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Fundamentals Physics
Eleventh Edition

Halliday

Chapter 4
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

4-1 Position and Displacement (1 of 4)

Learning Objectives
4.01 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional
position vectors for a particle, indicating the
components along the axes of a coordinate system.
4.02 On a coordinate system, determine the direction and
magnitude of a particle's position vector from its
components, and vice versa.
4.03 Apply the relationship between a particle’s
displacement vector and its initial and final position
vectors.
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4-1 Position and Displacement (2 of 4)

• A position vector locates a particle
in space
o Extends from a reference point
(origin) to the particle
r = xi + y j + z k, Equation (4-1)

Example
Position vector (−3m, 2m, 5m)
r = ( −3 m ) i + ( 2 m ) j + ( 5 m ) k
Figure 4-1
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4-1 Position and Displacement (3 of 4)

Position of particle is specified by

r (t ) = x(t )iˆ + y (t ) ˆj
which is a vector depending on time.
Can be separated into motion for each
y
separate direction. 40

20
x
80 0 t
70 0 10 20 30
60 -20
50
40 -40
30
20 -60
10
0
0 10 20 30
t -80

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4-1 Position and Displacement (4 of 4)

• Change in position vector is a displacement
 r = r2 − r1. Equation (4-2)

• We can rewrite this as:

 r = ( x 2 − x1 ) i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k, Equation (4-3)

• Or express it in terms of changes in each coordinate:

 r = xi + y j + z k. Equation (4-4)

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (1 of 10)
Learning Objectives
4.04 Identify that velocity is a vector quantity and thus has both
magnitude and direction and also has components.
4.05 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional velocity vectors
for a particle, indicating the components along the axes of the
coordinate system.
4.06 In magnitude-angle and unit-vector notations, relate a particle’s
initial and final position vectors, the time interval between
those positions, and the particle’s average velocity vector.
4.07 Given a particle’s position vector as a function of time,
determine its (instantaneous) velocity vector.
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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (2 of 10)
• Average velocity is
o A displacement divided by its time interval

r
. v avg = Equation (4-8)
t
• We can write this in component form:
xi + y j + z k x y z
v avg = = i+ j+ k. Equation (4-9)
t t t t

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (3 of 10)
Example
• A particle moves through displacement
12 𝑚 𝑖Ƹ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑘෠
in 2.0 s:
 r (12 m ) i + ( 3.0 m ) k
v avg = = = ( 6.0m/s ) i + (1.5m/s ) k.
t 2.0s

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (4 of 10)
• Instantaneous velocity is
o The velocity of a particle at a single point in time
o The limit of avg. velocity as the time interval shrinks
to 0
dr
v= . Equation (4-10)
dt

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (5 of 10)
• Visualize displacement and instantaneous velocity:

Figure 4-3 Figure 4-4

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (6 of 10)
The direction of the instantaneous velocity v of a particle is
always tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position.

• In unit-vector form, we write:

v=
d
dt
( dx dy
xi + y j + z k = i +
dt
)
dt
dz
j + k.
dt
• Which can also be written:

v = v x i + v y j + v z k, Equation (4-11)

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (7 of 10)

dx dy dz
vx = , v y = , and v z = . Equation (4-12)
dt dt dt

• Note: a velocity vector does not extend from one point

to another, only shows direction and magnitude

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (8 of 10)
Checkpoint 1
The figure shows a circular path taken by a particle. If the
instantaneous velocity of the particle is v = ( 2 m/s ) i − ( 2 m/s ) j,
through which quadrant is the particle moving at that instant if it is
traveling (a) clockwise and (b) counterclockwise around the circle?
For both cases, draw v on the figure.

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4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous

Velocity (9 of 10)
Answer:
(a) Quadrant I

(b) Quadrant III

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4-2 Avg. Velocity and Inst. Velocity (10 of 10)

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (1 to 8)
Learning Objectives
4.08 Identify that acceleration is a vector quantity, and thus has both
magnitude and direction.
4.09 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional acceleration vectors
for a particle, indicating the components.
4.10 Given the initial and final velocity vectors of a particle and the time
interval, determine the average acceleration vector.
4.11 Given a particle's velocity vector as a function of time, determine its
(instantaneous) acceleration vector.
4.12 For each dimension of motion, apply the constant-acceleration
equations (Chapter 2) to relate acceleration, velocity, position, and
time.
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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (2 to 8)
• Average acceleration is
o A change in velocity divided by its time interval

v 2 − v1 v
a avg = = . Equation (4-15)
t t
• Instantaneous acceleration is again the limit t → 0:
dv
a= . Equation (4-16)
dt

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (3 to 8)
• We can write Eq. 4-16 in unit-vector form:

a =
d
dt x
(
v i + v y j + vz k )
dv x dv y dv
= i+ j + z k.
dt dt dt

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (4 to 8)
• We can rewrite as:
a = a x i + a y j + a z k, Equation (4-17)

dv x dv y dv
ax = , ay = , and a z = z . Equation (4-18)
dt dt dt

• To get the components of acceleration, we differentiate

the components of velocity with respect to time

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (5 to 8)

Figure 4-6

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (6 to 8)
• Note: as with velocity, an acceleration vector does not
extend from one point to another, only shows direction
and magnitude

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4-3 Average Acceleration and

Instantaneous Acceleration (7 to 8)
Checkpoint 2
Here are four descriptions of the position (in meters) of a puck as it moves
in an xy plane: Answer:
1. x = −3t 2 + 4t − 2 and y = 6t 2 − 4t 1) ​x : yes, y : yes, a : yes
2. x = −3t 3 − 4t and y = −5t 2 + 6 2) ​x : no, y : yes, a : no
3. r = 2t i − ( 4t + 3) j
2
3) ​x : yes, y : yes, a : yes
4. r = ( 4t 3 − 2t ) i + 3j 4) x : no, y : yes, a : no
Are the x and y acceleration components constant? Is acceleration a
constant?
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4-3 Avg. Acceleration and Inst. Acceleration

(8 to 8)

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4-4 Projectile Motion (1 of 15)

Learning Objectives
4.13 On a sketch of the path taken in projectile motion, explain
the magnitudes and directions of the velocity and
acceleration components during the flight.
4.14 Given the launch velocity in either magnitude-angle or
unit-vector notation, calculate the particle's position,
displacement, and velocity at a given instant during the
flight.
4.15 Given data for an instant during the flight, calculate the
launch velocity.

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4-4 Projectile Motion (2 of 15)

• A projectile is
o A particle moving in the vertical plane
o With some initial velocity
o Whose acceleration is always free-fall acceleration (g)
• The motion of a projectile is projectile motion
• Launched with an initial velocity v0
v 0 = v0 x i + v0 y j. Equation (4-19)

v0 x = v0 cos  0 and v0 y = v0sin  0 . Equation (4-20)

In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are
independent of each other; that is, neither motion affects the other.
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4-4 Projectile Motion (3 of 15)

• Therefore, we can decompose two-dimensional motion
into 2 one-dimensional problems

Figure 4-10
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4-4 Projectile Motion (4 of 15)

Checkpoint 3
At a certain instant, a fly ball has velocity v = 25i − 4.9 j
(the x axis is horizontal, the y axis is upward, and v
is in meters per second). Has the ball passed its highest
point?

Answer:
Yes. The y-velocity is negative, so the ball is now falling.

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4-4 Projectile Motion (5 of 15)

• Horizontal motion:
o No acceleration, so velocity is constant (recall Eq. 2-
15):
x − x 0 = v 0 xt.
x − x0 = ( v0 cos 0 ) t. Equation (4-21)

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4-4 Projectile Motion (6 of 15)

• Vertical motion:
o Acceleration is always -g (recall Eqs. 2-15, 2-11, 2-
16):
1
y − y0 = v0 yt − gt 2
2
( v0 sin  0 ) t − 2 gt 2 ,
1
= Eq. (4-22)

v y = v0 sin  0 − gt Eq. (4-23)

v y2 = ( v0 sin  0 ) − 2 g ( y − y 0 ) . Eq. (4-24)

2

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4-4 Projectile Motion (7 of 15)

• The projectile’s trajectory is
o Its path through space (traces a parabola)
o Found by eliminating time between Eqs. 4-21 and 4-
22: 2
𝑔𝑥
𝑦 = tan 𝜃0 𝑥 − 2
Equation (4-25)
2 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0
𝑔𝑥
= 𝑥 tan 𝜃0 −
2 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 2

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4-4 Projectile Motion (8 of 15)

• The horizontal range is:
o The distance the projectile travels in x by the time it
returns to its initial height
v02
R= sin 2 0 . Equation (4-26)
g

R
The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of 45°.
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4-4 Projectile Motion (9 of 15)

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4-4 Projectile Motion (10 of 15)

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4-4 Projectile Motion (11 of 15)

Checkpoint 4
A fly ball is hit to the outfield. During its flight (ignore the effects of
the air), what happens to its (a) horizontal and (b) vertical
components of velocity? What are the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical
components of its acceleration during ascent, during descent, and at
the topmost point of its flight?
Answer:
(a) is unchanged
(b) decreases (becomes negative)
(c) 0 at all times
(d) −g ( −9.8 m/s 2 ) at all times
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4-4 Projectile Motion (12 of 15)

Shooting a Monkey A

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𝑟′
Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ0
4-4 Projectile Motion (13 of 15)
Shooting a Monkey
If there were no gravity, simply aim at the monkey

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟′
Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡 = 𝑟Ԧ0

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡

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𝑟Ԧ ′ = 𝑟Ԧ0 + 12𝑔𝑡 2
4-4 Projectile Motion (14 of 15)
Shooting a Monkey
With gravity, still aim at the monkey!
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟′
Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡 + 12𝑔𝑡 2 = 𝑟Ԧ0 + 12𝑔𝑡 2

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡 + 12𝑔𝑡 2

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4-4 Projectile Motion (15 of 15)

• In these calculations we assume air resistance is negligible
• In many situations this is a poor assumption:
Table 4-1 Two Fly Ballsa
Path I Path II
(Air) (Vacuum)
Range 98.5 m 177 m
Maximum 53.0 m 76.8 m
height
Time of 6.6 s 7.9 s
flight
aSee Fig. 4-13. The launch angle is 60° and
the launch speed is 44.7 m/s. Figure 4-13
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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (1 of 7)

Learning Objectives
4.16 Sketch the path taken in uniform circular motion and explain
the velocity and acceleration vectors (magnitude and
direction) during the motion.
4.17 Apply the relationships between the radius of the circular path,
the period, the particle's speed, and the particle’s acceleration
magnitude.

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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (2 of 7)

• A particle is in uniform circular motion if
o It travels around a circle or circular arc
o At a constant speed

• Since the velocity changes, the

particle is accelerating!
• Velocity and acceleration have:
o Constant magnitude
o Changing direction

Figure 4-16
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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (3 of 7)

• Since the velocity changes, the particle is accelerating!
o Constant radius 𝑅
o Constant speed 𝑣 = 𝑣Ԧ

 +  = 90
 +  = 90

 =

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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (4 of 7)

Δ𝑣 Δ𝑅
Similar triangles: 𝑣
= 𝑅

But Δ𝑅 = 𝑣Δ𝑡 for small Δ𝑡

Δ𝑣 𝑣Δ𝑡 Δ𝑣 𝑣 2
So: 𝑣 = 𝑅 =
Δ𝑡 𝑅

Hence the “centripetal”

acceleration is,
Δ𝑣 𝑣 2
𝑎 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑅
Which points towards the center of the circle of radius R
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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (5 of 7)

• Acceleration is called centripetal acceleration
o Means “center seeking”
o Directed radially inward
v2
a= Equation (4-34)
r
• The period of revolution is:
o The time it takes for the particle go around the closed
path exactly once
2 r
T= Equation (4-35)
v
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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (6 of 7)

Checkpoint 5
An object moves at constant speed along a circular path in a
horizontal xy plane, with the center at the origin. When the
object is at x = −2 m, its velocity is − ( 4 m/s ) j.
Give the object’s (a) velocity and (b) acceleration at y = 2 m.

Answer:
(a) − ( 4 m/s ) i
(b) − ( 8 m/s 2 ) j
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4-5 Uniform Circular Motion (7 of 7)

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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (1 of 6)

Learning Objectives
4.18 Apply the relationship between a particle's position, velocity,
and acceleration as measured from two reference frames that
move relative to each other at a constant velocity and along a
single axis.

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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (2 of 6)

Relative Velocity
Observed velocity depends on velocity of observer!

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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (3 of 6)

• Measures of position and velocity depend on the reference frame
of the measurer
o How is the observer moving?
o Our usual reference frame is that of the ground

• Read subscripts
o “PA” as “P as measured by A”
o “PB” as “P as measured by B”,
o “BA” as “B as measured by A”
• Frames A and B are each watching
the movement of object P
Figure 4-18
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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (4 of 6)

• Positions in different frames are related by:
x PA = x PB + x BA . Equation (4-40)

• Taking the derivative, we see velocities are related by:

( x PA ) = ( x PB ) + ( x BA ) .
d d d
dt dt dt
v PA = v PB + v BA . Equation (4-41)

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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (5 of 6)

• But accelerations (for non-accelerating reference
frames, aBA = 0) are related by

( v PA ) = ( v PB ) + ( v BA ) .
d d d
dt dt dt

a PA = a PB . Equation (4-42)

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4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension (6 of 6)

Observers on different frames of reference that move at constant
velocity relative to each other will measure the same acceleration
for a moving particle.
Example
Frame A: x = 2 m, v = 4 m/s
Frame B: x = 3 m, v = −2 m/s
P as measured by A: xPA = 5 m, vPA = 2 m/s, a = 1 m/s 2
So P as measured by B:
o xPB = xPA + xAB = 5 m + (2m – 3m) = 4 m
o vPB = vPA + vAB = 2 m/s + (4 m/s – −2m/s) = 8 m/s
o 𝑎 = 1 𝑚/𝑠 2
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (1 of 10)

Learning Objectives
4.19 Apply the relationship between a particle's position, velocity,
and acceleration as measured from two reference frames that
move relative to each other at a constant velocity and in two
dimensions.

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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (2 of 10)

• Frames A and B are both observing the motion of P

𝑟Ԧ𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟Ԧ𝑃𝐵 + 𝑟Ԧ𝐵𝐴

Figure 4-19
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (3 of 10)

• The same as in one dimension, but now with vectors:
• Positions in different frames are related by:
𝑟Ԧ𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟Ԧ𝑃𝐵 + 𝑟Ԧ𝐵𝐴 . Equation (4-43)
• Velocities:
𝑣Ԧ𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣Ԧ𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐴 . Equation (4-44)

• Accelerations (for non-accelerating reference frames):

𝑎Ԧ𝑃𝐴 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑃𝐵 . Equation (4-45)

• Again, observers in different frames will see the same

acceleration
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (4 of 10)

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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (5 of 10)

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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (6 of 10)

Crossing the River
Find the length 𝐿 as a function of angle 𝜃
𝐵 𝐶

𝐿
y 𝑣𝑟
ℎ
𝑣Ԧ𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡,𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣Ԧ𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑣Ԧ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟,𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑣𝑏 = (𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗)Ƹ + 𝑣𝑟 𝑖Ƹ
x  = (𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 )𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
𝐴
ℎ
The time needed for the crossing is ℎ = 𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑡 → 𝑡 = 𝑣
𝑏 cos 𝜃
Hence the distance from 𝐵 of landing side is
ℎ(𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 )
𝐿 𝜃 = 𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 𝑡 =
𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (7 of 10)

Crossing the River L
With 𝑣𝑏 = 3 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣𝑟 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 (𝑣𝑏 > 𝑣𝑟 )
and ℎ = 10 𝑚, we obtain the graphs of
length 𝐿 with respect to 𝜃 as shown on
the right.
We see that 𝐿 = 0 can be obtained, and
the boat should be directed to a certain 
angle that is calculated as follows
ℎ(𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 )
𝐿(𝜃) = =0
𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃
𝑣𝑟
𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 = 0 → sin 𝜃 = −
𝑣𝑏
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (8 of 10)

Crossing the River L
𝑣𝑟
𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑟 = 0 → sin 𝜃 = −
𝑣𝑏
°
Yielding the value of 𝜃 = −41.8 , which
means that the boat is directed with an
angle to the left of the 𝐴𝐵 line.
𝐵 𝐶

𝐿
y
ℎ
𝑣𝑟
𝑣𝑏
x 𝜃
𝐴
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions (9 of 10)

Crossing the River
If 𝑣𝑏 < 𝑣𝑟 for example 𝑣𝑟 = 3 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣𝑏 =
2 𝑚/𝑠 (𝑣𝑏 < 𝑣𝑟 ) and ℎ = 10 𝑚, we
obtain the graphs of length 𝐿 with respect
to 𝜃 as shown on the right.
Note that 𝐿 will never be zero. BUT there
is a minimum value of 𝐿 corresponding to
a specific angle. This angle can be found
by finding the minimum of 𝐿 𝜃

𝑑𝐿 ℎ 𝑣𝑏2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑏2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃 ℎ 𝑣𝑏2 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃

= =
𝑑𝜃 𝑣𝑏2 cos2 𝜃 𝑣𝑏2 cos 2 𝜃
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4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions(10 of 10)

Crossing the River
𝑑𝐿 ℎ 𝑣𝑏2 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐿
= 2 → =0
𝑑𝜃 𝑣𝑏 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
yields
𝑣𝑏
𝑣𝑏2 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 0 → sin 𝜃 = −
𝑣𝑟
For the above data, we found that 𝜃 =
−41.8° , which means that the boat
should be directed to the left of the 𝐴𝐵 𝜃
line, and the minimum distance is
𝐿 = 11.18 m

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4 Summary (1 of 6)
Position Vector
• Locates a particle in 3-space
r = xi + y j + z k, Equation (4-1)

Displacement
• Change in position vector

 r = r 2 − r 1. Equation (4-2)

 r = ( x 2 − x1 ) i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k, Equation (4-3)

 r = xi + y j + z k. Equation (4-4)

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4 Summary (2 of 6)
Average and Instantaneous Velocity
r
v avg = . Equation (4-8)
t
dr
. v= Equation (4-10)
dt
Average and Instantaneous Accel.
v 2 − v1 v
a avg = = . Equation (4-15)
t t
dv
a= . Equation (4-16)
dt
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4 Summary (3 of 6)
Projectile Motion
• Flight of particle subject only to free-fall acceleration (g)
1
y − y0 = v0 y t − gt 2 Equation (4-22)
2
= ( v0 sin  0 ) t − gt 2 ,
1
2
v y = v0 sin  0 − gt Equation (4-23)

• Trajectory is parabolic path

y = ( tan  0 ) x −
gx 2 Equation (4-25)
2 ( v0 cos  0 )
2

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4 Summary (4 of 6)
• Horizontal range:

v02
R= sin 2 0 . Equation (4-26)
g

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4 Summary (5 of 6)
Uniform Circular Motion
• Magnitude of acceleration:
v2
a= Equation (4-34)
r
• Time to complete a circle:
2 r
T= Equation (4-35)
v

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4 Summary (6 of 6)
Relative Motion
• For non-accelerating reference frames

v PA = v PB + v BA . Equation (4-44)

a PA = a PB . Equation (4-45)

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