, Archives Alberni
AEPAA Provincial Archives of Alberta, BPGRM Fraser–Fort George Regional
Edmonton Museum, Prince George
AEPMA+ Provincial Museum of Alberta, BPM Penticton Museum and Archives
Edmonton BPORH Powell River Historical Museum
AEPRAC+ Edmonton Parks and Recreation Association
Department, Artifact Centre BPSIC+ SS Sicamous, historic ship moored in
AEU University of Alberta, Edmonton the harbour at Penticton, adminis-
AEUCHV+ Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village, tered by SS Sicamous Restoration
east of Edmonton Society
AFFC Fairview College, Fairview BRMA Richmond Cultural Centre, Rich-
AHCESM+ End of Steel Heritage Museum and mond Museum
Park, Hines Creek BSORM Sooke Region Museum
AHRMH+ Museum of the Highwood, High BSUM Summerland Museum
River BTCA Trail City Archives
ALAGM+ Sir Alexander Galt Museum, BVA Vancouver Public Library
Lethbridge BVAA Vancouver City Archives
ALU University of Lethbridge BVABSM BC Sugar Museum, Vancouver
AMHM Medicine Hat Museum and Art BVAMM Vancouver Museum
Gallery BVAU University of British Columbia,
AOYCM Crossroads Museum, Oyen Vancouver
APRCM+ Peace River Centennial Museum BVAUW University of British Columbia,
and Archives Woodward Biomedical Library,
APROM Fort Ostell Museum, Ponoka Vancouver
ARDA Red Deer and District Museum and BVI Greater Victoria Public Library
Archives BVICC+ Craigdarroch Castle, Victoria
ASPMHC+ Multicultural Heritage Centre, Stony BVIHH+ Helmcken House, Interpretation
Plain Collection, Victoria
AWWDM+ Wetaskiwin and District Museum BVIP British Columbia Legislative Library,
Victoria
British Columbia: BVIPA British Columbia Archives, Victoria
BBH BC Hydro, Corporate Research and BVIPEH+ Point Ellice House Museum, Victoria
Information Services, Burnaby BVIPM Royal British Columbia Museum,
BBJCNM+ Japanese Canadian National Library, Victoria
Museum, Burnaby BVIV University of Victoria
BBVM Burnaby Village Museum BVMA Greater Vernon Museum and
BCHM Chilliwack Museum and Historical Archives
Society BWV West Vancouver Memorial Library
BCOM Courtenay and District Museum and
Archives Manitoba:
BCVM Creston and District Historical and MAUAM+ Manitoba Agricultural Museum,
Museum Society Austin
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS / xliii

MBDHM+ Daly House Museum, Brandon NBMOM Moncton Museum

MCDHM+ Dufferin Historical Museum, NBMOU Université de Moncton
Carman NBMOUA Université de Moncton, Centre
MCM+ Carberry Plains Museum d’études acadiennes
MG+ Ukrainian Museum and Village NBS Saint John Library Region
Society Inc., Gardenton NBSAM Mount Allison University, Sackville
MNBPM+ Beautiful Plains Museum, Neepawa NBSCU Université de Moncton, Shippigan
MRIP Prairie Crocus Regional Library, NBSJHM+ Saint John Jewish Historical
Rivers Museum
MSM+ Le musée de Saint-Boniface NBSM New Brunswick Museum, Saint
MSOHM+ Hillcrest Museum, Souris John
MSPCL Lower Fort Garry National Historic NBSU University of New Brunswick, Ward
Park, Selkirk Chipman Library, Saint John
MTM+ Teulon and District Museum NBSUH Kings County Historical Society
MTP The Pas Public Library Museum, Hampton
MVPHM+ Pioneer Home Museum, Virden
MW Winnipeg Public Library Newfoundland and Labrador:
MWASM+ Sipiweske Museum, Wawanesa NFSA Provincial Archives of Newfound-
MWE Manitoba Education, Citizenship land and Labrador, St John’s
and Youth, Instructional Resources NFSCF Memorial University, Fisheries and
Unit, Winnipeg Marine Institute, Dr C.R. Barrett
MWHWC+ Hadassah-Wizo Council of Library
Winnipeg NFSG Provincial Information and Library
MWIAP Parks Canada, Western Canada Resource Board, St John’s
Service Centre, Winnipeg NFSM Memorial University of Newfound-
MWM University of Manitoba, Neil John land, St John’s
Maclean Health Sciences Library,
Winnipeg Northwest Territories:
MWMM Manitoba Museum of Man and NWY Yellowknife Public Library
Nature, Winnipeg NWYWNH Prince of Wales Northern Heritage
MWP Manitoba Legislative Library, Centre, Northwest Territorial
Winnipeg Archives, Yellowknife
MWPA Provincial Archives of Manitoba,
Winnipeg Nova Scotia:
MWU University of Manitoba, Winnipeg NSAS St Francis Xavier University,
Antigonish
New Brunswick: NSBCSH Cape Sable Historical Society,
NBCOM+ Pioneer Historical Connors Barrington
Museum, Connors, Madawaska NSDB Fisheries and Oceans Canada,
NBDKH Keillor House Museum, Dorchester Bedford Institute of Oceanography,
NBFBA+ Brunswick Street United Baptist Library, Dartmouth
Church Archives, Fredericton NSH Halifax Regional Library
NBFKL Kings Landing Historical Settlement, NSHCN Halifax Citadel National Historic
Fredericton Site
NBFL Legislative Library of New NSHD Dalhousie University, Halifax
Brunswick, Fredericton NSHMS Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax
NBFU University of New Brunswick, NSHP Nova Scotia Archives and Records
Fredericton Management Library, Halifax
NBFUA University of New Brunswick, NSHPL Nova Scotia Provincial Library,
Fredericton, Archives and Special Halifax
Collections NSHV Mount Saint Vincent University,
NBFY York-Sunbury Historical Society and Halifax
Museum, Fredericton
xliv / ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

NSKKR Nova Scotia Community College, OGAL Cambridge Public Library

Kingstec Campus, Kentville OGM+ Guelph Civic Museum
NSKR Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, OGOWSM+ Whitchurch-Stouffville Museum,
Atlantic Food and Horticultural Gormley
Research Centre, Library, Kentville OGU University of Guelph (Una
NSLFP Fort Point Museum, LaHave Abrahamson Canadian Cookery
NSLQCM Queens County Museum, Liverpool Collection signified by ‘UA’ before
NSME Eastern Counties Regional Library, call number; Canadian Cookbook
Mulgrave Collection, by ‘CCC’; Edna Staebler
NSNRM+ Ross Farm Museum, New Ross Collection, by ‘EA’)
NSPHM Port Hastings Museum and OH Hamilton Public Library
Archives OHALM+ Haliburton Highlands Museum,
NSPHOCM+ Chestico Museum and Historical Haliburton
Society, Port Hood OHM McMaster University, Hamilton,
NSSXA University College of Cape Breton, Mills Memorial Library
Beaton Institute, Research Library, OHMA McMaster University, Hamilton,
Sydney William Ready Division of Archives
NSWA Acadia University, Wolfville and Research Collections
NSYHM Yarmouth County Museum and OHMB McMaster University, Hamilton,
Historical Research Library, Health Sciences Library
Yarmouth OHWHH+ Whitehern Historic House,
Hamilton
Ontario: OK Kingston Frontenac Public Library,
OADUEL+ United Empire Loyalist Heritage Central Branch
Centre and Park, Adolphustown OKCKT King Township Public Library, King
OAUH Aurora Museum City (Lady Eaton Estate Collection
OAYM Aylmer and District Museum includes her cookbooks)
OBBM Brant County Museum, Brantford OKELWM+ Lake of the Woods Museum, Kenora
OBEHCM+ Hastings County Museum, Belleville OKIT Kitchener Public Library
OBM Brockville Museum OKITD Doon Heritage Crossroads,
OBMBMM+ Bruce Mines Museum Kitchener
OBRACWM+ Woodchester Villa and Museum, OKITJS+ Joseph Schneider Haus, Kitchener
Bracebridge OKITWN+ Woodside National Historic Site,
OBRAPM+ Region of Peel Museum, Peel Heri- Kitchener
tage Complex, Brampton OKLPV+ Lang Pioneer Village, Keene
OBUJBM+ Joseph Brant Museum, Burlington OKQ Queen’s University, Kingston
OC Cornwall Public Library OKR Royal Military College, Kingston
OCALNHM+ North Himsworth Museum, OL London Public Library
Callander OLA Lakefield Public Library
OCCA+ City of Cambridge Archives OLDUCA+ Dundas Street Centre United
OCHA Chatham-Kent Public Library Church, Archives, London
OCHAK Chatham-Kent Museum OLIAF+ Anderson Farm Museum, Lively
OCLCLM+ Clarke Museum and Archives, OLLLA+ London Life Insurance Co., corpo-
Clarington rate archives, London
OCN Parks Canada Agency, Cornwall OLU University of Western Ontario,
OCOLM+ Collingwood Museum London
OCUM+ Cumberland Township Museum, OMAHM Markham District Historical
Cumberland Museum
OFERWM Wellington County Museum and OMARH+ Robin Hood Multifoods Inc.,
Archives, Fergus Markham
OFFRH+ Ross Township Historical Society, OMATTM+ Thelma Miles Museum, Matheson
Foresters Falls OME University of Toronto, Erindale
OG Guelph Public Library College, Mississauga
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 CHAPTER XX.

Lakes—Northern System of the Great Continent—Mountain System

of the same—American Lakes.

The hollows formed on the surface of the earth by the ground

sinking or rising, earthquakes, streams of lava, craters of extinct
volcanos, the intersection of strata, and those that occur along the
edges of the different formations, are generally filled with water, and
constitute systems of lakes, some salt and some fresh. Many of the
former may be remnants of an ancient ocean left in the depressions
of its beds during its retreat as the continent arose.
Almost all lakes are fed by springs in their beds, and they are
occasionally the sources of the largest rivers. Some have neither
tributaries nor outlets; the greater number have both. The quantity
of water in lakes varies with the seasons everywhere, especially from
the melting snow on mountain-chains and in high latitudes, and from
periodical rains, between the tropics. Small lakes occur in mountain-
passes, formed by water which runs into them from the
commanding peaks; they are frequently, as in the Alps, very
transparent, of a bright green or azure hue. Large lakes are common
on table-lands, and in the valleys of mountainous countries, but the
largest are on extensive plains. The basin of a lake comprehends all
the land drained by it; consequently it is bounded by an imaginary
line passing through the sources of all the waters that fall into it.
There are more lakes in high than in low latitudes, because
evaporation is much greater in low latitudes than in high, and in this
respect there is a great analogy between the northern plains of the
two principal continents. Sheets of water of great beauty occur in
the mountain valleys of the British islands, of Norway, and Sweden,
countries similar in geological structure; and besides these there are
two regions in the old world in which lakes particularly abound. One
begins on the low coast of Holland, goes round the southern and
eastern sides of the Baltic, often passing close to its shores, along
the Gulf of Bothnia, and through the Siberian plains to Behring’s
Straits. The lakes which cover so much of Finland and the great
lakes of Ladoga and Onega lie in a parallel direction; they occupy
transverse rents which had taken place across the palæozoic strata,
while rising in a direction from S.W. to N.E., between the Gulf of
Finland and the White Sea; that elevation was, perhaps, the cause of
the cavities now occupied by these two seas. Ladoga is the largest
lake in this zone, having a surface of nearly 1000 square miles. It
receives tributary streams, and sends off its superfluous water by
rivers, and Onega does the same; but the multitude of small steppe
lakes among the Ural mountains and in the basin of the river Obi
neither receive nor emit rivers, being for the most part mere ponds,
though of great size, some of fresh and some of salt water, lying
close together—a circumstance which has not been accounted for:
those on the low Siberian plains have the same character.
The second system of lakes in the old continent follows the zone
of the mountain mass, and comprehends those of the Pyrenees,
Alps, Apennines, Asia Minor, the Caspian, the Lake Aral, together
with those on the table-land and in the mountains of central Asia.
In the Pyrenees, lakes are most frequent on the French side;
many are at such altitudes as to be perpetually frozen: one on Mont
Perdu, 8393 feet above the sea, has the appearance of an ancient
volcanic crater. There is scarcely a valley in the Alpine range and its
offsets that has not a sheet of water, no doubt owing to the cavities
formed during the elevation of the ridges, and, in some instances, to
subsidence of the soil; Lake Trüb, 7200 feet above the level of the
sea, is the most elevated. There are more lakes on the north than on
the south side of the Alps—the German valleys are full of them. In
Bohemia, Gallicia, and Moravia, there are no less than 30,000 sheets
of water, besides great numbers throughout the Austrian empire.
Of the principal lakes on the northern side of the Alps, the Lake of
Geneva, or Lake Leman, is the most beautiful from its situation, the
pure azure of the waters, and the sublime mountains that surround
it. Its surface, of about 240 square miles, is 1150 feet above the sea,
and near Meillerie it is 1012 deep. The lake of Lucerne is 1400 feet
above the sea, and the lakes of Brienz 1900 feet. The Italian Lakes
are at a lower level; the Lago Maggiore has only 678 feet of absolute
altitude; they are larger than most of those on the north of the Alps,
and, with the advantage of an Italian climate, sky, and vegetation,
they surpass the others in beauty, though the mountains that
surround them are less lofty.
These great lakes are fed by rivers rising in the glaciers of the
higher Alps, and many large rivers issue from them. In this respect
they differ from most of the lakes in Lower Italy, some of which are
craters of ancient volcanos, or perhaps ancient craters of elevation,
where the earth had been swelled up by subterranean vapour
without bursting, and had sunk down again into a hollow when the
internal pressure was removed.
In Syria, the Lake of Tiberias and the Dead Sea, sacred memorials
to the Christian world, are situate in the deepest cavity on the earth.
The surface of the Lake Tiberias is 329 feet below the level of the
Mediterranean, surrounded by verdant plains bearing aromatic
shrubs; while the heavy bitter waters of the Dead Sea, 1312 feet
below the level of the Mediterranean, is a scene of indescribable
desolation and solitude, encompassed by desert sands, and bleak,
stony, salt hills. Thus, there is a difference of level of 983 feet in little
more than 60 miles, which makes the course of the river Jordan very
rapid. The water of the Dead Sea is so acrid, from the large
proportion of saline matter it contains, that it irritates the skin: it is
more buoyant, and has a greater proportion of salt, than any that is
known except the small lake of Eltonsk east of the Volga.[123]
Though extensive sheets of water exist in many parts of Asia
Minor, especially in Bithynia, yet the characteristic feature of the
country, and of all the table-land of western Asia and the adjacent
steppes, is the number and magnitude of the saline lakes. A region
of salt lakes and marshes extends at least 200 miles along the
northern foot of the Taurus range, on a very elevated part of the
table-land of Anatolia. There are also many detached lakes, some
exceedingly saline. Fish cannot live in the Lake of Toozla; it is
shallow, and subject to excessive evaporation. Neither can any
animal exist in the Lake of Shahee or Urmiah, on the confines of
Persia and Armenia, 300 miles in circumference: its water is perfectly
clear, and contains a fourth part of its weight of saline matter. These
lakes are fed by springs, rain, and melted snow, and, having no
emissaries, the surplus water is carried off by evaporation.
It is possible that the volcanic soil of the table-land may be the
cause of this exuberance of salt water. Lake Van, a sheet of salt
water 240 miles in circumference, is separated from the equally salt
lake Urmiah only by a low range of hills; and there are many pieces
of fresh water in that neighbourhood, possibly in similar hollows.
Persia is singularly destitute of water; the Lake of Zurrah, on the
frontiers of Afghanistan, having an area of 18 square miles, is the
only piece of water on the western part of the table-land of Iran.
It is evident from the saline nature of the soil, and the shells it
contains, that the plains round the Caspian, the Lake Aral, and the
steppes, even to the Ural Mountains, had once formed part of the
Black Sea; 57,000 square miles of that country are depressed below
the level of the ocean—a depression which extends northwards
beyond the town of Saratov, 300 miles distant from the Caspian. The
surface of the Caspian itself, which is 83 feet 7 inches below the
level of the ocean, is its lowest part, and has an area of 18,000
square miles, nearly equal to the area of Spain. In Europe alone it
drains an extent of 850,000 square miles, receiving the Volga, the
Ural, and other great rivers on the north. It has no tide, and its
navigation is dangerous from heavy gales, especially from the south-
east, which drive the water miles over the land; a vessel was
stranded 46 miles inland from the shore. It is 600 feet deep to the
south, but is shallower to the east where it is bounded by
impassable swamps many miles broad.[124] The Lake of Eltonsk, on
the steppe east of the Volga, has an area of 130 square miles, and
furnishes two-thirds of the salt consumed in Russia. Its water yields
29·13 per cent. of saline matter, and from this circumstance is more
buoyant than any that is known.[125]
The Lake of Aral, which is shallow, is higher than the Caspian, and
has an area of 3372 square miles; it has its name from the number
of small islands at its southern end, Aral signifying “island” in the
Tartar language. Neither the Caspian nor the Lake of Aral have any
outlets, though they receive large rivers; they are brackish, and, in
common with all the lakes in Persia, they are decreasing in extent,
and becoming more salt, the quantity of water supplied by
tributaries being less than that lost by evaporation. Most of the rivers
that are tributary to the Lake of Aral are diminished by canals, that
carry off water for irrigation: for that reason a very diminished
portion of the waters of the Oxus reaches the lake. Besides, the
Russian rivers yield less water than formerly from the progress of
cultivation. The small mountain-lake Sir-i-Kol, in the high table-land
of Pamer, from whence the Oxus flows, is 15,600 feet above the sea;
consequently there is a difference of level between it and the Dead
Sea of nearly 17,000 feet.
The small number of lakes in the Himalaya is one of the
peculiarities of these mountains. The Lake of Ular, in the valley of
Cashmere, is the only one of any magnitude; it is but 40 miles in
circumference, and seems to be the residue of one that had filled
the whole valley at some early period. There are many great lakes,
both fresh and salt, on the table-land; the annular form of Lake
Palte, at the northern base of the Himalaya, as represented on
maps, is unexampled; the sacred lakes of Manasarowar, in Great
Tibet, and of Rakas Tal, occupy a space of about 400 square miles,
in the centre of the Himalaya, between the gigantic peaks of Gurla
on the south and of Kailas on the north; it is from the westernmost
of these lakes (which communicate with each other), the Cho Lagan
of the Tibetians, that the Sutlej rises, at an elevation of 15,200 feet
above the level of the sea. These remarkable lakes mark the point
from around which all the great rivers rising in the Himalaya have
their origin. Tibet is full of lakes, many of which produce borax,
found nowhere else but in Tuscany and in the Lipari Islands. As most
of the great lakes on the table-land are in the Chinese territories,
strangers have not had access to them; the Koko-nor and Lake Lop
seem to be very large; the latter is said to have a surface of 2187
square miles, and there are others not inferior to it in the north. The
lakes in the Altaï are beautiful, larger and more numerous than in
any other mountain-chain. They are at different elevations on the
terraces by which the table-land descends to the flats of Siberia, and
are, owing to geological phenomena, essentially different from those
which have produced the Caspian and other steppe lakes. They
seem to have been hollows formed where the axes of the different
branches of the chain cross, and are most numerous and deepest in
the eastern Altaï. Baikal, the largest mountain lake, supposed to owe
its origin to the sinking of the ground during an earthquake, has an
area of 14,800 square miles, nearly equal to the half of Scotland. It
lies buried in the form of a crescent, amid lofty granite mountains,
which constitute the edge of the table-land to the south, ending in
the desert of the Great Gobi, and in the north-west they gird the
shore so closely that they dip into the water in many places; 160
rivers and streams fall into this salt lake, which drains a country
probably twice the size of Britain. The river Angara, which runs deep
and strong through a crevice at its eastern end, is its principal outlet,
and is supposed to carry off but a small proportion of its water. Its
surface is 1793 feet above the sea-level, and the climate is as severe
as it is in Europe 10° farther north; yet the lake does not freeze till
the middle of December, possibly from its depth, being unfathomable
with a line of 600 feet.
Two hundred and eighty years before the Christian era, the large
fresh-water lake of Oitz, in Japan, was formed in one night, by a
prodigious sinking of the ground, at the same time that one of the
highest and most active volcanos in that country rose from the
depths of the earth.
 Very extensive lakes occur in Africa; there appears to be a great
number on the low-lands on the east coast of Africa, in which many
of the rivers from the edge of the table-land terminate. Among
others, there is the salt lake Assal, 25 miles west of Tadjurra, in the
country through which the Hawash flows, which has a depression of
more than 700 feet below the level of the ocean, by Dr. Beke’s
estimation, who first observed that curious circumstance; but by the
actual measurement of Lieutenant Christopher, it is 570 feet.
Notwithstanding the arid soil of the southern table-land, it contains
the fresh-water lake of N’yassi or Zambeze, one of the largest, being
some hundred miles long; and, though narrow in proportion, it
cannot be crossed in a boat of the country in less than three days,
resting at night on an island, of which there are many. It lies
between 300 and 400 miles west from the Mozambique Channel,
and begins 200 miles north of the town of Tete, which is situate on
the river Zambeze, from whence it extends from south-east to north-
west, possibly to within a degree or two of the equator. It receives
the drainage of the country to the south-east: but no river is known
to flow out of it, unless it be the Bahr-el-Abiad or White Nile, which
probably rises in this lake. No one knows what there may be in the
unexplored regions of the Ethiopian desert; but Abyssinia has the
large and beautiful lake of Dembia, situate in a spacious plain—the
granary of the country—so high above the sea that spring is
perpetual, though within the tropics. There are many other lakes in
this great projecting promontory, so full of rivers, mountains, and
forests; but the lowlands of Soudan and the country lying along the
base of the northern declivity of the table-land is the region of
African lakes, of which the Tchad, almost the size of an inland sea, is
in the very centre of the continent. Its extent, and the size of its
basin, are unknown; it receives many affluents from the high lands
called the Mountains of the Moon, certainly all those that flow from
them east of Bornou, and it is itself drained by the Tchadda, a
principal tributary of the Niger. Other lakes of less magnitude are
known to exist in these regions, and there are probably many more
that are unknown. Salt-water lakes are numerous on the northern
boundaries of the great lowland deserts, and many fine sheets of
fresh water are found in the valleys and flat terraces of the Great
and Little Atlas.
Fresh-water lakes are characteristic of the higher latitudes of both
continents, but those in the old continent sink into insignificance in
comparison with the number and extent of those in the new. Indeed
a very large portion of North America is covered with fresh water;
the five principal lakes—Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario
—with some of their dependants, probably cover an area of 94,000
square miles; that of Lake Superior alone, 32,000 which is only 1800
square miles less than the whole of England. The American lakes
contain more than half the amount of fresh water on the globe. The
altitude of these lakes shows the slope of the continent; the absolute
elevation of Lake Superior is 672 feet; Lake Huron is 30 feet lower;
Lake Erie 32 feet lower than the Huron; and Lake Ontario is 331 feet
below the level of Erie. The river Niagara, which unites the two last
lakes, is 331⁄2 miles long, and in that distance it descends 66 feet; it
falls in rapids through 55 feet of that height in the last half-mile, but
the upper part of its course is navigable. The height of the cascade
of Niagara is 162 feet on the American side of the central island, and
1125 feet wide. On the Canadian side the fall is 149 feet high, and
2100 feet wide—the most magnificent sheet of falling-water known,
though many are higher. The river St. Lawrence, which drains the
whole, slopes 234 feet between the bottom of the cascade and the
sea. The bed of Lake Superior is 300 feet, and that of the Ontario
268 feet below the surface of the Atlantic, affording another instance
of deep indentation in the solid matter of the globe. Some lakes are
decreasing in magnitude, though the contrary seems to be the case
in America; between the years 1825 and 1838, Ontario rose nearly
seven feet; and, according to the American engineers, Lake Erie had
gained several feet in the same time. Lake Huron is said to be the
focus of peculiar electrical phenomena, as thunder is constantly
heard in one of its bays. The lakes north of this group are
innumerable; the whole country, to the Arctic Ocean, is covered with
sheets of water which emit rivers and streams. Lake Winnipeg, Rein-
deer Lake, Slave Lake, and some others, may be regarded as the
chief members of separate groups or basins, each embracing a wide
extent of country almost unknown. There are also many lakes on
each side of the Rocky Mountains; and in Mexico there are six or
seven lakes of considerable size, though not to be compared with
those in North America.
There are many sheets of water in Central America, though only
one is of any magnitude, and the Lake of Nicaragua, in the province
of that name, about 100 miles from the sea, and which
communicates with the Gulf of Mexico by the River of San Juan.
In Central America, the Andes are interrupted by plains and mere
hills on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and of Nicaragua, on each side
of which there is a series of lakes and rivers, which, aided by canals,
might form a water communication between the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans. In the former, the line proposed would connect the river
Guasacalco, on the Gulf of Mexico, with the Bay of Tehuantepec in
the Pacific. In the Isthmus of Nicaragua, the Gulf of San Juan would
be connected by the river of that name, and the chain of Lakes of
Nicaragua and Leon, with the Bay of Realejo or the Gulf of Fonseca,
with the Gulf of Costa Rica. Here the watershed is only 615 feet
above the sea, and of easy excavation, and the lake, situate in an
extensive plain, is deep enough for vessels of considerable size.
A range of lakes goes along the eastern base of the Andes, but
the greater part of them are mere lagoons or marshes, some very
large, which inundate the country to a great extent in the time of
the tropical rains. There appears to be a deep hollow in the surface
of the earth at the part where Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay meet, in
which lies the Lake Xarayos, extending on each side of the river
Paraguay, but, like many South American lakes, it is not permanent,
being alternately inundated and dry, or a marsh. Its inundations
cover 36,000 square miles. Salt and fresh water lakes are numerous
on the plains of La Plata, and near the Andes in Patagonia,
resembling, in this respect, those in high northern latitudes, though
on a smaller scale.
In the elevated mountain-valleys and table-lands of the Andes
there are many small lakes of the purest blue and green colours,
intensely cold, some being near the line of perpetual congelation.
They are generally of considerable depth. The lake of Titicaca,
however, in the Bolivian Andes, has an area of 2225 square miles, of
60 to a degree, and is more than 120 fathoms deep in many places,
surrounded by splendid scenery. Though 12,846 feet above the level
of the Pacific, and consequently higher than the Peak of Teneriffe, its
shores are cultivated, producing corn, barley, and potatoes; and
peopled by a large aboriginal population, inhabiting towns and
villages. Numerous vestiges of Peruvian civilization are everywhere
to be met with; and in the island from which it derives its name, and
where tradition places the origin of the last Inca dynasty, numerous
specimens of Peruvian architecture still exist.
The limpid transparency of the water in lakes, especially in
mountainous countries, is remarkable; minute objects are visible at
the bottom through many fathoms of water. The vivid green tints so
often observed in Alpine lakes may be produced by vegetable dyes
dissolved in the water, though chemical analysis has not detected
them.
Lakes, being the sources of some of the largest rivers, are of great
importance for inland navigation as well as for irrigation; while, by
their constant evaporation, they maintain the supply of humidity in
the atmosphere so essential to vegetation, besides the
embellishment a country derives from them.
 CHAPTER XXI.

Temperature of the earth—Temperature of the Air—Radiation—Foci

of Maximum Cold—Thermal Equator—Its Temperature, mean and
absolute—Isothermal Lines—Continental and Insular Climates—
Extreme Climates—Stability of Climate—Decrease of Heat in
Altitude—Line of Perpetual Snow—Density of the Atmosphere—The
Barometer—Measurement of Heights—Variations in Density and
their Causes—Horary Variations—Independent Effect of the dry
and aqueous Atmospheres—Mean height of Barometer in different
Latitudes—Depression in the Antarctic Ocean and in Eastern
Siberia—Barometric Storms—Polar and Equatorial Currents of Air—
Trade-Winds—Monsoons—Land and Sea Breezes—Gyration of the
Winds in the Extra-Tropical Zones—Winds in Middle European
Latitudes—Hurricanes—The Laws of their Motion—Their Effect on
the Barometer—How to steer clear of them—The Storm-Wave—
Storm-Currents—Arched Squalls—Tornadoes—Whirlwinds—Water
Spouts.

The atmosphere completely envelops the earth to the height of about

20 miles; it bulges at the equator, and is flattened at the poles, in
consequence of the diurnal rotation. It is a mixture of water in an
invisible state and of air; but the air is not homogeneous; 100 parts
of it consist of 79 parts of hydrogen or azotic gas, and 21 of oxygen,
the source of combustion and animal heat. Besides these, there is a
little ammoniacal vapour, and a small quantity of carbonic acid gas,
which is sufficient to supply all the vegetation on the earth with
wood and leaves. No doubt exhalations of various kinds ascend into
the air, such as those which produce miasmata, but they are in
quantities too minute to be detected by chemical analysis, so that
the atmosphere is found to be of the same composition at all heights
above the sea hitherto attained.[126]
The temperature of the earth’s surface, and the phenomena of the
atmosphere, depend upon the revolution and rotation of the earth,
which successively expose all the parts of the earth, and the air
which surrounds it, to a perpetual variation of the gravitating forces
of the two great luminaries, and to annual and diurnal vicissitudes of
solar heat. Atmospheric phenomena are consequently periodical and
connected with one another, and their harmony, and the regularity of
the laws which govern them, become the more evident in proportion
as the mean values of their vicissitudes are determined from
simultaneous observations made over widely-extended tracts of the
globe. The fickleness of the wind and weather is proverbial, but, as
the same quantity of heat is annually received from the sun, and
annually radiated into space, it follows that all climates on the earth
are stable, and that their changes, like the perturbations of the
planets, are limited, and accomplished in fixed cycles, whose periods
are still in many instances unknown. It is possible, however, that the
earth and air may be affected by secular variations of temperature
during the progress of the solar system through space, or from
periodical changes in the sun’s light and heat, similar to those which
take place in many of the fixed stars. The secular variation in the
moon’s mean distance will no doubt alter the amount of her
attractive force, though probably by a quantity inappreciable in the
aërial tides; at all events, variations arising from such circumstances
could only become perceptible after many ages.
From experiments made by M. Peltier it appears that, if the
absolute quantity of heat annually received by the earth were
equally dispersed over its surface, it would, in the course of a year,
melt a stratum of ice 46 feet deep covering the whole globe. It is
evident that, if so great a quantity of heat had been continually
accumulated in the earth, instead of being radiated into space, it
would have been transmitted through the surface to the poles,
where it would have melted the ice, and the torrid zone, if not the
whole globe, would by this time have been uninhabitable. In fact,
every surface absorbs and radiates heat at the same time, and the
power of radiation is always equal to the power of absorption, for,
under the same circumstances, bodies which become soon warm
also cool rapidly, and the earth, as a whole, is under the same law
as the bodies at its surface.
Although part of the heat received from the sun in summer is
radiated back again, by far the greater part sinks into the earth’s
surface, and tempers the severity of the winter’s cold while passing
through the atmosphere into the etherial regions.
The power of the solar rays depends on the manner in which they
fall, as may be seen from the difference of climates. The earth is
about 3,000,000 of miles nearer to the sun in winter than in
summer, but the rays strike the northern hemisphere more obliquely
in winter than in the other half of the year.
Diurnal variations of heat are perceptible only to a small distance
below the surface of the ground, because the earth is a bad
conductor: the annual influence of the sun penetrates much farther.
At the equator, where the heat is greatest, it descends deeper than
elsewhere with a diminishing intensity, but there, and everywhere
throughout the globe, there is a stratum, at a depth varying from 40
to 100 feet below the surface of the ground, where the temperature
never varies, and is nearly the same with the mean temperature of
the country over it. This zone, unaffected by the sun’s heat from
above, or by the internal heat from below, serves as an origin
whence the effects of solar heat are estimated on one hand, and the
internal temperature of the globe on the other. Below it the heat of
the earth increases, as already mentioned, at the rate of one degree
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer for every 50 or 60 feet of perpendicular
depth; were it to continue increasing at that rate, every substance
would be in a state of fusion at the depth of 21 miles; hitherto,
however, the experiments in mines and Artesian wells, whence the
earth’s temperature below the constant stratum is ascertained, have
not been extended below 1700 feet.
 M. de Beaumont has estimated by the theory of Fourier, from the
observations of M. Arago, that the quantity of central heat which
reaches the surface of the earth is capable, in the course of a year,
of melting a shell of ice covering the globe a quarter of an inch thick.
[127]

The superficial temperature of the earth is great at the equator, it

decreases gradually towards the poles, and is an exact mean
between the two at the 45th parallel of latitude; but a multitude of
causes disturb this law even between the tropics. It is affected
chiefly by the unequal distribution of land and water, by the height
above the sea, by the nature of the soil, and by vegetation, so that a
line drawn on a map through all the places where the mean
temperature of the earth is the same would be very far from
coinciding with the parallels of latitude, but would approximate more
to them near the equator. Between the tropics the temperature of
the earth’s surface is greater in the interior of continents than on the
sea-coasts and islands, and in the interior of Africa it is greater than
in any other part of the globe.
Temperature depends upon the property all bodies possess, more
or less, of perpetually absorbing and emitting or radiating heat.
When the interchange is equal, the temperature of a substance
remains the same; but when the radiation exceeds the absorption, it
becomes colder, and vice versâ. The temperature of the air is
certainly raised by the passage of the solar heat through it, because
it absorbs one-third of it before reaching the earth, but it is chiefly
warmed by heat transmitted and radiated from the earth. The
radiation is abundant when the sky is clear and blue, but clouds
intercept it; so that a thermometer rises in cloudy weather, and sinks
when the air becomes clear and calm; even a slight mist diminishes
radiation from the earth, because it returns as much heat as it
receives. The temperature of the air is subject to such irregularities
from these circumstances, and from the difference in the radiating
powers of the bodies at the surface of the globe, that it is necessary
to find, by experiment, the mean or average warmth of the day,
month, and year, at a great variety of places, in order to have a
standard by which the temperature in different parallels of latitude
may be compared.
The mean diurnal temperature of the air, at any place, is equal to
half the sum of the greatest and least heights of the thermometer
during 24 hours, and, as the height of the thermometer is twice in
the course of that time equal to the mean temperature of the place
of observation, it might seem easy to obtain its value; yet that is not
the case, for a small error in observation produces a very great error
in such minute quantities, so that accuracy can only be attained
from the average of a great number of observations, by which the
errors, sometimes in excess and sometimes in defect, neutralize or
balance each other. The mean value of quantities is a powerful aid to
the imperfections of our nature in arriving at truth in physical
inquiries, and in none more than in atmospheric phenomena: almost
all the certain knowledge man has acquired with regard to the
density and temperature of the air, winds, rain, &c., has been
acquired by that method.
The mean temperature of any one month at the same place differs
from one year to another, but the mean temperature of the whole
year remains nearly the same, especially when the average of 10 or
15 years is taken; for although the temperature in any one place
may be subject to very great variations, yet it never deviates more
than a few degrees from its mean state.[128]
The motion of the sun in the ecliptic occasions perpetual variations
in the length of the day, and in the direction of his rays with regard
to the earth; yet, as the cause is periodic, the mean annual
temperature from the sun’s motion alone must be constant in each
parallel of latitude. For it is evident that the accumulation of heat in
the long days in summer, which is but little diminished by radiation
during the short nights, is balanced by the small quantity of heat
received during the short days of winter and its radiation in the long
frosty and clear nights. Were the globe everywhere on a level with
the surface of the sea, and of uniform substance, so as to absorb
and radiate heat equally, the mean heat of the sun would be
regularly distributed over its surface in zones of equal annual
temperature parallel to the equator, and would decrease regularly to
each pole. The distribution of heat, however, in the same parallel is
very irregular in all latitudes, except between the tropics, from the
inequalities in the level and nature of the surface of the earth, so
that lines drawn on a map through all places having the same mean
annual temperature are nearly parallel to the equator only between
the tropics; in all other latitudes they deviate greatly from it, and
from one another.[129] Radiation is the principal cause of
temperature; hence, the heat of the air is most powerfully modified
by the ocean, which occupies three times as much of the surface of
the globe as the land, and is more uniform in its surface, and also in
its radiating power. On the land the difference in the radiating force
of the mountains and table-lands from that of the plains—of deserts
from grounds covered with rich vegetation—of wet land from dry,
are the most general causes of variation; the local causes of
irregularity are beyond enumeration.
There are two points in the northern hemisphere, both in the 80th
parallel of latitude, where the cold is more intense than in any other
part of the globe with which we are acquainted. One north of
Canada in 100° W. long. has a temperature of -3°·5 of Fahrenheit;
while, at the Siberian point, in 95° E. long., the temperature of the
air is +1°; consequently it is four and a half degrees warmer than
that north of Canada—a difference that has an influence even to the
equator, where the mean temperature of the air is different in
different longitudes.
The line of the maximum temperature of the atmosphere, or the
atmospheric thermal equator, which cuts the terrestrial equator in
the meridians of Otaheite and Singapore, passes through the Pacific
in its southern course, and through the Atlantic in its northern, has a
mean temperature of 83°·84 of Fahrenheit. But by the comparison
of many observations the mean equatorial temperature of the air is
82°·94 in Asia, 85°·10 in Africa, and 80°·96 in America: thus, it
appears that tropical Africa is the hottest region on earth. Moreover,
the atmosphere in the tropical zone of the Pacific, when free from
currents, is two degrees and a quarter warmer than the
corresponding zone in the Atlantic, which is 82°·40.
On account of the great extent of ocean, the isothermal lines in
the southern hemisphere coincide more nearly with the parallels of
latitude than in the northern. In the Antarctic Ocean the only flexure
is occasioned by the cold of the south polar current, which flows
along the western coast of the American continent. In the northern
hemisphere the predominance of land and its frequent alternations
with water, the prevalence of particular winds, irregularities of the
surface, and the difference in the temperature of the points of
maximum cold, cause the isothermal lines to deviate more from the
parallels of latitude. They make two deep bends northward, one in
the Northern Atlantic and another in the northeast of America, and
at last they separate into two parts, and encircle the points of
maximum cold.
Professor Dove has discovered that, in consequence of the excess
of land in the northern hemisphere, and the difference in the effect
produced by the sun’s heat according as it falls on a solid or liquid
surface, there is an annual variation in the aggregate mean
temperature at the surface of the earth, whose maximum takes
place during the sun’s northern declination, and its minimum during
its southern.[130]
Places having the same mean annual temperature, often differ
materially in climate: in some, the winters are mild and the summers
cool, whereas in others the extremes of heat and cold prevail:
England is an example of the first; Quebec, St. Petersburg, and the
Arctic regions, are instances of the second. The solar heat
penetrates more abundantly and deeper into the sea than into the
land; in winter it preserves a considerable portion of that which it
receives in summer, and from its saltness does not freeze so soon as
fresh water; hence, the ocean is not liable to the same changes of
temperature as the land, and by imparting its heat to the winds it
diminishes the severity of the climate on the coasts and in islands,
which are never subject to such extremes of heat and cold as are
experienced in the interior of continents. The difference between the
influence of sea and land is strikingly exemplified in the high
latitudes of the two hemispheres. In consequence of the unbounded
extent of the ocean in the south, the air is so mild and moist that a
rich vegetation covers the ground, while in the corresponding
latitudes in the north the country is barren from the excess of land
towards the Polar Ocean, which renders the air dry and cold. A
superabundance of land in the equatorial regions, on the contrary,
raises the temperature, while the sea tempers it.
Professor Dove has shown, from a comparison of observations,
that northern and central Asia have what may be termed a true
continental climate, both in summer and in winter—that is to say, a
hot summer and cold winter; that Europe has a true insular or sea
climate in both seasons, the summers being cool and the winters
mild; and that in North America the climate is inclined to be
continental in winter, and insular in summer. The extremes of
temperature in the year are greater in central Asia than in North
America, and greater in North America than in Europe, and that
difference increases everywhere with the latitude. In Guiana, within
the tropics, the difference between the hottest and coldest months
in the year is 2°·2 of Fahrenheit, in the temperate zone it is about
60°, and at Yakutsk in Siberia 114°·4. Even in places which have the
same latitude as in northern Asia, compared with others in Europe or
North America, the diversity is very great. At Quebec the summers
are as warm as those in Paris, and grapes sometimes ripen in the
open air, yet the winters are as severe as those in St. Petersburg. In
short, lines drawn on a map through places having the same mean
summer or winter temperature are neither parallel to one another, to
the isothermal or geothermal lines, and they differ still more from
the parallels of latitude.[131]
Observations tend to prove that all the climates on the earth are
stable, and that their vicissitudes are only oscillations of greater or
less extent, which vanish in the mean annual temperature of a
sufficient number of years. There may be a succession of cold
summers and mild winters, but in some other country the contrary
takes place; the distribution of heat may vary from a variety of
circumstances, but the absolute quantity gained and lost by the
whole earth in the course of a year is invariably the same.
Since the air receives its warmth chiefly from the earth, its
temperature diminishes with the height so rapidly, that at a very
small elevation the cold becomes excessive, as the perpetual snow
on the mountain-tops clearly shows. The decrease of heat is at the
rate of a degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer for every 334 feet.
The atmosphere, being a heavy and elastic fluid, decreases in
density upwards, according to a determinate law, so rapidly, that
three-fourths of the whole air it contains are within four miles of the
earth, and all the phenomena perceptible to us—as clouds, rain,
snow, and thunder—occur within that limit. The air even on the tops
of mountains is so rare as to diminish the intensity of sound, to
affect respiration, and to occasion a loss of muscular strength in man
and animals.[132]
Since the space in the top of the tube of a barometer is a vacuum,
the column of mercury is suspended in the tube by the pressure of
the atmosphere on the surface of the mercury in the cistern: hence,
every variation in the density or height of the atmosphere occasions
a corresponding rise or fall in the barometric column. The actual
mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is 15
pounds on the square inch; hence, the pressure on the whole earth
is enormous.
The decrease in the density of the air affords a very accurate
method of finding the height of mountains above the level of the
sea, which would be very simple, were it not for changes of
temperature which alter the density and interfere with the regularity
of the law of its decrease. But as the heat of the air diminishes with
the height above the earth at the rate of one degree of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer for every 334 feet, tables are constructed, by the aid of
which heights may be determined with great accuracy. In
consequence of diminished pressure also, water boils at a lower
temperature on mountain-tops than at the level of the sea, which
affords another method of ascertaining heights.[133]
 By the annual and diurnal revolutions of the earth, each column of
air is alternately exposed to the heat and cold of summer and winter,
of day and night, and also to variations in the attraction of the sun
and moon, which disturb its equilibrium, and produce tides similar to
those in the ocean. Those produced by the moon ebb and flow twice
during a lunation, and diurnal variations in the barometer, to a very
small amount, are also due to the moon’s attraction.[134] The annual
undulations occasioned by the sun have their greatest altitudes at
the equinoxes, and their least at the solstices, and the diurnal
variations in the height of the barometer, which accomplish their rise
and fall twice in 24 hours, are chiefly due to the effects of
temperature on the dry air and moisture of the atmosphere, which,
according to Mr. Dove’s discoveries, produce independent pressures
upon the mercurial column.
A quantity of vapour is continually raised by the heat of the sun
from the surface of the globe, which mixes in an invisible state with
the dry air or gaseous part of the atmosphere. It is most abundant
in the torrid zone, and, like the heat on which it depends, varies with
the latitude, the season of the year, the time of the day, the
elevation above the sea, and also with the nature of the soil, the
land, and the water. There is no chemical combination between the
aërial and aqueous atmospheres, they are merely mixed; and the
diurnal variations arise from the superposition of two distinct diurnal
oscillations, each going through its complete period in 24 hours; one
taking place in the aërial atmosphere from the alternate heating and
cooling of the air, which produce a flux and reflux over the point of
observation; the other arising from the aqueous atmosphere, owing
to the alternate production and destruction of vapour by the heat of
the day and the cold of the night. The diurnal variations of the
vapour have their maximum at or near the hottest hour of the day,
and their minimum at or near the coldest, which is exactly the
converse of the diurnal variations of the dry air. On the whole, there
are two maxima and two minima heights of the barometer in the
course of 24 hours from the combinations of these, but in the
interior of continents far from water, where the air is very dry, there
ought to be one maximum and one minimum during that period,
according to this theory.
Between the tropics the barometer attains its greatest height at
nine or half-past nine in the morning; it then sinks till four in the
afternoon, after which it again rises and attains a second maximum
at ten or half-past ten in the evening; it then begins to fall till it
reaches a second time its lowest point at four in the morning. The
difference in the height is 0·117 of an inch, which gradually
decreases north and south. Baron Humboldt mentions that the
diurnal variations of the barometric pressure are so regular between
the tropics, that the hour of the day may be inferred from the height
of the mercury to within fifteen or sixteen minutes, and that it is
undisturbed by storm, tempest, rain, or earthquake, both on the
coasts and at altitudes 13,000 feet above them. The mean height of
the barometer between the tropics at the level of the sea is 30
inches with very little fluctuation, but, owing to the ascending
currents of air from the heat of the earth, it is less under the equator
than in the temperate zones. It attains a maximum in western
Europe between the parallels of 40° and 45°; in the North Atlantic
the maximum is about the 30th parallel, and in the southern part of
that ocean it is near the tropic of Capricorn; the amplitude of the
oscillations decreases from the tropics to about the 70th parallel,
where the diurnal variations cease. They are affected by the
seasons, being greatest in summer and least in winter. It appears,
also, that the fluctuations are the reverse on mountain-tops from
what they are on the plains, and probably at a certain height they
would cease altogether.[135] It is a singular fact, discovered by our
navigators, that the mean height of the barometer is an inch lower
throughout the Antarctic Ocean and at Cape Horn than it is at the
Cape of Good Hope or Valparaiso: that difference in the pressure of
the atmosphere is probably connected with the perpetual gales off
the extremity of South America. M. Erman observed a similar
depression near the Sea of Okhotsk in eastern Siberia.
Besides the small horary undulations, there are vast waves moving
over the oceans and continents in separate and independent
systems, being confined to local yet very extensive districts,
probably occasioned by long-continued rains or dry weather over
wide tracts of country. By numerous barometrical observations made
simultaneously in both hemispheres, the courses of several have
been traced, some of which take 24, others 36 hours, to accomplish
their rise and fall. One especially of these vast barometric waves,
many hundreds of miles in breadth, has been traced over the greater
part of Europe, and not its breadth only, but also the direction of its
front, and its velocity, have been clearly ascertained. The course of
another wave has been made out from the Cape of Good Hope,
through many intermediate stations, to the observatory at Toronto in
Canada. Since every undulation has its perfect effect independently
of the others, each one is marked by a change in the barometer, and
this is beautifully illustrated by curved lines on paper, constructed
from a series of observations. The general form of the curve shows
the course of the principal wave, while small undulations in its
outline mark the maxima and minima of the minor oscillations.
Although, like all other waves, these in the atmosphere are but
waving forms, in which there is no transfer of air, yet winds arise
from them like tide-streams in the ocean, and Sir John Herschel is of
opinion that the crossing of two of these vast aërial waves, coming
in different directions, may generate, at the point of intersection,
those tremendous revolving storms, or hurricanes, which spread
desolation far and wide.
The air expands and becomes lighter with heat, contracts and
becomes heavier with cold, and, as there are 82 degrees of
difference between the equatorial and polar temperature, the light
warm air at the equator is constantly ascending to the upper regions
of the atmosphere, and flowing north and south to the poles, from
whence the cold heavy air rushes along the surface of the earth to
supply its place between the tropics, for the same tendency to
restore equilibrium exists in air as in other fluids. These two
superficial currents, which have no rotatory motion when they leave
the poles, are deflected from their meridional paths by friction from
the continually increasing velocity of the earth’s rotation, as they
come nearer and nearer to the tropics; and, as they revolve slower
than the corresponding parts of the earth at which they arrive, the
bodies on its surface strike against them with the excess of their
velocity, so that the wind appears, to a person who thinks himself at
rest, to blow in a direction contrary to that of the earth’s rotation.
For that reason the current from the north pole becomes a north-
east wind before arriving at the tropic of Cancer, and that from the
south pole becomes a south-east wind before it comes to the tropic
of Capricorn, their limit being the 28th parallel of latitude on each
side of the equator. In fact, the difference of temperature puts the
air in motion, and the direction of the resulting wind, at every place,
depends upon the difference between the rotatory motion of the
wind and the rotatory motion of the earth—the whole theory of the
winds depends upon these circumstances.
Near the equator the trade-winds, north and south of it, so
completely neutralize each other, that far at sea a candle burns
without flickering [i. e. when it is flat calm]. This zone of calms and
light breezes, known as the Variables, which has a breadth of about
five degrees and a half, is subject to heavy rains and violent
thunder-storms. On account of the arrangement of land and water, it
does not coincide with the equator, but its centre runs along the
sixth parallel of north latitude; however, it changes in position and
extent with the declination of the sun, but never crosses the line.
Though the trade-winds extend to the 28th degree on each side of
the equator, their limits vary considerably in different parts of the
ocean, moving two or three degrees to the north or south, according
to the position of the sun; and in the Atlantic the north-east trade-
wind is less steady than the south-east.[136] These perennial winds
are known by recent observations to be less uniform in the Pacific
than in the Atlantic; they only blow permanently over that portion
between the Galapagos Archipelago, off the coast of America, and
the Marquesas. In the Indian Ocean the south-east trade-wind blows
from a few degrees east of Madagascar to the coast of Australia,
between 10° and 28° S. lat. The trade-winds are only constant far
from land, because continents and islands intercept them, and
change their course. On that account the numerous groups of
islands westward from the Marquesas change the trade-winds into
the periodical monsoons, which are steady currents of air in the
Arabian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and China Sea, arising from
diminished atmospheric pressure at each tropic alternately, from the
heat of the sun, thereby producing a regular alternation of north and
south winds, which, combining with the rotation of the earth on its
axis, become a north-east wind in the northern hemisphere, and a
south-east in the southern. The former blows from April to October,
the latter from October to April; the change is accompanied by
heavy rain and violent storms of thunder and lightning. The ascent
of the warm air between the tropics occasions a depression of the
barometer amounting to the tenth of an inch, which is a measure of
the force producing the trade-winds. In both hemispheres there is a
regular variation in the mean height of the barometer within the
zone in which these great aërial currents flow; it is higher at their
polar limits, and decreases with extreme uniformity towards their
equatorial boundaries, the difference in both hemispheres being
0·25 of an inch.
The unequal temperature of the land and sea causes sea-breezes
which blow towards the land during the day, and land-breezes which
blow sea-ward in the night; they are not perceptible in the mornings
and evenings, because the temperature of the land and water is
then nearly the same.
The trade-winds and monsoons are permanent, depending on the
apparent motion of the sun; but it is evident from theory that there
must be partial winds in all parts of the earth, occasioned by the
local circumstances that affect the temperature of the air.
Consequently, the atmosphere is divided into districts, both over the
sea and land, in which the winds have nearly the same vicissitudes
from year to year. The regularity is greatest towards the tropics,
where the causes of disturbance are fewer. In the higher latitudes it
is more difficult to discover any regularity, on account of the greater
proportion of land, the difference in its radiating power, and the
greater extremes of heat and cold. But even there a degree of
uniformity prevails in the succession of the winds; for example, in all
places where north and south winds blow alternately, a vane veers
through every point of the compass in the transition, and in some
places the wind makes several of these gyrations in the course of
the year.[137] The south-westerly winds, so prevalent in the Atlantic
Ocean between the 30th and 60th degrees of north latitude, are
produced by the upper current being drawn down to supply the
superficial current which goes towards the equator, and, as it has a
greater rotatory motion than the earth in these latitudes, it produces
a south-westerly wind. On this account the average voyage from
Liverpool to New York in a sailing vessel is 40 days, while it is only
23 days from New York to Liverpool. For the same reason the
average direction of the wind in England, France, Germany,
Denmark, Sweden, and North America, is some point between south
and west. North-westerly winds prevail in the corresponding
latitudes of the southern hemisphere from the same cause. In fact,
whenever the air has a greater velocity of rotation than the surface
of the earth, a wind more or less westerly is produced; and when it
has less velocity of rotation than the earth, a wind having an
easterly tendency results. Thus, there is a perpetual change between
the different masses of the atmosphere, the warm air tempering the
cold of the higher latitudes, and the cold air mitigating the heat of
the lower; it will be shown afterwards that the aërial currents are the
bearers of principles on which the life of the animal and vegetable
world depends.
Hurricanes are those storms of wind in which the portion of the
atmosphere that forms them revolves in a horizontal circuit round a
vertical or somewhat inclined axis of rotation, while the axis itself,
and consequently the whole storm, is carried forwards along the
surface of the globe, so that the direction in which the storm is
advancing is quite different from the direction in which the rotatory
current may be blowing at any point; the progressive motion may
continue for days, while the wind accomplishes many gyrations
through all the points of the compass in the same time. In the
Atlantic the principal region of hurricanes is to the east of the West
Indian islands, and in the Pacific it lies east of the island of
Madagascar; consequently the former is in the northern hemisphere,
the latter in the southern; but in every case the storm moves in an
elliptical or parabolic curve. The West Indian hurricanes generally
have their origin eastward of the Lesser Antillas or Caribbean
islands, and the vertex of their path near the tropic of Cancer, or
about the exterior limit of the north-east trade-wind. As the motion
of the storm before it reaches the tropic is in a straight line from S.E.
to N.W., and after it has passed the tropic from S.W., to N.E., the
bend of the curve is turned towards Florida and the Carolinas. In the
South Pacific Ocean the body of the storms moves in an exactly
opposite direction. The hurricanes which originate south of the
equator, and whose initial path is from N.E. to S.W., turn at the
tropic of Capricorn, and then tend from N.W. to S.E., so that the
bend of the curve is turned towards Madagascar.
The extent and velocity of the Atlantic hurricanes are great; the
most rapid move at the rate of 43 miles an hour, the slowest 16. The
hurricane which took place on the 12th of August, 1830, was traced
from the eastward of the Caribbean islands to the banks of
Newfoundland, a distance of more than 3000 miles, which it passed
over in six days. Although that of the 1st of September, 1821, was
not so extensive, its velocity was greater, as it moved at the rate of
30 miles an hour. Small storms are generally more rapid than those
of great magnitude. Sometimes they appear to be stationary,
sometimes they stop and again proceed on their course, like water-
spouts. Hurricanes are occasionally contemporaneous, and so near
to one another as to travel in almost parallel tracks. This happened
in the China seas in October, 1840, when the two storms met at an
angle of 47°, and it was supposed that the ship Golconda foundered
in that spot with 300 people on board. A hurricane has been split or
divided by a mountain into two separate storms, each of which
continued its new course, and the gyrations were made with
increased violence. This occurred in the gale of the 25th of
December, 1821, in the Mediterranean, when the Spanish mountains
and the maritime Alps became new centres of motion.
 By the friction of the earth the axis of the storm bends a little
forward, and the whirling motion begins in the higher regions of the
atmosphere before it is felt on the earth: this causes a continual
intermixture of the lower and warmer strata of air with those that
are higher and colder, producing torrents of rain, and sometimes
violent electric explosions.
The rotation as well as the course of the storm is in a different
direction in the two hemispheres, though always alike in the same.
In the northern hemisphere the gyration is contrary to the
movement of the hands of a watch, that is to say, the wind revolves
from east, through the north, to west, south, and east again; while
in the southern hemisphere the rotation about the axis of the storm
is in the contrary direction. Hurricanes happen south of the equator
between December and April; in the West Indies between June and
October. Rotatory storms frequently occur in the Indian Ocean, and
the typhoons of the China seas are real hurricanes of great violence.
Both conform to the laws of such winds in the northern hemisphere.
The Atlantic storms probably reach Spain, Portugal, and the coast of
Ireland. Two circular storms have passed over Great Britain, and
small ones often occur between the Chops of the Channel and
Madeira.
The revolving motion accounts for the sudden and violent changes
observed during hurricanes. In consequence of the rotation of the
air, the wind blows in opposite directions on each side of the axis of
the storm, and the violence of the blast increases from the
circumference towards the centre of gyration, but in the centre itself
the air is in repose: hence, when the body of the storm passes over
a place, the wind begins to blow moderately, and increases to a
hurricane as the centre of the whirlwind approaches; then in a
moment a dead and awful calm succeeds, suddenly followed by a
renewal of the storm in all its violence, but now blowing in a
direction diametrically opposite to what it had before: this happened
in the island of St. Thomas on the 2d of August, 1837, where the
hurricane increased in violence till half-past seven in the morning,
when perfect stillness took place for 40 minutes, after which the
storm recommenced in a contrary direction. The breadth of a
hurricane is greatly augmented when its path changes its direction in
crossing the tropic. In the Atlantic, the vortex of one of these
tempests has covered an area from 600 to 1000 miles in diameter.
The breadth of the lull in the centre varies from 5 to 30 miles: the
height is from 1 to 5 miles at most; so that a person might see the
strife of the elements from the top of a mountain, such as Teneriffe
or Mowna Roa, in a perfect calm, for the upper clouds are frequently
seen to be at rest during the hideous turmoil in the lower regions.
The sudden fall of the mercury in the barometer in latitudes
habitually visited by hurricanes is a certain indication of a coming
tempest. In consequence of the centrifugal force of these rotatory
storms, the air becomes rarified, and, as the atmosphere is disturbed
to some distance beyond the actual circle of gyration or the limits of
the storm, the barometer often sinks some hours before its arrival: it
continues sinking the first half of the hurricane, and again rises
during the passage of the latter half, though it does not attain its
greatest height till the storm is over. The diminution of atmospheric
pressure is greater, and extends over a wider area, in the temperate
zones than in the torrid, on account of the sudden expansion of the
circle of rotation where the gale crosses the tropic.
As the fall of the barometer gives warning of the approach of a
hurricane, so the laws of the storm’s motion afford to the seaman
knowledge to avoid it. In the northern temperate zone, if the gale
begins from the S.E. and veers by S. to W., the ship should steer to
the S.E.; but if the gale begins from the N.E. and changes through
N. to N.W., the vessel ought to go to the N.W. In the northern part
of the torrid zone, if the storm begin from the N.E. and veer through
E. to S.E., the ship should steer to the N.E.; but if it begin from the
N.W. and veer by W. to S.W., the ship should steer to the S.W.,
because she is on the south-western side of the storm. Since the
laws of storms are reversed in the southern hemisphere, the rules
for steering vessels are necessarily reversed also.[138]
A heavy swell or storm-wave is peculiarly characteristic of these
tempests. In the centre of the hurricane the pressure of the
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookgate.com