Impact of Indian Architecture on the Architecture of

Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia

Dr Uday Dokras

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Impact of Indic Design elements upon Khmer landmarks
Fueled by HINDU religions in Cambodia
Shiva and Vishnu have been the lead dieties in S.E. Asia 1000 years ago. How they reached
there etc is another story which I have told in many books and papers. Please visit https://su-
se.academia.edu/DrUdayDokras.

Shiva came first…..The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts
between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE)
extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with
the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of
the Khmer elite) which was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to
their faith. Vishnu, as a protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the
backlash against Buddhism.

By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained
more adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion,
by decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme
creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the
divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.

One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple
of worship rather than a funerary site.

Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical nexus in
Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are represented by
the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on
Mount Meru and it is famously referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his
brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira
and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells
Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not allowed in
heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but

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the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last
time before allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works
of Hindu religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of
Kurukshetra from the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana.
As most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book
on which the important religious and cultural tales could be related visually.

Churning of the Ocean of Milk

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries -
giving ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of
the people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in
these reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to represent the world with the four corners of the
outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding
oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal
processions all wind themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present
day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for
prayers answered. The central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the
earth, and the Vishnu statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the
heart of all earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were
used for astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose so that
astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There is no doubt
the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the
constellation of Draco, the dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and statues of
the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the already impressive iconography. As
the Buddhists respected the beliefs of the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the

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original statuary and artwork was left in place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate
story of the temple while taking nothing away.

By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was still occupied
by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories and legends. It was said to have been
built by the gods in the distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it
as a palace for his son and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple
was protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and so, unlike other ancient
temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of archaeologists
who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle and have located the sites of the
workers who built the temple and of others who lived around the complex. The temple itself
has undergone major restoration and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the
world. Those who visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally millions
of people from the past who have emerged from the surrounding jungle to find themselves at
the site Suryavarman II created as the nexus of earth and heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India,
the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of
religious architecture and particularly Hindu architecture in the whole World.

Situated some 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern
Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the
Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his mausoleum.
Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu, then a Theravada Buddhist
temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous site
of religious art and its silhouette appears on the Cambodian national flag. The temple is
renowned for its high classical style of Khmer architecture, as well as the staggering quantity
of its relief sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large
sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867, announcing a great
and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work of the greatest architects in the
West. In 1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN
World Heritage Site.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from which Khmer
kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast
Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the
kings of Angkor controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina
peninsula northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal.
During this era, these kings implemented a series of massive construction projects designed
to glorify both themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII
(1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still
a thriving metropolis and one of the most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great
construction boom was over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai
armies were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was limited almost
entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been maintained by Buddhist

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monks, became one of the most significant pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the
complex fell into disrepair and all that remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient
temples and the remnants of the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never
completely abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total engulfment. After the
French took over Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of reconstruction,
under which Angkor Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals were restored to something
approaching their original grandeur. The political and military upheavals which took place in
Cambodia during the period 1935-1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise caused no
great headaches. The site's only serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle.

Vaishnatite influences Architecture and Construction

The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an
average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more stone than all the Egyptian
pyramids combined, and originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day
Paris. Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor
was designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas imported from
India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the
city (originally called Yasodharapura) was named, Angkor was designed as a symbolic
universe modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, and its temples were built in order to
provide a means whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely
identified with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for
instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a
home for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with
Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style of Angkorian
architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include Banteay Samre and Thommanon
in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of
Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early
Dravidian architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace
upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another
famous shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho.

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Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of Angkor Wat is
laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the central tower (one of a
quincunx), which rises to a height of 213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the
towers at each stepped level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined
with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat, via a stone
causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent the spiritual world and
mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The
temple's structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the
corbelled blockwork and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures
chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic rock.

Sculpture
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be seen on almost
all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally miles of reliefs, typically in

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the form of bas-relief friezes illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a
bewildering array of animal and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes
and garlands. They include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas,
snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of
the greatest sculptors in southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair,
garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and human figures. In addition to reliefs,
Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. While
the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated with a series of large-scale
scenes depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the
southern gallery walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu
mythology, while the eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning
of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat
were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals, according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to
3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby
mountain. The researchers found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor
temples and also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the
rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the sandstone
bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones were
ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current through another river
to the temples.

To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries along an
embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite images of the area and
found a network of hundreds of canals and roads linking the quarries to the temple site. The
distance between the quarries and the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22
miles (37 kilometers), compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when constructing the temple,
which may explain how the imposing complex was built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as Isanapura, was the
capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain
colonettes with capitals that include a bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but examples
are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more
heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes
which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The
following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple
regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of

innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and

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 relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square
and octagonal colonettes begin to appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer
empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some
fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving
temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the
Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area
of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who
built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one
of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists
eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer
empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The
architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center.
Brick still main material but sandstone also used.
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the
temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after
the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple
constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the
extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-
reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform
gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were
built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese
traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique
relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures
typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot
currently be appreciated in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the
mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines
what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other
temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor,
and Phimai in modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman
VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa.
Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for
which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in
the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay
Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a
hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under
Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th
century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon
kings, dancers, and nāgas.

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Construction techniques

Corridor

The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight
of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater amounts of stone than all the
Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-
day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried
barely 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone
quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount
Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal towards Tonlé
Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres (9 mi)
against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi).
However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have
discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor
Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There are kilometres
of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged
dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and
celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with
almost 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that
they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times
and were a prime target for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone
sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark
Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to
quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so
much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The
skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as
demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the
Khmer came to power

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Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as their materials.
The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost
to decay and other destructive processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple
towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into
a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This because bricks being softer
material do not lend itself to sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the
Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in
the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are
assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in
relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is
much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are
similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A
Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a
tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built
a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of
paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower
of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen
mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick,
sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as
door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be
constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that
hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings.
Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless
first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at
Angkor itself.[10] Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been
used in the underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones),
because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple.

1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick

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 2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less entirely from
sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

Central sanctuary

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the
one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of
a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was
represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple
was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home
for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was
never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of
the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the
greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the
legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmer
religious architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly carved. They were a
common shrine element of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were
later adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya
Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In Thailand it appears only
with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front') and aṅga (limb
of the body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi. Prang tower took form of a multi-
tiered structure with receding size as it ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof
structures of the stepped pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower is
taller than it actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu
temple, although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points, a prang usually has

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richly adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or blind doors. The prang took plan of
multi corners rectangular, which on top of each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which
mostly took theme of multi-headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.
Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun Thornbury Thailand

PRANGS

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods, such
as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang tower, the cella, was relatively small for two
reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the capital of
the Khmer only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was called
the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-shaped prang, modeled
after the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned by a top stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha (temple towers)
elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century prangs in Thailand were
influenced by the Khmer architects of the great temple complexes of Angkor
Wat and Angkor Thom.
Thai temples

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Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang
The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom
Rung and Lopburi between the early 10th century and the late 12th century, when
the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai
Kingdom adapted the Prang form. They extended and developed it. The building material
was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or
laterite covered with stucco. And the cella could be reached only by stairs. An example for
this is the Prang of the Wat Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang
suggested the cella only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed
the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally taken the central position inside. For
reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul,
the "weapon of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets its Khmer
origin be only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the landmark of Bangkok. Also Wat
Phra Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in a row. Another example is the four Prangs
arranged in all four directions around Wat Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat
Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central
sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges
surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between
these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention,
enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of
Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of
gopuras located at the cardinal points.

Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.
A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a
temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during
the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround
the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the
12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of
the temple.

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Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed
under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic
stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls

surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive
gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a
temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan,
gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected
to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross.
The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often
placed or carved on either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century temples
constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay
Chhmar. It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into
four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only
the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of
dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself may have been used for
dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples
constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta
Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and
south-facing windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers.
An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor.
The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he
visited Angkor in 1296 CE Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function
as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

22
Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.
Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple
architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as
religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings,
they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to
the west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment,
respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious,
agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on
either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century
temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple
standing at the center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-
century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the
Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that
of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the
gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures
represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the

23
ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods
was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by
King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly
identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of
the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and
stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the
prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between
Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but
also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways
in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker,
the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose
essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served
as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained
shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not
as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is
distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the
background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to
work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about
the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on
the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the
tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative
scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or
13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly,
the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of
the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created
by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.

24
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a lintel, above which is a
tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The
other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along
otherwise blank walls. RIGHT PIC This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats
negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian
narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the human
hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and
his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras

25
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams
and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round,
rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and
decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm.

Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways
and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls
on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre
than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch
is structurally weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian
engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and
made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained.
These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls
surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled
structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation.
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical
columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked
the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their passageways using lintels
or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the
decorated surface of a pediment.

Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a
result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars

26
have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. [28] The most beautiful Angkorean
lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well
as various forms of vegetation.[30] Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated
with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or
pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is
associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of
the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies. Four arches joined
by three medallions, the central once carved with Indra. Small figure on each makara. A
variation is with figures replacing the makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras disappear, being
replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more rectilinear. Large figures sometimes
at each end. A variation is a central scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a garland of vegetation
(like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions disappear, central one sometimes
replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java, including the kala
and outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich, will-carved and
imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side. Distinct loops of vegetation
curl down from garland. Outward-facing makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu
on Garuda common.

Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny figures disappear.
Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight circular coils. Garland begins to dip in the
center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost the entire height
of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures shows a curved line to
the sampot tucked in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and Bakheng. Central
figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland sometimes makes
pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of each loop. Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with triangular
tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at the center. Kala sometimes

27
 surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland on either side divided by flora stalk and
pendant. Vigorous treatment of vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding a steed or a
Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of garland no longer cut. Another
type is a scene with many figures and little vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second type is a narrative
scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls are tight and prominent. Dress
mirrors that of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of the lintel
surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the middle of the period the
garland is cut into four parts, while later a series of whorls of foliage replace the four
divisions.[32]
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.
Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of
the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons
for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious
perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the
gods. "From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize,
"the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire
building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

28
Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple
the Bayon.///Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.
Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology.
Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra
manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of
individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce
mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for
decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was
a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is
sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though
minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly
called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the foundations of the
12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of
Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of
the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean
of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they
appear individually and in groups.

This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs.
They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and
other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the
temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah
Khan and Banteay Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At
Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The
gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.

29
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a
short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic
bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the
mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor
number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely
Khmer.[37] They may be classified as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of Vishnu or Krishna,
bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies.
Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat
that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most
common atlas figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic
relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this context, Garuda symbolizes the
military power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not
coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's
victory over invaders from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often
depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the
nāga heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may
again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda.[

S Y M B O L I S M
The worship of the Shri Yantra is central to the Shri Vidya system of Hindu worship. It
represents the Goddess in the form of Devi Tripura Sundari, the natural beauty of the three
worlds: Bhu Loka (Physical Plane, Consciousness of the Physical Plane), Bhuvar Loka

30
(Antariksha or Intermediate Space, Sub-Consciousness of the Prana) and Swar Loka
(Svarga or Heaven or Super-Consciousness of the Divine Mind). The Shri Yantra is the
symbol of Hinduism, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of the vedas. The Shri Yantra
is the object of devotion in Shri Vidya.
The Shri Yantra represents the evolution of the multiverse as a result of the natural Divine
Will of the Godhead Aadi Paraa Shakti. The four upward-pointing isosceles
triangles represent the Goddess's masculine embodiment Brahm, while the five downward-
pointing triangles symbolize the female embodiment Jagat jannani.[5] The 12 and 15 sides of
the four upward and five downward triangles also correspondingly symbolise, on the physical
plane, the 12 sidereal zodiac signs of the Sun and 15 'nityas' phase-signs of the Moon.
The Shri Yantra is also known as the nav chakra because it can be seen to consist of nine
concentric layers that radiate outward from the bindu. ("Nau" or "nava" means "nine"
in Sanskrit.) Each level corresponds to a mudra, a yogini and a specific form of the deity
Tripura Sundari along with her mantra. The various deities residing in the nine levels of the
Shri Yantra are described in the Devi Khadgamala Mantra. These levels, listed from
outermost to innermost, are:

1. Trailokya Mohana, the outermost square, traced in three lines and interrupted by four
recessed portals;
2. Sarvasaa Paripuraka, the outer lotus, consisting of 16 petals;
3. Sarva Samkshobahana, the inner lotus, consisting of 8 petals;
4. Sarva Saubhagyadayaka, the outermost ring of small triangles (14 in total);
5. Sarvarthasadhaka, the next ring of triangles (10 in total);
6. Sarva Rakshakara, a smaller ring of 10 triangles;
7. Sarva Rogahara, a ring of 8 small triangles;
8. Sarva Siddhiprada, one small triangle containing the bindu at its center;
9. Sarva Anandamaya, the bindu.
The sound of the shankha symbolises the sacred Om sound. Vishnu holding the conch
represents him as the god of sound. Brahma Vaivarta Purana declares that shankha is the
residence of both Lakshmi and Vishnu, bathing by the waters led through a shankha is
considered like bathing with all holy waters at once. Sankha Sadma Purana declares that
bathing an image of Vishnu with cow milk is as virtuous as performing a million yajnas (fire
sacrifices), and bathing Vishnu with Ganges river water frees one from the cycle of births. It
further says "while the mere sight of the conch (shankha) dispels all sins as the Sun dispels
the fog, why talk of its worship?” Padma Purana asserts the same effect of bathing Vishnu by
Ganges water and milk and further adds doing so avoids evil, pouring water from a shankha
on one's own head before a Vishnu image is equivalent to bathing in the pious Ganges river.

31
idea of a famed female musician and spiritual teacher going by the name of Shri Anandi Ma,
Nikora ashram is a unique place of tranquility as well as spirituality.
With a picturesque tree - lined pathway leading to the temple’s main gate, Nikora is like a
magical mirage situated deep in the recesses of the nearby forest by offering devotees and
tourists alike a magnificent view towards the shores of Narmada Nadi.
Geographically situated in the heart of the sleepy Indian village named “Nikora”, Nikora
ashram may not be an age - old shrine but nonetheless, it’s not one to be ignored for it serves
as a refuge for the needy and it houses a small medical center for diagnose and treatment of
rare diseases and a number of eye problems.
With time, the modern - looking temple gained popularity as a site where everyone, no matter
of their religion or social standing, could seek spiritual advice and immerse themselves in the
world of meditation.

32
Ceiling of the Nikora Yantra temple establishing the YNTRA diagram

33
 II

Historical Ties India and Indonesia

By Sanjeev Nayyar
Brought here by Dr Uday Dokras
For your convenience I have divided this file into five chapters (please visit this beautiful
country)–
1. Past & Present Links - paras 1-2. Click here
2. Garuda, language - paras 3-16. Click here.
3. Literature, music, dances. - paras 17-23. Click here.
4. Batik - paras 24 to 28. Click here.
5. Tourism - Java (Borubunder temple, Prambanan temple). Click here
Bali (Besakih – mother temple of Bali). Click here
Sumatra. Click here.
Location:
Indonesia lies along the equator and consists of more than 13000 islands. The main islands
are Java, Bali, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya.

complete map of Indonesia

Indonesia’s capital Jakarta is situated in Java

1. Past Historical Links:

As we all know, India and Indonesia have been having trade and cultural links for the last
2000 years. The start was made by Indian Traders, who were the first to arrive there in the 1st
Century. Hinduism and Buddhism were next to follow. Even today a ship starts from the port
of Paradeep in Orissa to Bali. The voyage is known as Bali Yatra.

34
The earliest historical record is in Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java. An early Hindu
archeological relic of a Ganesha statue from the 1st Century AD has been found on the
summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island. The next historical record is in the area of Kutai
on the Mahakam River in east Kalimantan. Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of
the fourth century are recorded in the Pallavi script of India. The inscription reads: “A gift to
the Brahmin priests”.
This inscription is followed by the famous Batu Tulis (stone writing) near Bogor in Western
Java. On a huge black boulder in, around 450 A.D king Purnawarna inscribed his name and
made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant’s footprints. The accompanying
inscription reads, ‘Here are the footprints of King Purnawarna, the heroic conqueror of the
world’. This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. This is the oldest
archeological monument in Java.
These two historical monuments are followed by (Candi) Badut near Malang in East Java
built in A.D 760. Candi is the name of the Hindu Goddess of Time and Death. This area is
literally strewn with ancient Hindu temples and even today temples are being dug out from
the ground.
During the 8th and 9th century, the world’s largest Buddhist complex Borobudur and
Prambanan the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia were built near Yogyakarta in
Central Java. In the 10th Century, students were sent to Nalanda Buddhist University in
N.E. India.

King Airlangga in the 11th Century was a great

scholar. He got many sastras of India translated
into ancient Kawi language.

In Sumatra in the 12/13th Century arose the great Kingdom of Sriwijaya. However, it was
during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk of the Majapahit Kingdom that the Prime Minister
Gajah Mada united the entire Indonesia into a single state. It was the golden era of Indonesia.
The other important links where Sanskrit inscriptions have been found are at Batu Tulis, near
Bogor, Joko Dolog in Surabaya and at iron pillar at Sanur in Bali. In the sixteenth century
Islam was gradually introduced by the Indian merchants from Gujarat and today Indonesia is
90% Muslim.
2. Present Links:

35
 In August 1927 when Rabindranath Tagore,
the Nobel prize winner arrived at Tanjung
Priok harbor, he burst into a verse in the
memory of the golden threads of kinship that
have existed between India and Indonesia.
In 1932, Dewantoro, the founder of Taman
Siswa Schools, painter Affandi and Dr. Ida
Bagus Mantra visited Tagore in India at
Shanti Niketan.
In 1947, Biju Patnaik came to visit Soekarno
in Indonesia. Soekarno's wife had just given
birth to a baby girl. It was raining heavily and
Biju Patnaik suggested the name of
"Meghawati" (Megha in Sanskrit means rain
cloud). At present moment, Megawati,
Soekarnoputri, the daughter of Soekarno is
the President of the Republic of Indonesia.
She is thought of as Putri of India also by the
older generation.
In 1947, Biju Patnaik flew a private plane full
of medicines to Indonesia and also rescued
Mohammad Hatta and P.M. Sutan Sjahrir
from the Dutch and brought them to India. In
1951 when Nehru visited Bali he said, "this is
the morning of the world".
Nehru of India, Nasser of Egypt and
Soekarno of
Indonesia were the main architects of the policy of cooperation by the exploited nations
against the rich nations. Ever since the political, business and cultural relationship between
the 2 countries has been excellent. The first Asian African conference held in Bandung in
1955 brought Indonesia and India very close to each other.
3. State Policy:
The national emblem of the Republic of Indonesia – “Garuda Pancasila” is adorned with the
with the words Bhineka National emblem.
Tunggal Ika- which Mention must be made
means Unity in Diversity. here of Panca Sila, the 5
The concept of Bhineka basic principles of the
Tunggal Ika was started Republic of Indonesia.
during the 8th–9th They are: Faith in one
centuries in Central Java God, Nationalism,
to create an Democracy, Humanity
understanding between and Just Society. All
Hinduism and Buddhism. over Indonesia, at Govt.
Classic example is Candi places you see Garuda,
Shiwa - Buddha. the vehicle of the Hindu
Afterwards King God Vishnu alongside
Airlangga made use of it with a Panca Sila

36
 in the 11th century. plaque. Indonesians are
However it was Mpu extremely proud of their
Tantular the court poet of historical cultural past.
the Majapahit kingdom Indonesia like India is
who during the reign of secular and even one of
King Hayam Wuruk their currency notes
propagated this idea of a carries a picture of Lord
Unity in Diversity, in his Ganesha.
poem
Garuda in the Indonesian history holds a place of honor. It is a symbol of national emblem
with Wishnu riding it. Garuda sculpture is shown in countless temples. Garuda stands for
complete devotion to Lord Vishnu and subsequent freedom from evil. Garuda also stands for
the freedom of the people of Indonesia from foreign rule.
4. Language:
Although there are hundreds of dialects throughout Indonesia, yet Bahasa Indonesia in roman
script is understood everywhere and this is what unites them all in their outlook. Indeed
“Bhineka Tunggal Ika” ‘Unity in Diversity’ stands proved through Bahasa Indonesia, which
shares many common words with Sanskrit like Guru, istri, suami, putri, putra, warna, Akasha
and niscaya. Bahasa Indonesia is a very artistic language. Matahari means eye of the day
which means Sun. Bunga Uang means flower of money, which means interest. The Japanese
encouraged the use of Bahasa Indonesia for ulterior motives but the language grew into a
great unifying factor under Soekarno.
5. Customs and culture:
Indonesia is a very cultured country where they have fixed hereditary cultural customs called
Adat. It is appreciated when one does not talk or laugh loudly, keeps a smiling face, even
when things go wrong and shows special respect to elders. Children are adored and pampered
but controlled well. Never call anyone raising your finger, or give or receive anything with
the left hand. Do not touch the head of a child even out of affection, for they believe the head
is the seat of the soul. Dress properly when you visit a temple, a mosque, a church or a
Vihara.
6. Volcanoes:
Indonesia has well over 300 volcanoes, out which more than 100 are active. Krakatau, which
lies between Sumatra and Java, blew up in 1883 shooting debris 27Kms in the air.
Subsequent ash and dust clouds could be seen as far as Central America, a few thousand
kilometers away. It was the biggest volcanic eruption of the world. The crater made was 40
sq. kilometers wide and 300 meters deep.
7. Climate:
Climate throughout the year is moderate, so you could do well with cotton clothes. However
it can be very cold at high altitudes, so plan accordingly.
8. Agriculture:
Indonesia is an agricultural country and has a great forest area and an exceedingly fertile
land. Rice, coconut and bananas grow almost everywhere, besides cotton, palm oil, rubber,
cocoa, tea and coffee. The variety of fruits is beyond description. Many of them are unknown
in India and elsewhere. Pisang Raja a type of banana grows to almost 1 foot in length.
9. The Fabulous Spices of Indonesia especially cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon first attracted
the Indian Traders in the 1st century. Afterwards the Portugese, Dutch and the British came
to Indonesia and fought wars over the spices with the Indonesians as well as amongst
themselves.

37
10. Oil and Gas:
Indonesia is an oil producing country and most of the reserves are located in Central Sumatra.
The gas reserves are in the North Sumatra. Indonesia is the world’s largest exporter of
liquefied natural gas.
11. Rain Forests:
Indonesia has large rain forests in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya.
12. Currency: The Rupiah is the official currency of Indonesia and at present one US dollar
can be exchanged for around 9000 Rupiah. One of the currency notes carries a photo of Lord
Ganesha.

13. Industry:
Very recently Indonesia has
entered the industrial world
in a big way. They have
fitted up the most modern
refineries and chemical
plants. The entire Batam
island, which is 12
kilometers from Singapore,
has been converted in a free
trade zone. Batam is
connected to two other
islands Rempang and Galang
with most modern bridges.
The development of this area
has been fantastic.
14. Mufakat and Musyawarah: Coming to an agreement after mutual discussion wherein
the views of voters in minority are equally respected.
15. Gotong Royong: Means joint responsibility and mutual cooperation amongst the people
under normal or emergency conditions.
16. Religion: Although the majority follows Islam, yet every one is free to practice one’s
own religion. Thus Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and Buddhism coexist with each other. The
Indonesians believe a lot in Mysticism and Spiritualism, and attach a lot of importance to it.
Solo or Surakarta in Central Java is the mysticism Centre of Indonesia. Mention may be made
of Sumarah foundation where they make use of yoga terminology of various Chakras. A large
number of Indonesians follow Animism, which believes that there exists a hidden power
(Spirit) in everything: in Trees, Rivers and Mountains, etc.
17. Literature: Ramayana and Mahabharata are most popular in Indonesia. They were
probably translated in the 11th century during the reign of King Airlangga in the ancient

38
Kawi language. King Airlangga was himself a great scholar and ascetic who spent many
years in the jungle in meditation. Ramayana and Mahabharata are the basis of innumerable
dances, plays, sculptures, paintings and music themes. The entire ancient literature has been
written on the leaves of lontar palm. The literature has thus been preserved well in many
libraries of Indonesia and also at Gedung Kritya in Singaraja in Bali.
1. Ramayana: Ravana the evil king of Sri Lanka kidnaps Sita, the wife of Lord Rama. In the
battle that follows, Lord Rama kills the evil king with the help of Hanuman the monkey king
and his followers and rescues his wife Sita. Thus Virtue prevails over evil. Ramayana exhorts
us to lead a life based on Dharma.
2. Mahabharata: It relates about the war between two families, the Pandavas and the
Kauravas. During the battle Lord Krishna gave a discourse to Arjuna that it was his dharma
to oppose evil and injustice. Finally he convinced him to fight the evil Kauravas and defeat
them.
3. Arjuna Wiwaha about heroism of Arjuna was written in 1035 AD by MPU Kanwa.
4. Bharat Yudha about the battle between Pandavas and Kauravas was written in 1157 AD
by MPU Sedah.
5. Panji Cycle: Originated in East Java 500 years ago. It is written about Prince Panji and his
beautiful bride Candra Kirono (Ray of the moon). Tales from Panji cycle are the basis of
many masked and puppet dances.
6. Letters of Javanese Noble: In modern literature,
special mention must be made of Raden Adjeng Kartini,
who wrote this modern master piece. It describes the
patriotic feelings of Kartini through letters written to
Dutch friends. She also wrote strongly in favor of
education for women and their welfare. Kartini’s day is
celebrated throughout Indonesia with public meetings,
lectures and parades etc. in order to propagate her ideas.
7.Chairil Anwar's angry poems against Japanese are
well known.
8.Rendra was another gifted poet, actor and a great
director of dramas.
9. Panchatantra: In India Panchatantra holds a unique place. It was written in 200 B.C. by
Pandit Vishnu Sharma. It has now been translated in modern Indonesian recently. It is about
3 princes who were absolute idiots. The king hands them over to a great scholar Pandit
Vishnu Sharma, who arouses their interest by telling them stories about animals. Very
cleverly, through these stories, he imparts knowledge to them and guides them how to live in
harmony with all. After Ramayana and Mahabharta, Panchatantra is the most popular Shastra
in India.

39
 English
version
Indonesian
Translated by Chandiramani
version
Translated by Jyoti Daryanani and
Chandiramani
18. Badui Tribe:
For the last 400 years this Hindu tribe has been allowed to stay in isolation and maintain their
customs and culture in an area of 50 kms on a mountainous area in Java called Kendeg.
19. Tenggerese:
Around 3, 00,000 Tenggerese live in 40 villages around Mount Bromo at a height of 3000
meters. They follow a religion that is a mixture of Hinduism and Buddhism. They live in
complete harmony with all. They are highly respected for their straight forwardness. You will
find a huge tree in every village strewn with flowers and people saying prayers under it. Also
every year the Tenggerese observe Kasada ceremony when they offer sacrifices to God of
Mount Bromo.
20. Music:
There is a lot of similarity between our
music systems. Tilang, Bhopali and
Shudh Sarang are few of the common
ragaas between our two systems.
Special mention must be made of their
gamelan music which is soul stirring.
It is a percussion type orchestra made
up of mainly bronze and wooden
xylophones. Drums, flutes, gongs, and
sometimes singers and dancers join in
to make it livelier. Sundanese music is
the nearest to Indian music. The
orchestra consists of Kecapi, a string
instrument, Gendang drums, flute, iron
gongs, and Angklung that is a frame
made out of bamboos.
21. Dances:
Ballets based on Ramayana & Mahabharata are worth mentioning. There are innumerable

40
types of dances but special mention must be made of Wayang Kulit, a shadow dance. It is
usually a one-man show by a person called Dalang who controls the movements of various
puppets plus talks with various voices befitting each character. Shadow dance has been
practiced in Indonesia for the last 2000 years and probably the inspiration came from South
India. Tales from Mahabharata, Ramayana and Panji cycle are frequently used in Wayang
Kulit.

Indonesian masks

Wayang Kulit

R
ama and Shinta (Sita) from
Ramayana

There is a lot of similarity between our dances. The

popular Chau (masked dance) dance of Orissa is Topeng
(masked dance) of Indonesia. The similarity is astounding.
However each area in Indonesia has its own local dance.
Each one is unique. Do not miss it.
Like in Java, you have Reog, Bedaya Kitawang and Golek
Ayun; in Bali, Kecak, Legong and sang Hyang Dedari
(trance); in Sumatra, the Lilin (Candle) and Rontak dance.
In Sulawesi, they have Pakarena dance praying for the safe
return of the seaman. In Kalimantan they have Giring
dance which is a ritual dance. In Irian Jaya, they have
Maori dance which is a war dance.

41
 Indon
esian mask dance
Chau dancing by Prakriti
Kashyap
22. Drama
Each part of Indonesia has its version of dramas.
In Java Ludruk is very popular. It is mainly taken from mythology, history and local life.
Many times it is a satire.
Ketoprak is another extremely popular drama covering all aspects of life. Dancing and
singing also accompany this drama.
23. Keris:
The Indonesians attach a lot of value to Keris, a
wavy bladed dagger inherited as family heirloom.
Once a year it is worshipped with burning of
incense and prayers. A Keris is supposed to have
a spirit and is treated with great respect. The keris
is considered a magical weapon, filled with great
spiritual power. In Javanese there is a term
"Tosan Aji" or "Magic Metal" used to describe
the keris. The keris is replete with the totems of
Malay-Indonesian culture; Hindu and Islam.
24. Batik:
One of the most developed textile lines- the batik printing involving wax printing is the most
important in Indonesia. It is at least 4 centuries old. Yogyakarta is the centre of Batik
printing. On all official government functions, it is mandatory to wear Batik. Batik Tulis
(Writing) is

42
 another
popular
type of
cloth
printing
. The
designs ;
in both
types
are
beyond
words.
Solo
(Central
Java) is
very
well
known
for its
Batik
creation
and
motif.

25. Silk industry:

Garut, which is around 60 km from Bandung, is the centre of cultivation of silk worms. Silk
threads are woven into fabrics which are subsequently mildly scoured or even bleached very
lightly. Subsequently Batik printing takes place producing a very high quality of silk Batik.
26. Food:
Since they have thousands of islands, the variety of seafood is beyond words.
For the vegetarians: 1. Gado-Gado: which consists of all types of vegetables with peanut
sauce is nowadays recognised as an international dish.
2. Martabak: It is a pancake which can be stuffed with vegetables.
3. Nasi Goreng: Fried rice is also available with vegetables only.
4. Mie Goreng: Fried noodles with vegetables only.
5. Tempe: It is made from fermented soya bean.
6. Ketan: Rice pudding
7. Bubur Santen: Rice porridge.
8. Coconut cakes
9. Crunchy peanut cookies
For the Non-Vegetarians:
1. Sate Ayam: Barbequed pieces of chicken roasted over charcoal fire.
2. Opor Ayam: It is chicken cooked in coconut milk with spices.
3. Nasi Goreng: Fried rice is also available with chicken.
4. Ikan Asin Manis: It is a dish of fish with sweet and sour taste.
5. Krupuk: Made out of shrimps in the form of papads.
27. Fruits:

43
 There are so many fruits in Indonesia, which are not
grown in India or elsewhere. Try Durian, which
stinks like hell but tastes like heaven, mangosteen
rambutan, salak, duku, avocado, belimbing, jambu,
guava, sirsak, langsat, buih, jambu air, sawo and
markisa are other fruits, not to forget pineapples and
bananas. Pisang Raja is a type of bananas which is
almost one foot in length.

28. Drinks:
Beer, Brem (Rice Wine), Arak, Buah es (Mixture of Fruits) with honey and condensed milk.
Infrastructure:
With ultramodern airports, super highways, 5 Star Hotels and modern communication
facilities, Indonesia has entered the modern world with a bang. Indonesia offers great
possibilities for trade with India, with its abundance of raw materials like oil, gas, timber and
other agricultural products.
29. Tourism:
With its numerous mountains, volcanoes, islands and ancient monuments dating back to 400
A.D, Indonesia offers a lot to the tourists. Ask for special brochure Candi Yatra, honeymoon
in Bali and Batam island near Singapore.
(This brochure clearly states as to what may be visited).
Java:
Western Java
Jakarta was once a Hindu kingdom called Pajajaran. Afterwards in the 16th century, it was
conquered by Muslims and renamed Jayakarta (Great Victory). Afterwards the Dutch
conquered it and renamed it as Batavia. After Indonesia declared independence, it was named
Jakarta, a short form of Jayakarta.

44
 1. Ujung Kulon National Park: An early Hindu relic of
Ganesha from the First Centeury AD has been found here.
2. Batu Tulis: refer to page one.
3. National Museum: It has sculptures of Brahma, Vishnu,
Shiva, Buddha, Ganesha and many other Hindu Gods and is
rated as one of the best museums in the world. The Museum
Nasional or National Museum built in 17th Century has a
wealth of stone statues in many different forms and sizes,
most notably relating to ancestral worship. The most notable
statues are of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha and Buddha.

Buddha
Stone Shiva
statue, Bronze
Borobudur statue,
temple, Adiwerna,
Brahm Ganesh Central Tegal,
a Stone statue, Vishnu Java, 9th C, Central
Stone statue, Banon temple, Stone Height= Java
Banon temple, Magelang, statue, 106cm 10th - 11th
Magelang, Central Java, 8th Banon C
Central Java C, Height= temple, Height=
10th - 11th C 148cm Magelang, 96cm
Height= 150cm Central
Java
10th -
11th C
Height=
296cm
Photos by courtesy of Ms. Endang Sri Hardiati, Director of the Museum Nasional
4. National Monument: MONAS.
It symbolises fertility. It is over 135 metres tall and is coated with 35 kilos of pure gold. From
the top, one can have a view of Jakarta. The basement houses a museum of nation’s history.
5. Jaya Ancol: Ancol Dream Land. It is the biggest recreation area in S.E. Asia. One of its
main features is Dunia Fantasi (World of Fantasy). It is open 24 Hrs.

45
 Jaya Ancol is Jakarta's all-in-
one recreation park and a great
place located on the waterfront
to the north of the city. In this
place you can find: ANCOL
ART MARKET
This is an outdoor art market
and recreational place where
you will be most tempted to
purchase something. Items
include antiques, handicrafts,
paintings, pottery, and
knickknacks. With many of the
artisans working on site, it is a
paradise for souvenir hunters
and art lovers.

SEA WORLD DUNIA FANTASI (Fantasy World)

Inside the Ancol Dreamland It is a fun theme park designed to entertain visitors
complex. Sea World is a high-tech with the fascinating worlds of modern science and
huge modern aquarium exhibiting technology. The facilities take visitors on
the special and diverse tropical imaginative tours of Africa, America and
marine life found throughout the Indonesia through some breathtaking games.
Indonesian waters. Stroll through
the Freshwater World to see
beautiful tropical fish and coral
reefs, get friendly with marine life
at the Touch Pool, and walk
through the acrylic tunnel that gives
first-hand experience of life under
the sea

46
 6. Istiqlal Mosque: It is
the largest mosque in
Asia and is worth
visiting. It was built by
Soekarno. 7.Taman
Mini :
Beautiful Indonesia in
miniature park presents
all the diversities of the
rich culture of Indonesia
giving an insight into
their skills, architecture,
customs, etc

Taman Mini
8. Mahabharata: scene sculpture showing Lord Krishna driving Arjuna in a chariot

Arj
una Wijaya statue, Jakarta

10.Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM):

TIM is the centre of dance, music,
drama and culture in Jakarta. Dramas,
dances, music, lectures and shadow
plays are constantly going on.

47
 11. Shopping:
Sarinah Departmental Store is
one of the leading
departmental stores, where the
prices are fixed and you can do
some sensible shopping.
Everything is available here.
Block M is another modern
departmental store.
Don’t forget Jalan Surabaya -
flea market.

CENTRAL JAVA
Yogyakarta: (Jogja)
1.Borubudur: As already stated, Yogyakarta has the world’s largest Budhhist Complex of
Borubudur. It was built in the 8/9th Century by Sailendra Dynasty. It rises to seven
terraces, each smaller than the one below it. At the top, the great Stupa stands 40 metres
over the ground. It lay under the volcanic ash for a few centuries, until it was dug out in
the 19th century during the British occupation of Indonesia.

Borobudur
Borobudur

The Indonesian Government with the help of UNESCO has renovated it into one of the
world’s best and renowned monuments. On the full moon day in May, thousands of
Buddhists from all over the world assemble here for prayers. They light candles long
before sunrise and prayers go on continuously.

48
Candi Mendut and Pawon are the satellite temples of Borobudur.

3. Prambanan: Yogyakarta also boasts of this largest Hindu Temple complex in Indonesia,
which was built in the 10th century by King Pikata of the Sanjay Dynasty. It has Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva temples in it. The real name of Prambanan Temple is Lorojonggrang
(slender cursed virgin). Very often, Ramayana Ballet is staged at the Prambanan temple
complex. Thousands of foreign visitors watch this divine dance ballet.

49
 ;

Kalasan, Sari and Sewu are the satellite temples nearby Prambanan Hindu Temple Complex.
4.Taman Sari: Water Castle:
In the past it was a bathing
place for royalty. Nowadays
it has become a place for
meeting of artists as well as
a centre for art, culture, and
paintings. The name 'Taman
Sari' evokes the fragrance
and grace of a lush Javanese
garden, with bees probing
for nectar in masses of
flowers.

5.Kraton: Sultan’s palace: It is like a walled city,

which is run by the Sultan’s palace with Gamelan
music and dances going on and on. It is a place of
culture and tradition.

50
6. Nyai Roro Kidul: The goddess of the South seas is offered special tribute by the Sultan of
Yogyakarta every year in a very colourful ceremony, in which thousands of people
participate.
7. Gajah Mada University: Jogjakarta has the largest university in Indonesia.
8. Sedangsono: This Catholic centre of pilgrimage is 32 kms. from Yogyakarta. A statue of
Virgin Mary is installed in a mountainous area. In the village nearby, the water is supposed to
be holy. Picture on the next page shows a statue of Maria in Hindu attire inside the church at
Ganjuran, Sedangsono.
9. The Dieng temples: The Dieng temples were
built in the 8th Century and are named after the
Pandawas like Candi Arjuna, Candi Bima, etc.

10. Solo Candi Sukuh: It is like Khajuraho temple in India depicting sexual themes. It is near
Solo.

51
Demak: In 1478 A.D, near Semarang, the oldest mosque in Java was built. It is considered
very holy and is a place of pilgrimage. It is in Central Java and is 25 kms away from
Semarang.
Madura: It is famous for KARAPAN
SAPI, a very colorful bull race which is
held every year after harvest time.

East Java
East Java is known for its exotic beauty and ancient Hindu temples.
1. Candi Badut: is the oldest temple in Java near Malang and was built in 760 A.D.
2. The other temples in the area are candi Gunung Gangsir (10th Century) - Candi Kidal
(13th Century) - Candi Jago (14th Century), Candi Jawi (14th Century) and finally Candi
Singosari.
3. The cave Hermitages: East Java is known for its cave Hermitages, where Kings and
Queens used to retire in the old age to meditate and get enlightenment. The best-known caves
are near Tulungagung. King Airlangga, the Majapahit Queen mother and King Rajasanagar
went there to meditate.
4. Penataran temple complex near Blitar: It is also called the dated temple, for various dates
have been insribed in those temples. The construction of this complex started in 1197 and
ended in 1454; nearly 250 years afterwards. King Hayam Wuruk of the Majapahit Kingdom
used to visit it regularly.

52
5. Trowulan Museum: This museum has the maximum treasures of East Java. Mention may
be made of the portrait statue of King Airlangga as Vishnu on Garuda. And a relief in a
temple shows Samodra manthan, the churning of the ocean of milk by the Gods.
6. Blitar: is another very important temple complex. Soekarno, the first President of the
Republic of Indonesia lies buried in Blitar.
7. Bara Ganesha: near the village of Bara stands majestically in a garden a gigantic statue of
Ganesha built in the 14th Century.
BALI:
This unique island is Indonesia’s most popular tourist spot. It has thousands of Hindu
temples. It has a population of 90% Hindus, plus Muslims, Buddhists and Christians. There is
so much to see in Bali, that one would go crazy. Everyday there is some temple ceremony. It
is indeed correctly called “Paradise Island”. Practically every person is either an artist,
painter, or doing sculpture in stone, wood or silver. He has to be something to gain respect in
the community. Denpasar is the capital.
1. Besakih: This is known as the mother temple of Bali and must be visited. The scenic
beauty along the route is beautiful. In 1963, there was a volcanic eruption. The molten lava
would have destroyed the temple. It however stopped at the foot of the temple.
5. Trowulan Museum: This museum has the maximum treasures of East Java. Mention may
be made of the portrait statue of King Airlangga as Vishnu on Garuda. And a relief in a
temple shows Samodra manthan, the churning of the ocean of milk by the Gods.
6. Blitar: is another very important temple complex. Soekarno, the first President of the
Republic of Indonesia lies buried in Blitar.
7. Bara Ganesha: near the village of Bara stands majestically in a garden a gigantic statue of
Ganesha built in the 14th Century.
BALI:
This unique island is Indonesia’s most popular tourist spot. It has thousands of Hindu
temples. It has a population of 90% Hindus, plus Muslims, Buddhists and Christians. There is
so much to see in Bali, that one would go crazy. Everyday there is some temple ceremony. It
is indeed correctly called “Paradise Island”. Practically every person is either an artist,
painter, or doing sculpture in stone, wood or silver. He has to be something to gain respect in
the community. Denpasar is the capital.
1. Besakih: This is known as the mother temple of Bali and must be visited. The scenic
beauty along the route is beautiful. In 1963, there was a volcanic eruption. The molten lava
would have destroyed the temple. It however stopped at the foot of the temple.

53
2. Bedugul: (Ulan Danu) The view on this route is breath taking. The temple Ulan Danu is in
the lake itself.

3.Tanah Lot:
This temple is on a
cliff and must be
visited.
It was built in the 4. Goa
16th century by the Gajah: This 11th century temple
famous priest has a statue of Ganesha. It was
Naratha. On the built as a monastery.
way, if possible do
see the monkey
forest.
5. Tampaksiring: 1000 years old temple built around a sacred spring.

54
 6. Garuda Wishnu Kencana: is a modern complex built
near Ulu. Watu temple at the southern tip of Bali. 7.
Sanur Iron pillar: Inscription in Sanskrit on it is nearly
1000 years old. It describes the victory of a king over
his enemies

8.Kec
ak: Monkey dance; Sita wife of King Rama is
surrounded by dancers who keep uttering Chak-Chak
in unison. The whole atmosphere is charged with
emotion. Kecak dance is from Ramayana.

9. Hindu 10. Barong and Rangda Masked Dance:

Crematio This dance depicts the victory of virtuous
n Barong over the evil Rangda
ceremony
. If you
are lucky,
you will
see this
fantastic
ceremony
. In Bali,
death is
considere
d as
liberation
from
worldly
attachmen
ts and is
an
occasion
for
celebratio
n
11. Serangan: Turtle island: Watch the turtles lay eggs. Giant kites are flown here, especially
on a festival day.
12.Kuta Beach: Sunset on this international beach is claimed to be exotic and world

55
 famous
14. Common scene in Bali:
13. Moon of Pejeng: A huge gong, the largest of its kind
Ladies offering fruits to the Gods. in the East, is one of the archeological masterpieces
in Bali. The Balinese consider it to be charged with
magical power.

Sumatra:
1. Lake Toba: It is the largest lake (8000sq.km) in Southeast Asia and one of the deepest and
highest in the world. It has an island in its midst, named Samosir.

56
 2. Muaro Takus Temple ruins: Nearly
10sq.kilometres of ancient Hindu temples
built in the 11th/12th century lie scattered
over here.
3. Maligai Stupa: This magnificent
structure is classic and geometrically built.
4. Minangkabau: Here you have the largest
matriarchal society of the world, wherein
women control everything and property is
inherited by the daughters. Minangkabau
means The Victory of the buffalo,
Bukittinggi is the centre of culture and etc.

5.
Pencak
Silat:
This is
the
unique
form of
self-
defence
as well
as
dance
form.

Molucas: It is another important area of Indonesia which covers approximately one thousand
islands of which Ambon is most known. It has a very rich tradition of dance and music. They
have a special Gamelan Orchestra called Totebang. They have also a bamboo dance which is
called gaba-gaba. Molucas is known for its gigantic production of cloves.
Sulawesi: Tanah Toraja, corpses are sealed in rock cemeteries hewn out of mountains. It is at
10 hours drive from Ujung Pandang. It is a very popular tourist spot. It is only here that the
puppets.

57
 Cliffside grave, Tanah
Toraja
Looking like humans are worshipped. Here life sized effigies of the dead are placed in high
balconies carved in Limestone cliffs to protect the treasures of the dead.

Kalimantan: Many large rivers flow from the central mountains of Borneo into the sea. The
jungle and the interior of Borneo is one of the most mysterious and exotic places on Earth.
Oil and Timber are the major exports.
Irian Jaya: Capital is Jayapura. It is 80% forest area. Lakes, flowers, wild streams are
abundant. It has the highest mountain in Indonesia called Jayawijaya, which is always
covered by snow.
What Nature has given only to Indonesia
1.Reticulated Python: One of the world’s
largest and the longest snake, 9 meters in
length
2.Orangutan: (Man in the forest). A huge
ape type animal living on trees with a thick
reddish fur. It is a native of Sumatra. It is
an endangered species. The rescued
orangutans are reintroduced to natural wild
at Tanjung Puting Park. It is a place worth
visiting.

3. Komodo dragon: Is the largest lizard in the world weighing over 150kgs. It can grow upto
3 metres in length. It can climb trees and prey on monkeys. His tail can kill a buffalo with
one stroke.

58
4. Rafflesia: A giant insect eating flower, one meter in diameter and weighing 7kilos, which
blooms in October. Named after Raffles, the only English Governor General of Indonesia.
5. Crimson Bird of Paradise: Only on the island of Waigeo the crimson bird of paradise is
found.

6. Pattae Cave: A cave painting of a leaping bear with a spear through his heart in 10000 a
B.C. to 2000 B.C. in South Celebes (Sulawesi).
7. Glory of the Seas: World’s extra ordinary shell which is extremely rare and costly beyond
words is found in Indonesia.
8.The three-coloured Lake:
In Flores, there is a lake in
a volcanic crater showing 3
colours. No one knows
how.
9.The Tree in Borneo: that
does not float but sinks in
water. Extremely hard and
resistant to insects.

Pantun:
Lastly a word about Pantuns. Pantun in Indonesia is a verse having double meaning. Just like
in Sanskrit. Here we are giving a classic example
The gardener looked after the flower,
One day a bee flew by
And the flower smiled at it.
When the grasshopper saw this,
He smiled too.
Here in the above verses the gardener stands for the father, the flower for the daughter, and
the bee for the Prince charming and grasshopper for the spectator. Just study the subtleness of
the verses. Sanskrit is full of such verses.

59
Dukuns:
They are the local medicine men who make use of the local Herbs (Jamu just like Ayurvedic
herbs). They also recite Mantras to cure their customers of illness and cast black magic on the
opponents of the customers.
Books on Indonesia:

History:
1. Background to Indonesia: Kilgour Ron.
Aukland -NewZealand
2. A History of Java Vol I-II. By Raffles: Thomas S.
Black Perbury & Allen London.
NewZealand.
Art:
1. Ancient Indonesian Art: Kompers Benet.
DPJ Van der Peet. Amsterdam:Holland.
2. Music in Java: Kurst Jaap: Nijhoff- Hague:Holland.
Literature:
1. Letters of a Javanese princess:Kartini Raden.
AA Knopf of New York
2. Twilight in Jakarta: Libris Mochter
Hutchinson-London
3. Panchatantra: An Ancient classic written in Sanskrit in 200B.C.by Pandit Vishnu Sharma.
Basis of Tantri Tales and Kisah Tantri
Translated into more than 50 languages of the world.Now translated into Indonesian by Jyoti
Daryanani and Chandiramani.Touched up by Sri Artaria.
Published by Dian Rakyat-Jakarta
Politics:
1. Soekarno_ Cindy Adams
Bobbs Merril_New York.

Travel:
1. Lonely Planet: Indonesia: Bobbs Merril: New York .
2. A Tale from Bali: Vicki Baum-Oxford-London.
3. Indonesia Handbook: By Bill Dalton.
Published by: Moon Publications-Rutland , Vermont 05701, USA.
Language:
How to master Bahasa Indonesia by Almatsier A.M.
Publisher Penerbit Djambatan.

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 III
Ancient Indonesia(Funan) and the Immigration of indian
Tantrism through the ORISSA State
Dr Uday Dokras
The cultural heritage of each nation confines the real value of cultural formation process, the
positive expression of the historical tradition and national characteristics. Ancient Odisha,
popularly known as Kalinga was the epicenter of the inland and foreign trade and played a
leading role in the dissemination of their culture and civilization in the Indonesian islands and
there is a need to ensure that these cultural practices and traditions borne out of enduring
commercial and cultural relationship live on and its meaning, symbolism and significance is
not obliterated from social consciousness with the passage of time and confrontation with
modern lifestyles.

Kalinga is a historical region of India. It is generally defined as the eastern coastal

region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers, although its boundaries have
fluctuated with the territory of its rulers. The core territory of Kalinga now encompasses a
large part of Odisha and northern part of Andhra Pradesh. At its widest extent, the Kalinga
region also included a part of present-day Chhattisgarh.

The Kalingas have been mentioned as a major tribe in the legendary text Mahabharata. In the
3rd century BCE, the region came under Mauryan control as a result of the Kalinga War. It
was subsequently ruled by several regional dynasties whose rulers bore the
title Kalingadhipati ("Lord of Kalinga"); these dynasties
included Mahameghavahana, Vasishtha, Mathara, Pitrbhakta, Shailodbhava, Somavamshi,
and Eastern Ganga. The last two dynasties to rule over Kalinga were the Gajapati
dynasty and Suryavansh of Nandapur.

One of the unique aspects of India’s Cultural Heritage is that we have persevered our
traditions and customs through our evolution since ages without a break to the present day.
The unbroken thread of our ancient civilization and its preservation has also startled scholars
from far and wide. We Indians have always felt a sense of pride in our rich cultural heritage
but somewhere in our march towards adopting the glittering aspects of Western ethos we
have somewhat lost touch with the actual glory of our past and do not give due regards to the
cultural identity, historical continuity and significance to many of our long standing cultural
traditions and the lasting impressions they left on faraway lands.

61
Kalaratri and Vadyarupa of the 64 Yoginis

Chamunda, Orissa State Museum, Odisha

"Chamunda should be with sunken eyes, three eyed, without flesh and reduced to skeleton,
having hairs shooting upwards, sunken belly, wearing the skin of an elephant, holding a
pattisa and a decapitated head in her two left hands and a spear and a sword in her two right
hands, seated on a corpse and adorned with a garland of skulls."
-Agni Puran (50, 21-23)
"The ladies of these Places
Bestow siddhis upon practitioners,
They always come at night,
They always go at night.
-Hevajra Tantra

A
board in State Museum of Orissa with informaiion on Shaktism
In Odisha Tantra vidya was known to have been popular from 6th century A.D. which
marked the beginning of decline of Buddhism. However some scholars believe that Hindu

62
and Buddhist Tantrism and the Shakti cult all have a common source in antiquity. Many
Tantric texts connected with Shakti worship were composed during this period. Many Shakti
temples were constructed and devis were worshiped in their myriads of forms. Side by side
the cults of Matrikas and Yoginis also evolved in various parts of Odisha.
Baitāḷa deuḷa or Vaitāḷa deuḷa is an 8th-century Hindu temple of the typical Khakara
style of the Kalinga architecture dedicated to Goddess Chamunda located in Bhubaneswar,
the capital city of Odisha, India. It is also locally known as Tini-mundia deula due to the
three spires on top of it, a very distinct and unusual feature. The three spires are believed to
represent the three powers of the goddess Chamunda - Mahasaraswati, Mahalakshmi and
Mahakali.
Baitaḷa Deuḷa Temple’s striking feature is the shape of its sanctuary tower. The semi-
cylindrical shape of its roof is a leading example of Khakhara order of temples— which bears
an affinity to the Dravidian Gopuram of the South Indian temples. Its gabled towers with a
row of Shikharas reveals unmistakable signs of southern intrusion.The plan of the deuḷa is
oblong and the jagamohana is a rectangular structure, but embedded in each angle is a small
subsidiary shrine. Baitala deuḷa boasts of some figures, although executed in relief, are
however characterized by delicacy of features and perfect equipoise.
The outer walls are encrusted with panels of Hindu deities, mostly Shiva and his
consort Parvati, hunting processions, capturing of wild elephants and the occasional erotic
couples.The facade of the deuḷa above the left of the jagamohana is dominated by
two chaitya windows—the lower one having a carved figure of the sun god, Surya noted for
its facial expression, with Usha (Dawn) and Pratyusha shooting arrows on either side and
with Aruna in front, driving a chariot of seven horses.
The medallion in the upper Chaitya window houses a 10-armed Nataraja, the dancing form of
Shiva. In front of the flat roofed Jagamohana is a stone post relieved with two Buddha like
figures seated in Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana mudra.
Another striking feature is temple's Tantric associations, marked by eerie carvings in the
sanctum. The image enshrined in the central niche, eight armed Chamunda, locally known as
Kapaḷini, is the terrifying form of goddess. Thus, Baitāḷa Deuḷa is a Shakti shrine.

63
Vertical panorama of the entire temple
The presiding deity, Chamunda or Charchika sits on a corpse flanked by a jackal and an owl
( See pictutre to RIGHT above) and decorated with a garland of skulls. She holds a snake,
bow, shield, sword, trident, thunderbolt and an arrow, and is piercing the neck of the demon.
The niche is capped by a chaitya window containing seated figures of Shiva and Parvati.
Chamunda is surrounded by a host of other smaller size allied deities carved in the lower
parts of the walls, each within a niche separate by a pilaster. The figure on the east wall, to
the right of the door, is a skeleton form of Bhairava, the counterpart of Chamunda.
The other, carved on the north wall, rises from ground, having filled his skull-cup with the
blood of a person whose severed head lies on the right. On the pedestal is an offering of two
more heads on a tray resting on a tripod, flanked by a jackal feasting on the decapitated body
on the right and a woman holding a head on the left.
The tantric character of the temple is also marked by the stone post, to which sacrificial
offerings were tethered, just in front of the jagamohana. Artificial light is needed to see in the
darkness of the interior, though early morning sun lights up the interior.
Tantra in Odisha

In Odisha Tantra vidya was known to have been popular from 6th century A.D. which
marked the beginning of decline of Buddhism. However some scholars believe that Hindu
and Buddhist Tantrism and the Shakti cult all have a common source in antiquity. Many
Tantric texts connected with Shakti worship were composed during this period. Many Shakti

64
temples were constructed and devis were worshiped in their myriads of forms. Side by side
the cults of Matrikas and Yoginis also evolved in various parts of Odisha.

Chinnamastaka mounted on a severed human head and the bull-faced Vrishabhanana

mounted on, what looks like, rock caves, Chausath Yogini Temple, Hirapur, Odisha
Hevajra Tantra (Tantric Buddhism/Vajrayana Buddhism) known to have been compiled in
7th century A.D. mentioned four important Tantra pithas of India namely Jalandhara,
Oddiyana, Purnagri and Kamarupa. Of these four, two pithas have been assigned to Orissa.
Oddiyana pitha of Orissa was the fountain head of all Trantric knowledge since early time.
Pushpagiri too was a major centre. The four early pithas of Tantrism proliferated into one
hundred and eight pithas later. In an inscription of 12th century A.D. of Maharashtra there is
mention about Mahayogesvari Ugrachamunda as the presiding deity of the sixty four Yoga
pithas (Patel).

65
A placard at the Odisha State Museum on Matrikas

The Hevajra version of the Matrika/Yogini Mandala (Ref. Snellgrove)

66
67
 A beautiful idol of Varahi , one of the 64 Yoginis, at the Odisha
A beautiful idol of Varahi ///
State Museum, Bubhaneshvar
In Odisha we find innumerable sculptural pantheons of Yogini deities. Yoginis are feminine
divinities. They are also called Matrikas. They also personify different forms of subtle
energies. Master female practitioner of Yoga, more often Tantric Yoga is also called a
Yogini. Their number of divine Yoginis was initially seven or eight but subsequently their
number increased to sixty four and got mingled with Tantric cult and rituals. The
Markandeya Purana refers to seven Matrikas.
The word Matrika is derived from the Sanskrit word, Mantra or formula which are the basis
of all forms of creation. In Yoga, mantra corresponds to the sound formula that which is a
verbal expression of an archetype that represents a state of being i.e.a divinity and allows that
divine being to be summoned.
According to Hevajra Tantra the thirty-two veins of the Hevajra's body are equated with the
Yoginis, two for each vein adds up to sixty-four. (Douglas). According to another
interpretation (Singh), the symbolic 64 is a product of 8 directions and the replication of each
one in ashtha-mandala, 8 points of the cosmic circle. The number 8 (matrikas/mother
goddesses) symbolise the condensation (sankoch) of cosmic rhythm which on expansion
(purna vikas) gives rise to 64 matrikamandal.
Among all symbols, the circle is the purest and the simplest, both in form and concept. It may
represent the Sun, the Eye, Zodiac and many other things on heaven and Earth, but
ultimately it represents the cyclic eternity and the One source of it all.
Since ancient times, a circle has been used to mark the boundaries of a sacred space. The
Agni Purana lists nine types of circular temples.
The circle also represents a chakra used for specialized tantrik rituals. In the Yogini Tantra,
images of various yoginis are placed within a circle to form a Yogini chakra or a Yogini
Temple.
In Orissa, two Chausath Yogini temples survive. One is at Ranipur Jharial in Bolangir district
and the other one at Hirapur in Khurda district. The Ranipur Jharial circular Yogini temple
belongs to 7th Century A.D. while the Hirapur yogini temple may be dated to 8th/9th century
A.D.

Hirapur

68
The Chausath or 64 Yogini temple that we visited is situated in the village of Hirapur, 20 km
outside Bhubaneswar. As soon as we arrived a small built middle aged man and two Pandits
appeared from no where, all eager to tell us about the temple. The man, who appeared to be
an ASI certified guide, began reciting the history of the temple, the name and the vahan
(vehicle) of each of the Yoginis. He had memorized the entire list of 64 yoginis but was
unable to answer much beyond that. The Pandits, as usual were eager for dakshina and found
a very hesitant devotee in me. However they managed to recite a mantra and hastily put a
vermillion tilak on my forehead before I could change my mind.

This was one of those rare temples whose basic architecture was more akin to the Stone
Henge structure in U.K. than a Hindu temple in the sense that it was simple, circular and was
open to the sky. But that was where the resemblance ended. This Yogini temple, made of a
low circular wall without a roof and a square shaped main shrine (Chandi Madap) at the
center, had beautiful and exquisitely carved female deities housed in each of the 60 niches on
the inner wall of the circular structure.
Veerkumari mounted on a Scorpion and Maheshwari mounted on a Bull, Chausath Yogini
Temple, Hirapur, Odisha

69
There were two Dvarpalas on both sides of the entrance and nine Katyayanis in the niches of
the outer wall. The Dvarpalas and Katyayanis embody wrath and anger and are possibly the
guardians of this unique temple:

The square structure or Chandi Mandap at the center is believed to house the image of
dancing Nataraj or Moha Bhairav which had been removed.
On both sides of the Pillars there were a total of eight niches housing four Bhairavs and four
Yoginis. Yoginin no. 61 had been removed.

70
While the two Pandits rattled off mechanically about how this temple was that of Kali and
only fish was offered as sacrificial bhog, to me this temple was a tribute to feminine energy in
all its beauty, power and wrath. https://www.tripoto.com/orissa/trips/odisha-iii-the-oc-cult-of-
shakti-5a4f2aa1bdd32

The Kalinga War (ended c. 265 BCE) was fought in ancient India between the Maurya
Empire under Ashoka and the state of Kalinga, an independent feudal kingdom located on the
east coast, in the present-day state of Odisha and north parts of Andhra Pradesh. The Kalinga
War included one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history. Kalinga did not have a
king as it was culturally run without any.

This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne. In fact this war
marks the close of empire building and military conquests of ancient India that began with
Maurya king Bindusara.The bloodshed of this war is said to have prompted Ashoka to
adopt Buddhism with them.

BACKGROUND OF KALINGA WAR:

The Kalinga War was fought between the Maurya Empire with Ashoka and the state
of Kalinga, a feudal republic located on the coast of the present-day Indian state
of Odisha and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh. The main reasons for invading Kalinga were

71
both political and economic. Kalinga is then said to be a glorious and prosperous region
consisting of freedom loving and artistic skilled people. The Kalinga Kingdom, also known
as the “Utkala” were the first from the Bharata (present day India) who traveled offshore to
South East for Trade.They use to follow open culture and uniform civil code. Since the time
of Ashoka’s father, King Bindusara, the Mauryan Empire based in Magadha was following a
policy of territorial expansion. Kalinga was under Magadha control during the Nanda rule,
but regained independence with the beginning of the rule of the Mauryas. That was
considered a great setback for the traditional policy of territorial expansion of the Magadhan
emperors and was considered to be a loss of political prestige for the Mauryas merely
imperative to reduce Kalinga to complete subjection. To this task Ashoka must have set
himself as soon as he felt he was securely established on the throne.

A view of the banks of the Daya River, the supposed battlefield of Kalinga from atop Dhauli hills,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha State

Kalinga (adjacent Bay of Bengal) and Maurya Empire (blue) before the invasion of Ashoka
The reasons for invading Kalinga were both political and economic. Kalinga was a
prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. Known as the Utkala,
[9]
they were the first from the region who traveled offshore to the southeast for trade. For that

72
reason, Kalinga had important ports and a powerful navy. They had an open culture and used
a uniform civil code.
Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire until the empire's fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's
grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga, but had
been repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering the newly independent empire as
soon as he felt he was securely established on the throne. [10] Kalinga was a strategic threat to
the Maurya empire. It could interrupt communications between Maurya capital Pataliputra
and Maurya possessions in central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for
the trade in bay of Bengal.
No war in the history of India as important either for its intensity or for its results as the
Kalinga war of Ashoka. No wars in the annals of the human history has changed the heart of
the victor from one of wanton cruelty to that of an exemplary piety as this one. From its
fathomless womb the history of the world may find out only a few wars to its credit which
may be equal to this war and not a single one that would be greater than this. The political
history of mankind is really a history of wars and no war has ended with so successful a
mission of the peace for the entire war-torn humanity as the war of Kalinga.
— Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra, Military History of Orissa

The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own Edicts of
Ashoka, probably in 262 BCE.[1] After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of
his father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the
savagery changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of
conquest.
According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the
ruler of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.
Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction. The whole
area of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Some of Ashoka's later edicts state that about
150,000 people died on the Kalinga side and an almost equal number of Ashoka's army,
though legends among the Odia people – descendants of Kalinga's natives – claim that these
figures were highly exaggerated by Ashoka. As per the legends, Kalinga armies caused twice
the amount of destruction they suffered. Thousands of men and women were deported from
Kalinga and forced to work on clearing wastelands for future settlement.

Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his
coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were
killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered,
Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the
Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for
having conquered the Kalingas.
— Ashoka, Rock Edict No. 13

Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Kalinga War
prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life
to ahimsa (non-violence) and to dharma-vijaya (victory through dharma). Following the
conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of
more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony, and prosperity.

73
 Transoceanic trade relations of Kalinga with Java
The Early Historical Period saw India forge transoceanic trade relations with Thailand,
Malaysia and islands of Java and Bali (Indonesia). Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa has
many references in our ancient Indian literature and scriptures which refers to present day
“South East Asia” and “Indonesia”, respectively Chanakya’s Arthasashtra also has references
on how Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty had set proselytizing missions to Ceylon (modern day
SriLanka) as well South East Asia. The Mahaniddesa work also has detailed references on
hazards of voyages to foreign known-unknown lands including Suvarnabhumi. Some ancient
scriptures also suggest that an important role was played by Brahmanas (invited by local
rulers) in spreading Indian Cultural Heritage in Suvarnabhumi. These seafarers, merchants
and traders who went on oceanic voyages were pioneers in spreading Indian Cultural
Heritage in Suvarnabhumi.

While we will mostly touch on the aspect of how political voyages from Kalinga, merchants
and traders of Kalinga were influential in spreading Indian Culture in Suvarnabhumi. This
article will focus on the cultural interactions and try to regain the lost glory from the prism of
rich ancient Maritime Trade of Kalinga (ancient Odisha). Maritime activities of Kalinga
forms one of the interesting facets of Indian History. B’coz of these trade activities cultural
heritage, customs, beliefs, language, ideas, scriptures, Sanatana Dharma’s finer aspects of
Kalinga got popularized and accepted in those habitations in other countries where
settlements were established by Kalinga’s merchants, traders and political voyagers Kalinga’s
Role in South East Asia

Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of South East Asia especially in
the Malayo-Indonesian World. As per some of the scholars of history, Kaundinya (founder of
the kingdom of Funan) was either from Kalinga or Vidarbha or Krishna Valley. The
Kaundinya and the Kalingans were settled in the upper part of Malay Peninsula. The
Kaundinya’s were associated with the Funan and Borne royal dynasties. The Kalingan’s were

74
mostly settled in Malaya and Java whereas Indians from lower Krishna valley (the Cholas,
the Pandyas, the

Malayalese, and Kannadiga’s) were settled in Sumatra Also the historical records of Sui
Dynasty (581-618 A.D.) and other Chinese texts mention about king’s courts of that time
period had several hundred Brahmins sitting in rows facing each other on both sides.
Presence of so many Brahmins in inhabitations dominated by Kalingans also hints that the
script referred by Chinese as K’un-Lun must have been scripts of KalingansMany of the
Chinese scriptures and texts speak of K’-un-Lun people, K’-un-Lun scripts, K’-un-Lun
merchants and traders. K’un-Lun can also be pronounced as Ku-lung. Ku-lung was used by
Chinese scriptures to designate an ethno-linguistic entity. Indonesian linguistics permits
changing ‘u’ to ‘i’ or ‘e’, so K’un-Lun / Ku-lung is also referred as Keling. Keling i.e.
Kalinga has been referred in many Indonesian scriptures in the most glorious periods of Indo-
Southeast Asian Cultural Countries.

Apart from this people of Kalinga also played a greater role in Java as compared to other
regions of South East Asia from 8th century A.D. onwards. The Aryamanjusrimulakalpa
(composed in Sanskrit between 700-800 A.D.) refers to some regions of South East Asia in
verses 636-649. The verses are “unrasandhisu” (the confluence of the seas) and “ambhodheh
kuksitiranta” (in the bays of the seas of their coasts). In verses 884-894, the author has given
direction about the worship of Tara in the east, southern India and the islands of the sea. The
author refers modern Java seas as Kalinga seas and it can be implied that he refers the most
important part of Java as Kalinga

In Old-Javanese epigraphy Kling i.e. Kalinga appears in the inscription from 840 A.D.
During the reign of King Airlangga (1019-42 A.D.), scriptures has mention about the
countries/kingdoms from where traders used to come their kingdom like “Kling, Aryya,
Singhala, Pandikira, Dravida, Campa, Kmir, Rmen…” Kling refers to Kalinga and Aryya
refers to lower Krishna Valley. Also, in some inscriptions of East Java reference of King
Girindra Vardhana as Bharat Kling i.e. King of Kalinga and his queen Kamalavarnadevi as
queen of Kalingapura

75
Scene of Vijay’s landing in Ceylon, Paintings of Ajanta Cave

Wall Painting at Kelaniya Temple of princess Hemamala and her husband prince Danta Kumar. It is
portrayed that Hemamala is crying Gautam Buddha’s tooth relic hidden in her hair to Sri Lanka

KALINGA - INDONESIA
The ancient relations between Kalinga and Sinhala had spread and impacted various aspects
of life i.e. starting from political relations to trade and concluding in the domains of religion
and culture Kalinga’s maritime relations with Bali and influence on adoption of Hinduism in Bali
Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of Indonesia especially in the
island of Bali. The maritime trade of Kalinga brought prosperity to the kingdom which could
largely be attributed to her overseas trade with distant lands like Indonesia. The people of
Kalinga maintained lasting commercial and cultural relationship with the Indonesian islands
of Java, Sumatra, Bali and Borneo collectively sometime referred by some scholars as
“Suvarnadvipa”. The island of Bali, formed the most attractive destination for the merchants
of Kalinga. In this process, Odia culture, customs, religious beliefs, ideas, language, script
and manners were popularised in this island.

Bali is the only island in Indonesia where Hinduism combined with Balinese concepts is still
predominant. Even now Bali has an absolute repository of the Hindu culture of India. Hindu
gods like Bhagwan Shiva, Bhagwan Vishnu, Bhagwan Brahma, Bhagwan Indra, Varuna Dev
and Bhagwan Ganesha are worshipped and highly respected. H. B. Sarkar in his book titled
“Some Contributions of India to the Ancient Civilization of Indonesia and Malaysia”
published in 1970 says, “Indeed, all known gods of any importance in the Hindu and
Buddhist pantheon of India had their heyday in Bali.”Bhagwan Shiva was considered as the
most powerful divine power and was considered as the elder brother of Buddha. As per
traditional beliefs, Bali was the considered to be the centre of the Universe and the home of
Devi’s and Devta’s. The Balinese verses, which refer to five pious women are very much
similar to India i.e. “Om Ahalya Draupadi Sita Dara (for Tara) Mandodari talha panchakanya
smarennityam”. After Hinduism, Buddhism was also very popular in ancient Bali. Indian
influence on Bali could be easily seen in composition of works on astrology (Balinese called
wariga). Sanskrit also had a great influence on their language and literature. The Balinese till
today celebrate Indian festivals like Maha Shivratri, Saraswati Puja, Durga Puja etc.

76
The name Bali is said to have originated from the kingdom of the demon emperor Maha Bali
who had gifted away the entire world to Vamana Avatar of Bhagwan Vishnu. There are
ample proofs to testify that the Hindu influence from India reached Bali b’coz of trade
relations between the two nations. Recent archaeological discoveries indicate that the contact
between India and Indonesia, particularly Bali, had been at least since beginning of the
Common Era or CE.

Discovery of rouletted ware23, glass beads, semi-precious stone beads, potsherds with
kharosthi characters etc., from Bali points to ancient cultural contact between Bali and
different regions of India. The Hindu texts such as Vrihat Samhita and Kathasarita Sagar
affirms trade relations between India and Bali since very early times

Kalinga had close links with the Hindu kingdom of Bali. The island of Bali was known to the
sailors of Kalinga as Nariketa dvipa. Many Balinese inscriptions refer to Bali as the island of
coconut24. The sailors of Kalinga made frequent voyages to the island of Bali and had their
settlements in the island who consequently spread various aspects of Hindu culture. This
glorious past has been preserved in a festival of Odisha known as Bali Yatra, celebrated
throughout the length and breadth of Odisha. It is also known as Boita Bandana festival and
is celebrated on the auspicious day of Kartika Purnima. Even today, people of Odisha
celebrate this festival by sailing boats of banana peel in rivers, ponds and sea chanting:

“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”

Kalinga and the island of Bali have influenced each other’s culture very extensively. I.G.P.
Phalgunadi, an Indonesian scholar who visited Odisha and did some field work in connection
of his research was surprised by seeing the similarity between the culture and life styles of the
people of both the places. There are many cultural elements that are similar between Odisha
and Bali, e. g. religious activities, dance forms, art and crafts, temples and monuments, textile
designs, even food habits, manners and the vocabulary. Temples as socio-cultural centres are
common both to Bali and Odisha. The discovery of similar type of rouletted ware at
Sembiran, located in north eastern Bali and from the sites like Shishupalagarh, Manikpatna,
Tamluk etc., of Odisha suggest deep ancient trade contacts between Odisha and the island of
Bali25. In Bali, there is an inscription of the fourteenth century CE written in Odia language
and script26. Also an interesting aspect came to light i.e. the scripts used in Bali in the tenth
century CE were also used in Kalinga.

Odisha played a significant role in the evolution of Hindu culture in Bali. A section of
Brahmanas in the Karangasam district of Bali styled themselves as Brahmana-Bouddha-
Katinga. It seems very likely that their ancestors were immigrants from Kalinga. Some words
and usages with regard to vocabulary crafts, religious practices, form of worship, food habits
and manners prevalent in Bali are of Odia in origin. For example, in the coastal districts of
Odisha, mother is addressed as BOU and father as BABA and in Bali the former is called BU

77
(BOU) and the latter as BAPA. In some places of Odisha, father is also called as BAPA

Tabl
e showing similarities between Odisha & Bali

The Balinese term for betet-nut is buah(goah) and in Odisha it is gua or guah. Cina/China is
the Balinese word for groundnut, while in Odia it is china or chinabadam. Both Balinese as
well as Odia’s used to call uncooked rice made out of part-boiled (or sun dried) paddy as
arua29. The plough is called lengallo in Bali while the Odias used the term langala for the
same. Another very interesting example is the use of the word peja or pelo both in Odisha and
Bali it refers the thick fluid which is separated from cooked rice before serving it. The
Brahmin priest in Odisha is known as PANDA whereas in Balinese temples he is called
PADANDA30 “the holder of Dharmic Scripture.”

I.G.P. Phalgunadi mentions in his observation “We worship in Bali three deities, represented
by masks, very much resembling the trinity, Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra in Orissa
[Odisha]… In Bali, we are especially fond of leaves of sag as in Orissa [Odisha], especially
the young leaves of the drum-stick tree, known in Orissa [Odisha] as sajana. We love to cook
its sag along with mashed coconut as is done in Orissa [Odisha]. We also love to eat cooked
banana-flowers and the core-stem of the banana plant, and also to have our food on banana
leaves as in Orissa [Odisha] and Bengal. We also prepare and eat a cake made of rice-flour
with stuffing’s like those known as manda and enduripitha in Orissa [Odisha], among other
such cakes made of rice flour. We worship a knotted bundle of paddy-sheaves as Shridevi,
the goddess of crops or harvesting, who is worshipped with the same connotation as Devi
Lakshmi, in the month of Margashira in Orissa [Odisha]. Goddess Shri Lakshmi receives
regular propitiation when the harvest is over. Lakshmi is regarded as the real owner of the
rice fields. In west Java, this goddess is known as Devi Pohachi, the Goddess of rice.”

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Balinese and Odia’s have many similarities w.r.t. food habits. Both are fond of eating saga,
especially sajana saga (young green leaves of drum-stick tree). Other favourite vegetables
common to both include banana flowers (bhanda) and core stem (manja) of the banana plant.
The Balinese also serve their food on banana leaves as in Odisha and Bengal. Similarly cakes
made out of rice-flour known as manda pitha and enduripitha are also favourite dishes of
both. The habit of chewing betel and keeping the ingredients in a wooden box are found in
both the regions
Not only food habits but also there is so much commonality is there w.r.t. religious structure
and scriptures. The Vasuki temple complex dedicated to Bhagwan Shiva (Parama Shiva),
where Shiva is supposed to sit on the head of the Vasuki, was constructed with the belief that
Bali is the centre of Universe and Mount Agung on which it was built represented
Mahameru31 (highest mountain) or pivot axis of the universe. The kirtimukha motifs (themes)
of Bali are influenced by that of the Muktesvara temple of Odisha (Bhubaneswar). Various
forms of worship also shows similarity between the two regions. One of such instances is the
worship of Goddess Sri Devi (Bali) and Devi Maa Lakshmi (Odisha). Both Devi’s are
associated with dhanya and tandula. People of both the regions worship a knotted bundle of
paddy-sheaves paying their respect to both the Devi’s. In Odisha, this worship is performed
on every Thursday in the month of margashira (November-December) and is popular as
Gurubara Manabasa.

Besides, the worship of Devi’s along with worship of Bhagwan Vishnu and Bhagwan Shiva,
Buddhism is also established in Bali. As per scriptures, Bhagwan Vishnu is regarded as a
sage like the Buddha, the Balinese speak of Shiva as an elder brother of the Buddha 33. ln the
observation of daily rituals the Shaivite priests address God as Jagannath, Suresvara and
Rudra. Suresvara and Rudra are being used for Bhagwan Shiva. The priests chant shlokas like
“Om Ksamam mam Sivadeva, lagannath hitamkara”

In Bali, some of the rituals began with following slokas:

Om ksamasva : nama Jagannatha sarvapapanirataram
Sarvakaryam idam dehi pranamami Suresvaram
xx xx xx
Om ksamsva mam Sivadeva Jagannatha hitamkara
Sarevapapa vimutkena pranammyaham Suresvaram

Jagannatha Mahaprabhu was also worshipped by people of Bali in ancient days. K. S, Behera
who visited Bali in 1992 on the occasion of Kalinga Bali Yatra festival was astonished to see
the wide spread popularity of Jagannath worship in Bali. . At Denpasar in Bali, there is a
temple of Bhagwan Jagannatha. The names of Puri and Nilachala were also used in ancient
Java and Bali. In Bali, the temple where images were worshipped was called
Puri/Pura. 36 Like the famous Ratha Yatra (Car festival) of Puri, the Balinese also carry three
wooden Gods in a grandeur procession. Masks resembling the three murtis, Jagannatha,
Balabhadra and Subhadra of Odisha cover the three wooden Gods37
The accessory articles of Indian worship such as ghrta (clarified butter), kusa (a type of grass
used in religious ceremonies), tila (sesame) and madhu (honey) are also used in Bali. Also,
divine water is used in their rituals as it’s used here in India.

Many rivers in Bali are named after the sacred rivers of India, like Ganga, Sindhu and
Yamuna. The Balinese thought that those rivers really were in Kling (Kalinga). Along with

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other rivers, the Mahanadi River flowing in Odisha is considered sacred by the Balinese.
They chant “Om Ganga, Sindhu, Saraswati, Vipasa, Kausiki-nadi, Yamuna, Mahanadi,
srestha Sarayu mahati”. Mahendratanaya, another famous river of Odisha, was also held in
high esteem in Bali. This river originating from the foot of the Mahendragiri mountains falls
in the Bay of Bengal and is regarded as a holy river similarly it is regarded as the most sacred
river in Bali. Even in the Balinese stutis (verses), this river Mahendratanaya is mentioned
along with other sacred rivers. This may indicate that in ancient times some of the emigrants
definitely were from the Mahendra Parvata (Mahendra mountain) area of the Ganjam district
of Odisha.
The stuti or shloka runs as follows:
Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna
Godavari Narmada Kaveri Sarayu Mahendratanaya
Cornavati Renuka Bhadra Netravati Mahasuranadi
Khyata ca Gandaki Punyah Puranjalah Samudrasahitah
Kurvantu te mangalam

Buddhism was also quite established in Bali. Clay stupikas and votive tablets inscribed with
Buddhist dharani of c. 8th century CE are some of the positive evidences of the popularity of
Buddhism in Bali. In Odisha, votive tablets with inscriptions and figures of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas are known from the excavations at Ratnagiri and Avana in the coastal Odisha.
Similar objects have also been discovered from Bali.

Another resemblance between Odisha and the island of Bali is the designing patterns of
clothes. The tie-and-dye fabric of Odisha has its close parallel in Bali. Bali is the only state in
the Indonesian Archipelago famous for a particular type of tie-and-dye fabric known as
PATOLA. Odisha and Gujarat are the only states in India which specialise in this type of
weaving. It is believed that the famous Sambalapuri style of textile weaving has influenced
the PATOLA tie and dye style of textile weaving of Bali. In Balinese cremation textile,
Odishan kumbha designs are there.

The Hindu caste system of India is also found in the Indonesian society, though the Brahmins
and Kayasthas (a branch of kshatriyas) are held in equal regard. The behavioral features in
both places also have much similarity. The youngsters, while passing along elders sitting or
standing on the way, bend down separating themselves by stretching down their right hands
towards ground. Raising of folded hands, as a common form of greeting, is a practice in both
Odisha and Bali. Like Odisha, in the island of Bali, if a guest comes to a Hindu family he is
first treated with a betel leaf and a nut. On auspicious occasions like marriage, the Balinese
Hindus invite relatives to their house by sending betel leaf and nut as it is in practice in the
coastal districts of Odisha39. In Bali, during marriage ceremony the bride and the groom wear
a type of head dress (MUKUTA), which is very much like the head dress used in marriage
ceremonies in Odisha.

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 Masakapam Kepesih Ceremony, Bali

The folk dances of Odisha like chaiti ghoda nata (chaiti ghoda dance), danda nata, naga nata
(naga dance), kandhei nata (puppet dance), Ramalila etc., are very much present in both the
islands of Bali and Java, though in a slightly different form. There is also striking affinities
between Prahalada Nataka performance of Odisha and Barong dance of Bali. Masakapam
Kepesih (as shown in image) ceremony in Bali is same as Bali Yatra “Boita Bandana” of
Odisha. The festivals are held in both countries in the month of November

Hence, it can be said that Kalingans extensively contributed towards the evolution and
development of Hindu Culture in Bali. In spite of the outside influences, the Balinese have
never lost their indigenous practices like Balinese calendars follow five days a week and
Saturdays are considered auspicious marked for worship of Devi Saraswati,
Temple Architecture Resembling Oceanic vesseal

Lingaraj Mandira, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Lingaraj Mandira has a magnificent representation of a boat (c.11th century CE). The scene
represents a woman steering a boat with an oar. The depiction of a woman steering a boat is a
unique specimen in the history of the Indian art tradition. It indicates that maritime activities

81
were so popular in those days among the people of Odisha that even women were associated
with the steering of the boat.

Sri Mandira (Jagannatha Mandira), Puri, Odisha

Boat with King on Bhogamandapa of

Jagannatha Mandira, c. 12th Century CE, Puri

Jagannatha Mandira also has a magnificent representation of a boat in chlorite stone on the
Bhogamandapa (hall of offering). The represented scene is of the Nava Keli Utsava
“Chandan Jatra” (rowing festival) of Jagannath Mahaprabhu. From the analysis of this
depicted boat, it can be presumed that the king and his attendants are shown preparing for this
festival. The middle portion of the boat has a cabin and in its entrance, representation of
attendants on either side can be discerned. Four women are shown seated with their oars. In
the rear end, two ladies are depicted. Between the two, one is standing with a chhatra
(parasol) and the other is shown holding something in her hand, probably associating with a
sort of worship to be performed before the rowing festival begins. The boat represented here,
is also of MADHYAMANDIRA type
Brahmeswar Mandira (Temple), Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Shipment of Elephants from Odisha Coast/ Depiction of boats carrying elephants, Brahmeswar Mandira,
c.11th Century CE, Bhubaneswar, Odisha/ Vaital Mandira, c. 8th Century CE, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

The earliest representation of ships can be found in the sculptured frieze collected from the
vicinity of the Brahmeswar Mandira, Bhubaneswar and is now preserved in the Odisha State
Museum. The frieze depicts two ships, one is fully represented and in the second one, only

82
the frontal part is shown. In the first ship, it can be noticed that there is a standing elephant in
the front part of the ship. In the centre of the ship, two persons are represented being seated,
and two sailors are shown with oars in the rear end steering the ship.

Vaital Mandira, western side of Bindusagara pond (adjacent to famous Lingaraj

Mandira of Bhubaneswar)
Mandira is known as Vaital Deula after the peculiar form of its roof resembling a ship or boat
capsized. (The word “deula” in Oriya language means a building structure built with a
particular style that is seen in most of the temples from Odisha. Sometimes the whole temple
is called Deula)
The term Vaita is probably a contraction of the Sanskrit word vahitra which means a sea-
going vessel or ship. The word Vaitara denotes a ship, and as the roof of this temple
resembles an overturned boat, it is reasonable to call it as Vaital Deula. The external
appearance of the mastaka is similar to the hull of a ship reversed, and with the ends removed
by planes at right angles to the longitudinal axis. The three crowning members resemble the
masts of a ship
Konark Mandira (Sun Temple) Odisha .

Giraffe in the Sculpture of Sun Temple, Konark, c. 13th Century CE/ A sailing boat (c. 18th
Century CE Palm Leaf Painting), Odisha

At Konark, on the beki (parapet) of the Jagamohana (audience hall or hall in front of the
sanctum) of the Sun temple, the martandabhairavas are shown as dancing on boats. Another
interesting stone sculpture of a fullfledged boat of Odisha, supposed to have been collected
from Konark (c. 12th century) and now preserved in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, depicts a
boat being rowed by four persons. It is observed from this sculpture that in the middle of the
boat there is a cabin with an upraised platform inside, and a man probably of a royal
personage is sitting with a bow and arrow. This type of boat on the basis of the location of
cabin is called madhya-mandira type of royal pleasure boat as described and categorised in
the Yuktikalpataru of King Bhoja. The depiction of a giraffe, exclusively an African animal
in the sculpture of the sun temple, Konarak positively indicates that Kalinga had overseas
commercial link with Africa.

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Paintings illustrated on palm leaf manuscripts preserved in the State Museum at
Bhubaneswar
The drawing shown in the figure is a representation of a beautiful ship. It is regarded as the
saruamandira type of ship as referred to by Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, as it is covered by
cabins at the front, middle and the end. Three masts can be noticed in this ship. The mast at
the middle is fastened with ropes and its top is decorated with a temple like design in which
representation of a god or a symbolical representation can be seen. Above it, a flag is noticed.
On the top of the ship, a flying bird is artistically shown. Below the ship, representation of
waves and aquatic animals like crocodile, fish etc. are depicted in an artistic manner. On both
sides of the ship, two sailors can be observed. On the whole, the ship is realistically depicted
with essential details as cabins, masts, flag, birds etc.

References in Literature

Scene from Ramayana, Indonesia

The interesting feature of Rama literature in Orissa is that it has striking similarities with the
Rama literature of Indonesia. The earliest reference to Indonesia in the Indian literature is
found in the Valmiki Ramayana where Sugriva gives description of the different places of the
world to his messengers. In the message, he refers to Sisirontama, Ratna dvipa, Java dvipa
and Suvarna dvipa, etc. From the passage cited above, it can be said that the contact between
India and Indonesia began at least some centuries before the Christian era and continued for a
long time
Illustrations in Overseas Kingdoms.

In some of the sculptures of the Shwezayan Pagoda at Thaton in Burma (Myanmar),

remarkable similarities with the Odishan art are found. The dressing and hair style of some of
the females are of the Odishan varieties. Some of the bas-reliefs, in high technical as well as
artistic efficiency show affinity with early medieval sculptures of Odisha. Image of Shiva
seated with Parvati from this Pagoda is very similar with the Hara-Parvati carved on the outer
wall of Vaital temple of Bhubaneshwar,Orissa. The Odishan influence is also evident in the
architectural and decorative programmes found in the Ananda temple, constructed during the
reign period of Kyanzittha (c. 12 century CE), the Pagan king of Burma (Myanmar). Builders
of the Ananda Temple were inspired by the cave temple of Ananta in the Khandagiri hills
(near Bhubaneswar in Odisha). The shikharas (spire or tower) of the monuments of Prome
have remarkable similarities with that of Bhubaneswar temples.

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Also, the Buddhist art of Odisha, particularly, the standing Buddha images of Lalitagiri, had a
profound influence on the stylistic Buddha images of Thailand. I. C. Giover the excavator of
Dan-Ta-Phet site, gives credit for such sculptural transactions between Odisha and Thailand
to the Buddhist missionaries. The tower or shikhara of the 12th century CE temple of Maha-
Tat at Sawank’alok shows an affinity with Bhubaneswar temples in detail.

There is also some resemblance between Indonesia and Odisha w.r.t. art and architecture
which is asserted by striking similarities statues of Buddha found in Indonesia with images of
Buddha of Odisha (as shown in image on the right hand side)

Bhubaneshwara.

Vaital Deula Temple (Temple of

A vetala or Betal is a Bhairava form of Shiva in Hindu mythology, usually defined as a
knowledgeable (fortune telling) paranormal entity said to be dwelling at charnel grounds. The
vetala is comparable to the vampires of Western mythology. Reanimated corpses are used as
vehicles by the spirits for movement, the corpse no longer decays while it is inhabited by
a vetala. A vetala may possess and also leave a dead body at will.

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 In front of the flat roofed jagamohana is a stone
post relieved with two Buddha like figures
seated in dharma-chakra-pravartana mudra. The
temple is appreciated for its sculpture and
architectures. The entrance is decorated with a
four-faced linga with remarkable carvings. The
outer walls are covered with panels of Hindu
deities, mostly Shiva and his consort Parvati in
her Shakti form, hunting processions, capturing
of wild elephants and the occasional erotic
couples.

Another striking feature is the temple's tantric

associations, marked by strange carvings in the
At a distance of 700 m from Lingaraja Temple sanctum and the image enshrined in the central
and 4.5 km from Bhubaneswar Railway niche, eight armed Chamunda, locally known as
Station, Vaital Deula Temple or Baitala Deuḷa Kapalini. The presiding deity, Chamundi is
is an ancient Hindu temple situated on the depicted as enthroned upon a corpse, wearing a
banks of Bindu Sarovara in Bhubaneswar, necklace of skulls and protruding out her bright
Odisha. Locally known as 'Tini Mundia red tongue. She holds a snake, bow, shield,
Mandira', it is one of the oldest temples in sword, trident, thunderbolt and an arrow, and is
Bhubaneswar. piercing the neck of the demon. Around the
image of Chamundi, there are 15 niches that are
The Vaital Temple is an 8th century temple of filled with strange figures.
typical Khakara style of Kalinga School of
architecture. This is one of the rare temples in
India that was used as a shrine devoted to
tantric cult. The temple is dedicated to Goddess
Chamundi, the tantric form of Goddess Durga.
The temple is one of the most highly revered
ones among the Hindus and a large number of
devotees come to offer their prayers on some
auspicious occasions.

The deul or tower of the temple is the most

striking feature of the temple. The semi-
cylindrical shape of its roof bears an affinity to
the Dravidian gopuram of the South India
temples. The plan of the deul is oblong and the
jagamohana is a rectangular structure, but
embedded in each angle is a small subsidiary
shrine. The facade of the deul above the left of
the jagamohana is dominated by two chaitya
windows. The lower one having a beautifully
carved figure of sun god Surya noted for its
facial expression, with Usha and Pratyusha
shooting arrows on either side. The upper
chaitya-window is adorned with a 10-armed
Nataraja.

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 Wind, Weather and Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t.
ancient voyages.

The phrase Aa-Ka-Ma-Bhai doesn’t find much reference w.r.t. to its meaning due to scarcity
of any historical inscriptions (materials), but the local belief of Kalingans is like this “It is
considered as a promise that the merchants would return back between Ashadha and Kartika (
July to November) and they would be protected by Devi Mangala in their return trip”
The timings of the commencement of the journey and the return journey were associated with
many guiding factors such as the direction of the wind, the movement of the water, the
river/sea route followed, etc.

“Direction of the Wind “

Since, mostly the voyagers moved with the help of the sails they depended especially on the
weather condition and direction of winds, monsoon being the guiding factor (In Yajur Veda
there’s a reference to Salilvata an equivalent of monsoon).India has particularly two types of
monsoon winds. The return monsoon or the North-East monsoon (as shown in the image)
blows during the months of November / December during which the wind direction is quite
favorable to go up to Sri Lanka from any coast of East Coast. The Bay of Bengal majorly
remains calm during this period. Hence, it can be inferred why Sadhabas use to commence
their onward journey during the auspicious period of Kartika Purnima.Similarly the South-
West monsoon (as shown in image) blows during the period from June to September. The
wind direction of this period is quite favourable for the return journey from Sri Lanka to any
port of Kalinga. This fact is further confirmed by festivals associated with the return journey
like Khudurukuni Osha

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 Now, the next guiding factor i.e. “Movement of the Water”
Scientific studies have concluded that the water moves in a particular direction during a
particular period of the year and this is directly connected with the wind direction. Although
normally the water moves in the opposite direction of the wind but it moves along the
direction of the wind at the surface level. In the Bay of Bengal in particular the water currents
move with the wind. The ships during ancient times were not very big ones. Hence it can be
inferred that they could have moved with the surface water. Therefore the wind direction and
the movement of water all confirm the theory of commencement of the journey during
November / December time period especially during Kartika Purnima.

And finally the next important guiding factor “Route: River or Sea to be followed”
The water routes in ancient India were generally categorized into three types i.e. as The Nadi
Patha (river route), Kulya Patha (canal route) and the Vari Patha(sea route). The Vari Patha is
further categorized as into Kula Patha (coastal route) and Samyana Patha (oversea route). The
traders followed both the types of sea routes for journey to Swarnabhumi and Subarnadwipa
The first route which was generally followed for a journey to Indonesia and China was Kula
Patha i.e. the sailors proceeded along the east coast of India up to Sri Lanka and from there
with the North equatorial current up to Indonesia and then finally to China.

In the book, titled “Periplus of Erytheaean Sea” (composed between 80 and 89 A.D.)
describes the route along the coast. Fa Hein sailed through this route to go back to china. He
sailed from Tamaralipti to Sri Lanka then to Indonesia and finally to China. The other coastal
route was through Tamaralipti, Bangladesh and Mynmar (Burma). This route came into
extensive use much during 9th/10th Century A.D.

The second route known as Samyana Patha was rarely used by Sadhavas due to lack of
knowledge of the sea, absence of mariners compass, fear of pirates, unsuitability of the of the
ships to traverse the deep sea, etc. Hence, they generally used the Kula Patha
Ptolemy in his geography book (150 A.D.) has reference of an apheterian (point of
embarkation) near Gopalpur (Paloura) where the ships bound for Chryse turned towards deep
sea. This establishes the fact that the Samyana Patha was known in early 2 nd Century A.D.
Even, there’s a mention of one of the trips of I-Tsing in 7 th Century A.D. in ancient texts. He
traveled directly from Indonesia via Andaman Nicobar islands to Tamaralipti. From Java he
sailed for 10 days and reached Nicobar “Nikaber” “Land of Naked People”. From Nicobar he
sailed for another 15 days and reached Tamaralipti

Hence, it can be inferred that the Kartika Purnima was celebrated as the auspicious occasion
for the commencement of the journey to wish the Sadhavas a bon voyage and Khudurkuni
Osha for receiving back the traders after a long voyage.

Maritime related Festivals & Traditions

Fairs, festivals and traditions provide us relevant information on the overseas commercial
traditions of Odisha. The role of the maritime merchants finds numerous mentions in the
stories and legends, narrated and depicted in festivals, folk tales and traditions of Odisha. A
merchant, in ancient times, before setting out for voyage was honoured by the priests and the
ladies of the household at the place of departure and the ship was worshipped at the anchor.
After numerous adventures in the course of his voyage the merchant would come home at last
with a lot of treasures. Numerous references of the maritime trade activities can be found in

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the stories and bratakathas (the story portion of the worship), narrated during the fairs and
festivals, that have come down to us since ancient times
Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Boita in local language is an argosy or a large sail boat and bandana is worshipping with
lighted lamp (dipa). Thus, Boita Bandana Utshava symbolises the festival of worship of sail
boats with lighted lamps
The Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava (ship/boat worship ceremony in Kartika) is the most
important festival which commemorates the past maritime glory of Kalinga and is celebrated
throughout the length and breadth of Odisha. Every year, on the auspicious occasion of
Kartika Purnima day (full-moon day of Hindu month Kartika, October-November), the
people of Odisha celebrate this ceremony with pride full of splendor, fun and joviality.

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On this day, the Odia people, especially the ladies, set afloat miniature boats made of barks of
the plantain trees or of paper with the lamps burning inside them in the same manner in
which the ladies of yester years used to send off their men on voyages wishing them good
luck. The ladies put betel, betel nuts, rice, oil seeds, pulses, yava and barley and other such
things representing various commodities in the miniature boats that were taken out in
shiploads by the merchants for trade during ancient Kalinga days. They recite these words

“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”

Women also sing folklores with fabulous accounts of voyages. They also
blow Sankha (conch shells), beat Ghanta (bell) and make joyous sounds Hulahuli with their
tongues in front of the ships. Finally, looking towards the south, in which direction flows the
rivers to meet the ocean, they pay homage in memory of the early navigators

The custom appears to be symbolic of the sea voyage, which was generally undertaken in the
month of Kartika when the rainy season came to a close and the Indian Ocean remains calm
after the stormy days of the monsoons. The Kartika Purnima was also considered as an
auspicious day to start voyages for trade (as explained in detail in section titled “Wind,
Weather and Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t. ancient voyages”)
Bali Jatra “Bali Yatra” Festival. On this Kartika Purnima Day every year on the bank of the
great river Mahanadi, at a place called Gadagadiaghata, in Cuttack, people celebrate the
festival known as “Bali Jatra” (voyage to the island of Bali) with pride full of splendor, fun
and joviality.

It is observed to commemorate the glorious ancient maritime history of Kalinga especially

the sea voyages to island of Bali. Another religious significance 60 is also associated with the
same. In 15th Century CE, Chaitnya Mahaprabhu on his way to Jagannatha Puri arrived at
Cuttack on the Kartika Purnima and organised SANKIRTANA (mass religious prayer) on the
sandy bed (bali) of the river Mahanadi at Gadgadia ghat. The residents of the city continued it
in his memory and named it Bali Jatra since it was held on the sandy bed of the river. Further,
Jatra also means a large fair or festival. As the trade fair is held on the sandy bed of the river,
it is named Bali Yatra (Jatra)

Bali Jatra of Cuttak

In Cuttack, Bali Jatra is celebrated annually as a large open fair near the Barabati Fort
area. It is said to be the largest fair of Odisha state. There are several attractions for children,
and food stalls selling Oriya delicacies (Cuttacki Dahivada Aludum, Thunka Puri, Barafa
Pan, Gupchup, etc.) from different parts of the state, and it also provides provided
opportunities to the local artisans and craftsmen to display their products. Bali Jatra also
provides a lot of cultural programs like display of martial arts, folk dances, folk songs and
other variety programmes – all by amateur artists. For the children, there are various
attractions like the magic shows, charmers displaying the acrobatic tricks of their tamed
animals and merry-go-rounds, etc. Every year millions of people from all over the nation
come to experience it.

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During Bali Jatra, children float toy boats made of colored paper, dried banana tree barks, and
cork in the Mahanadi, ponds, water tanks, etc., to commemorate the voyage of their ancestors
to Indonesia. These toy boats, usually launched after sunset contain small oil lamps, which
are lit and placed inside them, to provide an attractive sight during the festival. This festival is
also celebrated with great fanfare in Paradeep Port. Bali Jatra bears testimony to the rich
maritime legacy of ancient Odisha. 1992 Expedition of INS V-Samudra to commemorate
ancient maritime trade by State Govt. of Odisha
To revive the legacies of the maritime glory, the State government launched an expedition to
Bali islands on the Kartika Purnima day in 1992. History was recreated when the seven
member crew on board of a thirteen meter long naval yacht INS V-Samudra sailed for the
islands from Paradeep Port amidst much fanfare to retrace the ancient trade route
On 10th Nov, 1992, the Kalinga Bali Yatra began the retracing of the old trade route taken by
the ancient Kalingas of Orissa to Bali, Java and Sumatra after the traditional ceremony of
‘Boita Bandana’. The then Chief Minister Late Biju Patnaik and several Indonesian diplomats
were present during the flag-off. Thousands of people gathered to witness and cheer the crew.
The yacht covered a distance of 5,810 nautical miles over a period of seventeen weeks and
reached Bali islands (following this route Paradeep to Campbell Bay and finally reached Bali
via Padang and Jakarta).

A grand reception was accorded by the local government and the citizen. The H.E Governor
of Bali was personally present. Seminars and exhibition of cultural arts and crafts of Odisha
were the highlights of the function
The voyage culminated in a three day festival comprising a seminar on Indonesian cultural
ties, an exhibition of Orissan handicrafts and classical arts performances of classical (Odissi),
martial (Chhau) and folk (Sambalpuri) dance traditions of Orissa
During the two-day Kalinga Bali Yatra conference the points of conclusion arrived at are as
follows:

1. There is a significant close relationship between India and Indonesia which is

manifested in several aspects of life such as philosophy or way of life, languages,
technology and arts
2. It seems that the contact between India and Bali has been existing since the 3rd century
BC., yet it is not clear, however, whether the contact between India and Indonesia is
direct or indirect. Recent archaeological discoveries testify to the contact between
India and Indonesia, particularly Bali
Khudurukuni Osha

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Worship of Boat on the occasion of Khudurukuni Osha, Odisha

It is one of the most important festivals w.r.t. maritime trade activities of Kalinga (ancient
Odisha). The celebration of this festival also reminds us of the glorious maritime tradition of
Kalinga, when there was sea-borne trade with the South-East Asian islands of Java, Bali,
Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon, etc (as shown in image). It is observed on the Sundays of the
month of BHADRAVA (August-September), majorly by unmarried girls and newly married
wives (in some parts) of all castes throughout Odisha, 64 especially in the coastal districts of
Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapada, Jagatsinghpur, Cuttack, Puri, Khordha, Nayagarh and
Ganjam

Some images showcasing the vidhi’s of Khudurukuni Osha being celebrated in a village
(worshiping Devi Maa Mangala)
The Kaḷinga architectural style is a style of Hindu architecture which flourished in the
ancient Kalinga previously known as Utkal and part of the kingdom of Magadha or present
eastern Indian state of Odisha. The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated
with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly
with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses
the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.
In Kalinga, the ancient land of Sakta cult, divine iconography existed since the mythological
era. Present day research implies that idols (deities) were placed under auspicious trees in the
ancient days. And maybe today a temple in general carries various minute details and the
overall shape of some heritage tree. The various aspects of a typical Kalinga temple include
architectural stipulations, iconography, historical connotations and honoring the traditions,
customs and associated legends.
Architecture: According to Manusmṛti there is a specific hierarchy of Command for the
management of people involved in they are classified as:
1. Kartā : The Chief patron of the temple, generally the king of the state is designated as
kartā. Hence these devotional ancient architectures often reflect various socio-cultural
aspects of society of the time.

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 2. Mukhya Sthapati : The Chief Architect, The master of the Shilpa Shastras, Vastu
Shastra, Dharma Shastra, Agni Purana and Mathematical Calculations. Besides being
a very knowledgeable person he is also a very pious man. He translates the Kartā's
vision into an architectural design based on stipulations.
3. Sutra Grahaṇi : The Chief Engineer (can be equated) as he is the person who
translates the architecture into actual geometrical dimensions. He is equally proficient
in all the required knowledge and most often is the son of the Mukhya Sthapati.
4. Bārdhanikas : The masons, the stone setters
5. Takṣaka : The sculptor with hands that create poetry in stone does all the magnificent
carvings and engravings of various forms that has left us spell bound.
Besides these primary set of specialists, various supportive functions are carried out by other
people.

Material selection

Primarily certain classes of stones are considered auspicious for the construction of Kalinga
deula (temples). Shilpa Chandrika, an ancient architecture book define some specific seven
varieties of stone as ideal and specific types are used for certain portions of the temple :
1. Sahaṇa
2. Chhita Sāhaṇa
3. Baḍa Pagaḍa
4. Dhobā Kuṇḍa
5. Rasa Chiṇḍa
6. Niḷa Kusāṇa
Though clay bricks have been used in very rare cases most Kalingan temples are built using
these stones.

Site Selection

Various aspects like type of soil, shape of the Plot, location of the plot, availability and type
of space and ground water level, etc. are taken into consideration while selecting the site.
Color, density, composition and moisture content of the soil discriminates between the best,
middle, sub-middle and worst kind of soil. Based on Vastu Shastra, a rectangular, square,
elliptical or circular plot of land is selected in order of preference.

Naga Bāndhēṇi

This is an intricate and ancient method in Shilpa Shastra, by which the temples direction and
the auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. Like the present
day Geomorphology, Seismology, Topology etc., probably this is some ancient science which
guides the architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures
in Odisha.

Scale Model

The Mukhya Sthaptya (Main Sculptor similar to Chief Architect) creates a scale model based
on traditional stipulations and takes the Karta's (producer / financier) approval. In many
instances we see such depictions on walls and motifs.

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Pota Pitha Mobile foundations By observing conventional masonry and going through the
following steps of the preparation of potā and piṭha the foundation of a temple could be
understood:
1. A square or rectangular area is dug out depending on the type and combination of
temple proposed at the center of the preselected Nāgabandhani plot of land.
2. The depth of this Potā is 1/3 of the height of the proposed temple, from plinth level.
3. The length and width of this Potā (pit) is always sufficiently broader than the diameter
of the proposed temple.
4. Hard stone slabs are laid at the bottom to create a level.
5. Then with uniformly cut hard stones, the four walls of the Potā are erected and the
outer perimeter space between the pit wall and ground is properly filled with soil.
6. The Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā (Eight lotus petal shaped), is then laid at the exact spot
required. This is a square or rectangular shape of hard uniform stone slab at the center
of which an eight petaled lotus shape in exact geometric proportions is engraved. The
petals are aligned to the north, north-east, east, southeast, south, south-west, west and
north-west. The exact perpendicular line through the center of this Asṭadala Padma
Chakaḍā determines the axis (rekhā/meru) of the temple. The traditional method of
such alignment is termed as Sanku.
7. Thereafter the Potā is properly packed up with large pieces of stone and soil, probably
pressed down by elephants.
8. The Potā (pit) is leveled off at ground level with huge and thick cut theodolite stones.
9. Another layer of theodolite stones, corresponding to the shape and size of the ground
plan called the piṭha is constructed. This is the base of the temple. In many instances,
we see this piṭha at various levels of elevation.

Bhunaksā (the ground plan)

Keeping the Sanku (the vertical axis through the center of Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā) as the
exact center of Garbhagruha, the ground plan of the proposed temple is engraved by the
Sthapati and Sutragrahaṇi with the help of a sharp edged instrument, on the perfectly leveled
Piṭha. As temples in every of their details depend on proportions, complex ancient methods
are used for correct geometric designing and executing the ground plan (bhunaksa) to ensure
long term stability and aesthetic appearance of these huge structures. Simplicity or intricacy
of the temple is reflected in this ground plan.
Thereafter, the Bardhanikas set about precut stones, under the strict vigilance of Sutragrahaṇi
as per the Bhunaksa, deula gaddanni has started.

Deula- Temple architecture in Odisha evolved over a long period of time. Stipulated
architectural principles with ample provision for artistic improvisation enabled the
progressive generations. Temples in Odisha are based on certain fundamental principles of
stability and take their cue from the human body. The superstructure is basically divided into
three parts, the Bāḍa (Lower Limb), the Ganḍi (Body) and the Cuḷa/Mastaka (Head).
Accordingly, each part is given a different treatment throughout, from the architecture to the
final ornamentation of the Temple.
Temples in Odisha in the classic local style very often have a figure
of Gajalaxmi in lalitasana as their lalatabimba or central protective image over the doorway
to a temple or the sanctuary of one.

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Baitala deula, a 9th-century Hindu temple typical Khakara temple dedicated to
Goddess Chamunda, Bhubaneswar, Odisha/Sculpture of Alasa Kanya at Baitala
/Deula, Bhubaneswar/Konark Sun Temple, one of the most well renowned temples in India, a World
Heritage Site but the tower has collapsed in the past.

Classification of deuḷa temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri & Konark

Rekhā deuḷa
 Padma Garbha
 Ratha Yukta
 Meru Shaili
Examples of Rekha deuḷa are Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar), Jagannath Temple (Puri)
 Piḍha deuḷa
 Dwichallia Pidhha
 Nahachallia Pidhha
 Kathachalia Pidhha
 Ghantashree Mohana
 Pidhha Mohana
 Naddu Mohana
Example: Konark temple, Konark
 Baitaḷa /Khakarā deuḷa
Example: Baitala deula, Bhubaneswar
 Varahi Deula, Chaurasi
 Durga Temple, Baideshwar
REFERENCES
This One state in India has shaped the Entire Maritime History of South East Asia,by Asutosh Mohanty
https://tfipost.com/2017/11/kalinga-bali-yatra-01/
10 November 2017

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 IV

ANCIENT ABODES OF SHIVA AND SHAKTI IN

INDIA AND INDONESIA
DR UDAY DOKRAS
oto courtesy:
tourism.bihar.gov.in

India has numerous temples dedicated to Lord Shiva, some bigger than others. But each with
a unique story, revered by numerous people from across the world. While Kedarnath is one of
the most popular Shiva temples in the country, there are others that hold equal importance for
Hindus. The Mundeshwari Temple in the state of Bihar is one such temple.

96
Oldest functioning temple
Located in Kaimur district of Bihar, this is considered to be one of the oldest functioning
temples in the world. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, and Shakti. According to the
Archaeological Survey of India, the temple dates back to 108 AD, while ancient Hindu
inscriptions were found in the temple.

97
Architecture of the temple
The beautiful temple has a unique architectural style in the Nagara style. It assumes an
octagonal plan, and has doors on all four sides. The temple is protected by the ASI, and local
folklore points to its rich history, and mystical past.

Abode of Shiva and Shakti

It is said that the rituals in this temple have been performed non-stop throughout the years.
The aboriginal tribe of Cheros worshipped Shakti, which is Mundeshwari, or Durga. She was
made the main deity of the temple, but Mukhalingam, or Lord Shiva also occupied
centrestage. The Chatur Mukhalingam, or the Lingam with four faces is worshipped here in
this ancient temple.

98
Photo courtesy: tourism.bihar.gov.in

Festivals of the temple

The temple celebrates all festivals related to Shiva and Shakti, so while on one hand you have
grand celebrations during Navratri, on the other hand, Shivratri is also an important day in the
temple calendar. Other than that, Ramnavami is also a very important day here in the
Mundeshwari Temple of Bihar.

Maha Shivaratri special: Discovering Uttarakhand’s famous Shiva temples

Lord Shiva, also known as Bhole Nath by his devotees is the divine energy, the protector and
the destroyer. In India, there are numerous temples devoted to Shiva but the ones in
Uttarakhand are most revered and most visited. On the occasion of Maha Shivaratri, we’ll tell
you about the most popular Shiva temples nestled in God's own Uttarakhand.

Kedarnath Temple, Rudraprayag

Kedarnath Temple, nestled in the Garhwal Himalayan ranges, needs no introduction. Set on
the banks of the Mandakini river, the temple holds a huge religious significance. Mythology

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has it that after the war of Mahabharata, the Pandavas carried a pilgrimage to the Himalayas
for penance. There they saw a guiding light and moved towards Guptkashi (Rudraprayag).
A Jyotirlinga or a divine light was flickering and Shiva immersed from it. Lord Shiva blessed
the five brothers and told them that He will remain there in the form of a triangular-
shaped Jyotirlinga.

Tungnath Temple, Rudraprayag

Tungnath or the Lord of the Peaks is the highest Shiva temple in the world. Legend has it that
Shiva took the form of a bull and hid at Guptkashi to avoid the Pandavas. But they managed
to find him and tried to catch Shiva in his bull form. Later, Shiva’s bahu or arms were seen at
Tungnath.
Credit: iStock

Tapkeshwar Mahadev, Dehradun

Nestled in the lap of Doon Valley, Tapkeshwar Mahadev is a beautiful cave temple.
A shivalinga is enshrined inside a dark cave here. Mythology has it that when Guru
Dronacharya’s wife Kalyani gave birth to Ashwatthama, she was not able to breastfeed him
and couldn’t buy a cow for feeding. The baby Ashwatthama prayed to Shiva for milk and his
wish was granted. The baby would get milk from the Shivalinga inside the Drona Cave
where Guru Dronacharya lived. Till date, the water mysteriously drips from the ceiling on
the Shivalinga which is a sight to marvel.

Rudranath Temple, Chamoli

Nestled in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, Rudranath Temple is of utmost importance.
Here Lord Shiva appeared in the form of a hump after being chased by the Pandavas. Lord
Shiva’s palanquin is brought to Gopeshwar here every year for worshipping. The doli passes
through several destinations before reaching Rudranath.

Neelkanth Mahadev, Rishikesh

It is believed that Neelkanth Mahadev is the place where Shiva drank Halahala or the poison
that originated during the samudra manthan (the gods and the demons churned the ocean to
obtain the elixir). Lord Shiva’s throat picked shades of blue after drinking the poison.

Madhyamaheshwar Temple, Rudraprayag

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Another popular temple is the Madhyamaheshwar Temple in the beautiful Mansoona village.
Legend has it that Lord Shiva was angry with the Pandavas and in order to avoid them, he
disguised himself as a bull or Nandi. Still, the five brothers managed to recognise him and
tried to hold the bull by its tail. The bull soon disappeared and appeared at five places in the
form of a hump at Kedarnath, as bahu (arms) at Tungnath, as his face at Rudranath, in navel
shape and stomach at Madhyamaheshwar, in the form of jata or hair locks at Kalpeshwar.
The Pandavas were blessed with Shiva’s five different forms and attained salvation.

Kalpeshwar Mahadev, Chamoli

This grand temple of Shiva is set in the picturesque Urgam Valley in the Kalpeshwar village
in Uttarakhand. This is the place where locks or jata of Shiva appeared. The temple is visited
by lakhs of devotees every year.
Credit: iStock
Jageshwar Dham, Almora
Another popular Shiva temple is Jageshwar Dham. The temple is situated 35 km from
Almora and is among the twelve Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva in the country. The complex
features 125 temples along with some marvellous stone statues.

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 V

ABODES OF SHIVA AND SHAKTI IN INDIA AND INDONESIA FEATURING

THE MUNDESHWARI TEMPLE AND PRAMBHANAN

India has numerous temples dedicated to Lord Shiva, some bigger than others. But each with
a unique story, revered by numerous people from across the world. While Kedarnath is one of
the most popular Shiva temples in the country, there are others that hold equal importance for
Hindus.

The Mundeshwari Temple in the state of Bihar is one such temple.

Similarly there are over 10,000 exceptionally maintained n Indonesia which too boasts of
many temples from magnificent Hindu temple complexes with three hundred shrines showing
intricate Balinese architecture to revered Buddhist monasteries in gorgeous forested island
settings, Indonesia's temples attract pilgrims and tourists alike. Candi Prambanan is the
largest Hindu temples complex uncovered so far in Indonesia; it is also known as Loro
Jonggrang, and it includes 240 temples; the three central temples have intricate carvings on
its walls to pictorially describe all major events from the Hindu epic Ramayana. Prambanan
served as the royal temple of the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious
ceremonies and sacrifices being conducted there. The Prambanan Temple Is The Largest
Hindu Temple Site In Indonesia With 240 Temples. A statue of the Hindu goddess Durga
from the Shiva temple at Prambanan, Java, Indonesia, c. 750 - c. 950 CE. According to
legend, the statue is a result of the transformation into stone of a local princess. by her cruel
husband. The popular legend of Rara Jonggrang is what connects the site of the Ratu
Boko Palace, the origin of the Durga statue in the northern cell/chamber of the main shrine,
and the origin of the Sewu temple complex nearby. The legend tells the story about Prince
Bandung Bondowoso, who fell in love with Princess Rara Jonggrang, the daughter of King
Boko. But the princess rejected his proposal of marriage because Bandung Bondowoso had
killed King Boko and ruled her kingdom. Bandung Bondowoso insisted on the union, and
finally Rara Jonggrang was forced to agree to a union in marriage, but she posed one
impossible condition: Bandung must build her a thousand temples in only one night.
The Prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of supernatural beings from
the earth. Helped by these spirits, he succeeded in building 999 temples. When the prince was
about to complete the condition, the princess woke her palace maids and ordered the women
of the village to begin pounding rice and set a fire in the east of the temple, attempting to
make the prince and the spirits believe that the sun was about to rise. As the cocks began to
crow, fooled by the light and the sounds of daybreak, the supernatural helpers fled back into
the ground. The prince was furious about the trick and in revenge he cursed Rara Jonggrang,
turning her to stone. She became the last and the most beautiful of the thousand statues.
According to the traditions, the unfinished thousandth temple created by the demons become
the Sewu temple compounds nearby (Sewu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess
is the image of Durga in the north cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, which is still known
as Rara Jonggrang or "Slender Maiden".

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The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site and is dedicated to the Trimurti – Shiva (the
Transformer), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Brahma (the Creator). The highlight of the temple
lies in the central compound, where eight major and eight minor temples are assembled on a
raised platform, creating an architectural crescendo, the highest of which is Candi Shiva
Mahadeva. ‘Candi’ means temple or shrine.

103
1851- Murdeshwar above ancient litho and Prambanan below
The statue depicting Goddess Durga as Mahishasuramardini stands in the inner sanctum of
the Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The
inner sanctum has four chambers, each of which faces a cardinal direction and houses a
statue. The

104
History Of The Prambanan Temple
The building of Prambanan commenced in the middle of the 9th century, around 50 years
after Borobudur, which is the largest Buddha temple in the world. While little is known about
the early history of the temple, it is thought to have built by Rakai Pikatan to commemorate
the return of the Hindu dynasty in Java.
However, in the mid-16th century, a great earthquake toppled many of the temples, and
Prambanan remained in ruins for years. While efforts were made to clear the site in 1855, it
was only in 1937 that reconstruction was first attempted. In 1953, the reconstruction of the
main Shiva temple was completed and inaugurated by an Indonesian politician
Sukarno.Prambanan again suffered extensive damage in the 2006 earthquake. Although the
main temples survived, hundreds of stone blocks collapsed. Today, the main structures have
been restored, but a lot of work remains to be done.

Architecture Of The Prambanan Temple

The temple follows the typical Hindu architectural traditions based on the Vastu Shastra and
has incorporated the Mandal temple plan arrangements.

The whole complex contains 240 individual stone temples, many of which are scattered in
ruins. The temple complex is divided into three zones. The outer zone is an open space,
which serves as a yard for priests or worshippers, whereas the middle zone has 224 small
shrines arranged into four concentric rows around the central compound. These shrines are
called Candi Perwara, meaning ‘guardian temples’. rtesy: All Indonesia Tourism

The Candi Shiva Mahadeva is centrally located and is one of the finest temples in the
complex. Lavishly carved, the main spire of the temple soars as high as 47m high. The inner
wall of the gallery encircling the temple contains vibrant scenes from the Ramayana.

The impressive Candi Vishnu touches 33m and sits north of Candi Shiva Mahadeva. It
houses a four-armed image of Vishnu inside the inner sanctum. Candi Brahma is Candi
Vishnu’s twin temple. Located south of Candi Shiva Mahadeva, it is again adorned with the
final scenes of the Ramayana. In the inner chamber, a four-headed statue of Brahma is
beautifully crowned.

Credit:
iStock
Mundesvari
The Mundeshwari Devi Temple (also spelled Mundesvari) is a Hindu temple, located at
ramgarh village, 608 feet (185 m) on the Mundeshwari Hills of Kaimur plateau near Son
River, in the Indian state of Bihar. It is an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected
monument since 1915. The ASI has recently dated the structure to 108 CE making it the
oldest Hindu temple in the country. An information plaque at the site indicates the dating of
the temple at least to 625 CE and Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple.
It is an ancient temple dedicated to the worship of the goddess Durga and is considered one
of the oldest functional Hindu temples in India. The findings also established that here was a
religious and educational center spread over the hillock and Mandaleshwar (Shiva) temple
was the main shrine. The Mandaleshwari (Durga) was on the southern side. The temple was
damaged and the idol of Mandaleshwari (degenerated Mundeshwari and later connected with
the mythical demon Mund) was kept in the eastern chamber of the main temple.

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Timelines
 636 - 38 CE - Chinese visitor Huen Tsang writes about a shrine on a hill top flashing
light, at about a distance of 200 lee south west to Patna-The location is only of
Mundeshwari.
 1790 CE - Daniel brothers, Thomas and William visited Mundeshwari temple and
provided its first portrait.
 1888 CE – Buchanan visited the region in 1813.
 1891-92 CE – First part of the broken Mundeshwari Inscription was discovered by Bloch
during a survey by East India Company.
 1903 CE – Second part of the inscription was discovered while clearing the debris around
the temple.
 2003 CE – Brahmi script royal seal of Sri Lankan king Dutthagamani (101-77 BCE) was
discovered by Varanasi-based historian Jahnawi Shakhar Roy which changed the earlier
findings about history of the place.
 2008 CE - The date of the inscription was established 30th year of Saka era (108 CE) by
the scholars in a national seminar organized for the purpose by Bihar State Religious
Trust Board at Patna.

The Landscape in Bihar surrounding the temple

106
Oldest functioning temple
Located in Kaimur district of Bihar, this is considered to be one of the oldest functioning
temples in the world. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, and Shakti. According to the
Archaeological Survey of India, the temple dates back to 108 AD, while ancient Hindu
inscriptions were found in the temple.

Architecture of the temple

The beautiful temple has a unique architectural style in the Nagara style. It assumes an
octagonal plan, and has doors on all four sides. The temple is protected by the ASI, and local
folklore points to its rich history, and mystical past.
Abode of Shiva and Shakti
It is said that the rituals in this temple have been performed non-stop throughout the years.
The aboriginal tribe of Cheros worshipped Shakti, which is Mundeshwari, or Durga. She was
made the main deity of the temple, but Mukhalingam, or Lord Shiva also occupied
centrestage. The Chatur Mukhalingam, or the Lingam with four faces is worshipped here in
this ancient temple.
Photo courtesy: tourism.bihar.gov.in
Festivals of the temple
The temple celebrates all festivals related to Shiva and Shakti, so while on one hand you have
grand celebrations during Navratri, on the other hand, Shivratri is also an important day in the
temple calendar. Other than that, Ramnavami is also a very important day here in the
Mundeshwari Temple of Bihar.

The Prambhanan temple

The Prambhanan temple complex is linked to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, issued by
King Lokapala, which described a Shiva temple compound that resembles Prambanan.
According to this inscription the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856.
According to this inscription, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name
was Shiva-grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva). According to the
Shivagrha inscription, a public water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha

107
temple was undertaken during the construction of the temple. The river, identified as
the Opak River, now runs north to south on the western side of the Prambanan temple
compound. Historians suggest that originally the river was curved further to east and was
deemed too near to the main temple. Experts suggest that the shift of the river was meant to
secure the temple complex from the overflowing of lahar volcanic materials from Merapi
volcano. The project was done by cutting the river along a north to south axis along the outer
wall of the Shivagrha Temple compound. The former river course was filled in and made
level to create a wider space for the temple expansion, the space for rows
of pervara (complementary) temples.
The statue of Shiva Mahadeva inside the garbagriha of the main temple.
Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in the garbhagriha (central chamber)
of the main temple was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction of his deified
self after death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such
as Daksa and Tulodong, with the addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the
chief temple.
With main prasada tower soaring up to 47 metres high, a vast walled temple complex
consists of 240 structures, Shivagrha Trimurti temple was the tallest and the grandest of
its time. Indeed, the temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no
other Javanese temples ever surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of
the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices
being conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds
of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The
urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan
Plain.
Mundeshwari Tantric Temple

The worship of Devi Durga in the form of Devi Mundeshwari in the temple is also indicative
of tantric cult of worship, which is practiced in Eastern India.
Rituals and worship have been performed here without a break, hence Mundeshwari is
considered one of the most ancient Hindu temples in India. The temple is visited by a large
number of pilgrims each year, particularly during the Ramnavami, Shivratri festivals. A big
annual fair (mela) is held nearby during the Navaratra visited by thousands.

The temple, built of stone, is on an octagonal plan, which is rare. It is the earliest specimen of
the Nagara style of temple architecture in Bihar. There are doors or windows on four sides
and small niches for the reception of statues in the remaining four walls. The
temple shikhara or tower has been destroyed. However, a roof has been built, as part of
renovation work. The interior walls have niches and bold mouldings which are carved with
vase and foliage designs. At the entrance to the temple, the door jambs are seen with carved
images of Dvarapalas, Ganga, Yamuna and many other murtis. The main deities in
the sanctum sanctorum of the temple are of the Devi Mundeshwari and Chaturmukh (four-
faced) Shiva linga. There are also two stone vessels of unusual design. Even though the
Shiva linga is installed in the centre of the sanctum, the main presiding deity is Devi
Mundeshwari deified inside a niche, which is seen with ten hands holding symbols riding a
buffalo, attributed to Mahishasuramardini. The temple also has murtis of other popular gods
such as Ganesha, Surya and Vishnu. A substantial part of this stone structure has been
damaged, and many stone fragments are seen strewn around the temple. However, under the
jurisdiction of ASI, it has been the subject of archaeological study for quite some time.

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The Archaeological Survey of India has restored the temple under instruction from the Union
Ministry of Culture. Restorative works included the removal of soot from the temple interior
via a chemical treatment, repair of damage to religious murti (idol) and cataloging and
documentation of scattered fragments for later reuse. Other works included installation of
solar powered lighting, displays for antiquities and provision of public amenities.
The Government of Bihar has allocated Rs 2 crore to improve access to the temple.
It can be reached by road via Patna, Gaya, or Varanasi. The nearest railway station is
at Mohania - Bhabua Road railway station from where the temple is 22 km by road.
Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport, Varanasi is the nearest airport, located at a distance
of 102 km from the Temple. Indian carriers including Air India, Spicejet, and international
carriers like Air India, Thai Airways International, Korean Air and Naaz Airlines operate
from here. Daily flights to Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata are available from here.

Single verses many

The Murdeshwari is a single temple but the Prambanan had originally there were a total
of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The Prambanan Temple Compound consist of:
 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma
 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of
each gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples
on north and south side
 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4
main gates of inner zone
 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows;
numbers of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68

The Prambanan compound also known as Rara Jonggrang complex, named after the popular
legend of Rara Jonggrang. There were once 240 temples standing in this Shivaite temple
complex, either big or small. Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small shrines in the inner
zone are reconstructed, but only 3 out of the original 224 pervara temples are renovated. The
majority of them have deteriorated; what is left are only scattered stones. The Prambanan
temple complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone, second the middle zone that
contains hundreds of small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that contains eight main
temples and eight small shrines.

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An architectural model of the Prambanan temple complex; originally there were 240 temples
in this temple compound

The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on a square plan that contains a total of
three zone yards, each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by four large gates. The
outer zone is a large space marked by a rectangular wall. The outermost walled perimeter,
which originally measured about 390 metres per side, was oriented in the northeast–
southwest direction. However, except for its southern gate, not much else of this enclosure
has survived down to the present. The original function is unknown; possibilities are that it
was a sacred park, or priests' boarding school (ashram). The supporting buildings for the
temple complex were made from organic material; as a consequence no remains occur.

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From left Agastha Muni,Shiva and Brahma in Prambhanan

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 Nandi side
view
DURGA or the slim maiden LOLO Jaggron

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113
Abduction of Sita by Ravana- episode from RAMAYANA carved on the walls of
Prambhanan(RIGHT)

Interesting facts about Prambanan

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1. Prambanan is the largest and most beautiful Hindu temple complex in Indonesia.
Prambanan is a collection of massive Hindu temples (candi) built by the
Mataram Kingdom, rulers of central Java and defeaters of the Sailendra
Dynasty.
2. It is the masterpiece of Hindu culture of the ninth century.
3. A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded
extensively by King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the
Mataram Kingdom.
4. It is dedicated to the Trimurti (Trinity of the formless supreme God), the
expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the Preserver (Vishnu) and the
Destroyer (Shiva).
5. The complex is laid out in the form of a mandala, and features the towering, broad
spires that are typical of Hindu temple architecture, and represent Meru, the holy
mountain where the gods live.

6. Originally there were 240 temples in the complex but many of them have
deteriorated or been looted leaving just scattered stones.The Prambanan temple
complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone, second the middle zone that
contains hundreds of small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that contains eight
main temples and likewise, eight small shrines.
7. The three main inner shrines are dedicated to Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the
Keeper and Shiva the Destroyer. The three towers cut a striking figure in any
conditions, but are perhaps most breathtaking when lit up at night.

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8. The middle zone consists of four rows of 224 identical, concentrically arranged
shrines. Most of these are in ruins but a few have been fully restored. These shrines
are called Candi Perwara (guardian temples).
9. The Shiva temple though dedicated to Shiva the Destroyer contains the large statute
of DURGA as Maishasuramardini or kikller of the demon Mhaishasur and is the
tallest and largest structure in Prambanan complex, it measures 47 meters (154 feet)
tall and 34 meters (111 feet) wide. Relief sculptures around the perimeter tell the story
of the Ramayana.
10. The Shiva temple contains five chambers, four small chambers in every cardinal
direction and one bigger main chamber in central part of the temple. The largest
chamber contains a three meter (10 feet) high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.
11. North of Shiva Temple is Vishnu Temple, dedicated to Vishnu the Preserver.It
measures 20 meters (65 feet) wide and 33 meters (108 feet) tall. Relief sculptures
around its perimeter tell the story of Lord Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu.
12. South of Shiva Temple is Brahma Temple, dedicated to Brahma the Creator. It also
measures 20 meters (65 feet) wide and 33 meters (108 feet) tall. Relief sculptures
around the perimeter tell the story of the Ramayana.

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13. The narrative bas-relief panels was carved along the inner balustrades wall on the
gallery around the three main temples.

14. The other three shrine in front of three main temples is dedicated to vehicle
(vahana) of the respective gods – the bull Nandi for Shiva, the sacred swan
Hamsa for Brahma, and Vishnu’s Kite Garuda.

15.
16. Between these row of main temple, on north and south side stands two Candi Apit
temples. Apit in Javanese means “flank”, it refer to the two temples position that
flanked the inner courtyard in north and south sides.
17. The outer zone is a large open space that was once bounded by a large wall (long
gone). The function of this space is disputed but was probably either a park/relaxation
garden or the site of an ashram for temple priests brahmins.
18. The other name of this temple is the Lorojonggrang temple.
19. A major earthquake in the 16th century caused serious damage to the already
crumbling and largely forgotten temples.
20. The British rediscovered Prambanan, along with Borobudur, in the early 19th century.

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 21. Half-hearted excavations by archaeologists in the 1880s facilitated looting. In 1918,
the Dutch began
reconstruction of the compound and proper restoration only in 1930. Efforts
at restoration continue to this day. The reconstruction of the main Shiva temple was
completed around 1953 and inaugurated by Sukarno (the first President of Indonesia).
22. Prambanan was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991.

Mundeshwari Temple is a Tantric Temple but the Prambanan is NOT

Tantrik Pursuits
Hindu Temples are not just some arrangements of inanimate stones. Along with Hindu
Mythology (Puran) a temple carries millions of years of history that took place at the base of
the evolutionary Earth. Civilization develops over time and lost again. But that vanishing
stories of human civilizations still breath in the grooves of the lifeless stones of an ancient
temple. Yes, even a temple has life.

Mundeshwari Temple – Temple Science Represents Some Astonishing Facts

Mundeswari Temple is such an ancient temple, which is associated with the story of the
creation. The Mundeshwari Devi Temple is situated on the Mundeshwari Hills (at an
elevation of 608 feet ), near Son river, in Kaimur District, Bihar, India. Bihar has been a reign
with rich culture since ancient times. Even in Ramayana and Mahabharat, It has been shown
to be a cultural state. Mundeswari Temple is an ancient temple dedicated to Shiva-Shakti and
is considered to be one of India's oldest functional Hindu temples, built entirely of stone
and octagonal on plan. Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple.
Origin Of The Temple & Markendeya Puran

This temple is also related to the Markandeya Purana. According to Markendya Purana this is
the place where Maa Shakti killed Mund. Chand and Mund were the commanders of Ashura
Kings Shumbh-Nishumbh.

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It is said that Devi came here to kill the demons named Chanda and Munda, after the
destruction of Chand, during the war, Mund had hidden in this hilly area. According to Puran,
it was the place where Mother killed demon Munda. Hence this place is famous by the name
of Mother Mundeshwari Devi.
Astonishing Facts

In this temple of Mother Mundeshwari, devotees experience the miracle of the

ancient Shivling, and glimpse of the amazing power of Mother is also seen
here. Devotees believe that Mother Mundeshwari fulfills every wish sought here with a
sincere heart.
The sacrificial method in this temple is slightly distinct.The greatest characteristic of the
Mundeshwari temple is that it has a sattvic tradition of animal sacrifice. Here animals are
offered in sacrifice, but their lives are not taken. When a animal is brought before the mother,
the priest touches the idol and throws some holy rice on the animal. The animal becomes
unconscious at that moment. But the animal stands up again after the priest completes the
process of Puja. After all the rituals are completed, the animal is released and according to the
rules of the temple, no one can ever hurt the animal. Not only that but the animal is being
treated as divine soul by the local people. When this miracle happens in front of your eyes,
you cannot believe that you are in the 21st century. It is incredible that such a Divine events
still occur in today’s India, to which no reasonable explanation has been given till now.
Chaturmukh (Four Faced) Shiva Linga changes Its Colour

The Devi Mundeshwari and Chaturmukh (four faced) Shiva lingam are the primary deities in
the temple. It is said that its colour of ancient Shiva lingam appears differently in the
morning, afternoon and evening.

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Temple Science

The temple, constructed of stone, stands on a rare octagonal plane. It is the first example of
the temple architecture of Nagara in Bihar. It is considered to be the earliest specimen of
the Nagara style of temple architecture. The Vimana or shikhara of the temple has been
demolished. But as part of the renovation project, a roof has been constructed.
There are small window typed doors on the four walls of the temple and besides the images
of Shiva Durga, some other divine images are also carved. The interior walls have niches and
bold mouldings which are carved with vase and foliage designs.

The door jambs with sculpted carvings of Dvarapalas, Ganga, Yamuna and several other
murtis are also seen at the temple entrance. Murtis of other famous gods like Ganesha, Surya
and Vishnu can be seen. A significant portion of this stone structure has been destroyed and
there are many fragments of stone stretched across the temple.
The Devi Mundeshwari and Chaturmukh (four faced) Shiva linga are the primary deities in
the temple. Since 1915, the temple has been a protected monument under ASI.
Siddha Yantras and Tantra Sadhana

The Mundeshwari Hill has many archaeological relics. Looking at the stones and pillars
scattered on the hill, it seems that many mysterious Siddha Yantras and mantras are
engraved on them. Yet in some special dark nights tantra is practiced here. Who can tell
how many unknown secrets and mystic pursuits are still hidden in the temple
premises ? Please let us know your thoughts in the comments section. Thanks for reading,
here is Temple Science at your service , don’t forget to subscribe. Soon will come to you
with a new fascinating and interesting article on mysterious Hindu Temple Science.

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Mundeshwari temple: a living tradition
The large sacrificial goat is pulled up the stairs by its ear. It comes bleating. A stop is made in
front of the makeshift office where the owner’s name is entered. Then the goat is alternatively
pushed and pulled inside the temple. A parikrama or round is made inside and the goat is
lifted up protesting upto the feet of the deity. The priest pushes down the goat and holds it
down and then releases his hand. Surprisingly the goat remains still, as if it can feel the
presence of the Mother. The priest waits for some time, then sprinkles holy water and flowers
taken from the deity’s feet. The goat jumps up as if it has been released from a spell. The
sacrifice has been done. It is now led back to the village where it spends the rest of its life
undisturbed, as it is one of the Mother’s chosen ones. Where else in the world do you get a
bloodless sacrifice or Satvik Bali?

Welcome to Mundeshwari temple where the nearest railhead is Bhabua Road railway station,
25 km away, on the connection between Delhi and Kolkata. The Grand Trunk Road also
passes by Bhabua Road. A tarmac road goes from Bhabua to the top of the Mundeshwari hill,
from which a flight of stairs go up to the temple.

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This temple was built in the Nagara style,which is comparatively rare in Bihar. The temple is
octagonal in shape (ashtasra) with four doorways, at the four cardinal points, one of which is
blocked, and niches in the other four. Octagonal temples are unusual in India. The main
entrance now is to the south. The door frames are beautifully decorated. At one time there
was a portico. Remains of pillars still indicate the collapsed portico. The roof had collapsed at
some point. When the English had first started exploring Eastern India, this temple was
already dilapidated.

In the modern era, the earliest record is the painting by Thomas Daniell and William Daniell
in 1790. Plate 13 from their fifth set of ” Oriental Scenery” called ” Antiquities of India”. The
condition of the roof can be clearly seen in his painting.
The next record is by Francis Buchanan, who did not actually visit the place but sent a painter
who drew it. In his ” The History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India”
( Volume 1) he gives a detailed description of the site and also mentions that it was in a
ruinous state.
That this temple at all survived is because of the Archaeological Department of India,
especially Mr T. Bloch of the Bengal Circle, who worked tirelessly to prevent total collapse
of the temple. The present flat roof has however been constructed by the PWD.

Vermillion unfortunately covers the carvingsThe main entrance Beautifully decorated

Dwarpalika.Dwarpalikas ravaged by time.Well moustached lions, quite quirky. One wonders

whether they had ever seen a real lion? Yaksha

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Nandi at Prambanan LEFT and Murdeshwari RIGHT

Inside the temple there are two main deities. Just after the entrance, in the centre of the
sanctum, is a Chaturmukha Shiva Lingam, that is a Shiva Lingam having four faces. The
antiquity of this is also attested by the fact that the prepuce was still eked out here. There are
three side compartments after the Shiva Lingam, one of them being empty. In the second, the
north cell of the temple, is the sculpture of Ganesha. The main deity is that of Ma
Mundeshwari on the eastern niche of the sanctum. She has golden eyes and is covered with
richly decorated clothes and jewellery so that only her face is visible. It is strictly prohibited
to take photos of the deity, so photos can only be taken from the door. The eight armed deity
here, unlike the present day image of Mahishasuramardini, is riding on a buffalo.

There are theories that Ma Mundesvari deity was actually situated on a separate temple on the
hillside and subsequently been transferred here and the main deity of the current temple in
ancient times was Shiva. There are also theories that though the temple has been constructed
in the later Gupta period, this was locally constructed and Ma Mundesvari was a local deity
who has been adopted into the Devi pantheon. All these theories are immaterial to those who
come to visit the Mother and seek her blessings and offer sacrifices.

Murdeshwara pics

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 Carvings-

Murdeshwar
The statue of Shiva's son Ganesha is housed in the inner sanctum of the Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan
Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.TO RIGHT Murdeshwar temple Ganesh idol

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Maha Shivaratri special: Discovering Uttarakhand’s famous Shiva temples
Lord Shiva, also known as Bhole Nath by his devotees is the divine energy, the protector and
the destroyer. In India, there are numerous temples devoted to Shiva but the ones in
Uttarakhand are most revered and most visited. On the occasion of Maha Shivaratri, we’ll tell
you about the most popular Shiva temples nestled in God's own Uttarakhand.
Kedarnath Temple, Rudraprayag
Kedarnath Temple, nestled in the Garhwal Himalayan ranges, needs no introduction. Set on
the banks of the Mandakini river, the temple holds a huge religious significance. Mythology
has it that after the war of Mahabharata, the Pandavas carried a pilgrimage to the Himalayas
for penance. There they saw a guiding light and moved towards Guptkashi (Rudraprayag).
A Jyotirlinga or a divine light was flickering and Shiva immersed from it. Lord Shiva blessed
the five brothers and told them that He will remain there in the form of a triangular-
shaped Jyotirlinga.
Tungnath Temple, Rudraprayag
Tungnath or the Lord of the Peaks is the highest Shiva temple in the world. Legend has it that
Shiva took the form of a bull and hid at Guptkashi to avoid the Pandavas. But they managed
to find him and tried to catch Shiva in his bull form. Later, Shiva’s bahu or arms were seen at
Tungnath.
Credit: iStock
Tapkeshwar Mahadev, Dehradun
Nestled in the lap of Doon Valley, Tapkeshwar Mahadev is a beautiful cave temple.
A shivalinga is enshrined inside a dark cave here. Mythology has it that when Guru
Dronacharya’s wife Kalyani gave birth to Ashwatthama, she was not able to breastfeed him
and couldn’t buy a cow for feeding. The baby Ashwatthama prayed to Shiva for milk and his
wish was granted. The baby would get milk from the Shivalinga inside the Drona Cave
where Guru Dronacharya lived. Till date, the water mysteriously drips from the ceiling on
the Shivalinga which is a sight to marvel.
Rudranath Temple, Chamoli

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Nestled in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, Rudranath Temple is of utmost importance.
Here Lord Shiva appeared in the form of a hump after being chased by the Pandavas. Lord
Shiva’s palanquin is brought to Gopeshwar here every year for worshipping. The doli passes
through several destinations before reaching Rudranath.
Neelkanth Mahadev, Rishikesh
It is believed that Neelkanth Mahadev is the place where Shiva drank Halahala or the poison
that originated during the samudra manthan (the gods and the demons churned the ocean to
obtain the elixir). Lord Shiva’s throat picked shades of blue after drinking the poison.
Madhyamaheshwar Temple, Rudraprayag
Another popular temple is the Madhyamaheshwar Temple in the beautiful Mansoona village.
Legend has it that Lord Shiva was angry with the Pandavas and in order to avoid them, he
disguised himself as a bull or Nandi. Still, the five brothers managed to recognise him and
tried to hold the bull by its tail. The bull soon disappeared and appeared at five places in the
form of a hump at Kedarnath, as bahu (arms) at Tungnath, as his face at Rudranath, in navel
shape and stomach at Madhyamaheshwar, in the form of jata or hair locks at Kalpeshwar.
The Pandavas were blessed with Shiva’s five different forms and attained salvation.
Kalpeshwar Mahadev, Chamoli
This grand temple of Shiva is set in the picturesque Urgam Valley in the Kalpeshwar village
in Uttarakhand. This is the place where locks or jata of Shiva appeared. The temple is visited
by lakhs of devotees every year.
Credit: iStock
Jageshwar Dham, Almora
Another popular Shiva temple is Jageshwar Dham. The temple is situated 35 km from
Almora and is among the twelve Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva in the country. The complex
features 125 temples along with some marvellous stone statues.

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 V
Who were the ancient Dvaravati in Thailand? Are they related to modern Thais,
Laotians, or Cambodians (Khmers)?

The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be U
Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon Pathom, Phong Tuk, Si
Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others.Dvaravati was an ancient Mon political principality
from the 6th century to the 11th century that was located in the region now known as central
Thailand.While in the beginning of the first Millennium Buddhism had been rejected in India in the
favour of the Hindu religion, Dvaravati was one of the two austroasiatic Monish realms in the Chao
Phraya basin, properly the Lower part while in the Upper part resided the Mon of Hariphunchai,
which was first Hindu and later Buddshist. Many descriptions, stelas, manuscripts and artefacts still
have been preserved in a very good shape. Before the Khmer came to dominate the region of
Thailand, the country was dominated by the Mon who established different kingdoms,
like Dvaravati, Lavo, Hariphunchai, Sikoktabun, etc; they also were the first the establish Buddhism
in their kingdoms. The Dvarvati kingdom existed from about 800 — 1200AD and was centered
around Lopburi, central Thailand. The kingdom was heavily influenced by the Mon culture probably
not as the Mon history mentions the sort of 'stateless' situation of the people. Dvaravati was more
like the aggregated city states with the similar cultures that called Dvaravati which had been rising
and declined to the point that the old Dvaravati people have become tribes in forest after Khmer
empire had expanded its hegemony. Now the Sukothai’ kingdom emerged as a power in it's own
right around 1250AD, it was growing and maturing for a few hundred years before that — I think as
a separate kingdom but vassal state of the Khmer kingdom, based at Angkor Wat.

By the time the Khmer started to expand their empire, those early Mon kingdoms were put either as
vassals or exterier part of the Khmer Empire and were forced to accept the Khmer’s Hindu belief and
culture. The first “Thai” state of Sukhothai didn’t occur 1238 which was created after the breakaway
of the Mon Kingdom of Lavo . Therefore one is able to conclude that “Siam” was never part of the
Khmer Empire but rather a break -away state from another state that declared independence earlier
which is often overlooked by many historians and nationalist.

The Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya was a union state between the Mon/Khmer Lavo Kingdom, Thai
Kingdom of Suphanburi, Kingdom of Ligor (Nakhon Si Thammarat), and later the old Thai kingdom of
Sukhothai; this lead to the early Chinese name of the Thai kingdom as being Xianlo which refers as
“Siam-Lavo”. To be clear, the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya inherited territories that were formally
“vassals” of the Khmer Empire which is like how the Holy Roman Empire inherited the Franks
territories that broke after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In addition, many of the
Ayutthayan culture that were “Khmer” was inherited from the Lavo Kingdom, like the Hindu belief,
laws, early arts, and the early royal family connections, which made the kingdom the precessor of
both the Khmer, Mon, and Thai culture. The Khmer Empire was merely like the Cambodian version
of the Eastern Roman Empire that struggle to survive for many centuries.

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The Lao people in the Middle Mekong basin never had direct contacts with the Mon but via
the Tai Yuan (the people who founded Lan Na, twin kingdom to the Lao Lan Xang, today
northern provinces of Thailand) adopted the Theravada Buddhism and the writing from them.
The Monish so-called Tham Script is still in use in Laos by scholars and monks. Let aside the
Monish-style temples and stupas. “Siam” refers to a polity of Thai-speaking people in the
Chao Phraya River basin in Central Thailand. Due to the fertility of the alluvial plains of the
basin, Thai-speaking people migrated from the mountainous North to settle there. The
fertility of the Chao Phraya River basin means great rice harvest that could support large
populations. Hence, the Thai kingdoms such as Sukhothai (Northern Chao Phraya Basin),
Ayutthaya, and then Bangkok (Lower Chao Phraya Basin). Sukhothai was the first Thai
kingdom in the basin dated back to around 1200 AD. Before that, Thai-speaking people
settled mostly in the mountainous areas in the present-day Northern Thailand.

Chao Phraya River Basin (Green). Ayutthaya is in the large delta area just north of
Bangkok./Right yellow Thailand

But later on, around 1400 AD, another Thai kingdom rose to the prominence - Ayutthaya in
the Lower Chao Phraya Basin. Ayutthaya has a very strategic location - the city is surrounded
by 3 rivers merging together to form an island. With lots of water and good soil, agricultural
yields around Ayutthaya is even better and soon Ayutthaya eclipsed Sukhothai as the most
prominent Thai kingdom. At one point, it was believed that Ayutthaya was even the largest
city of the World! Moreover, Ayutthaya is closer to the sea than Sukhothai, so Ayutthaya

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benefited from burgeoning foreign trades. At that point, the Ayutthaya kingdom was also
known as “Siam,” and the Thai polity remained known as such until the 20th century.

The Island-City of Ayutthaya is surrounded by 3 rivers. It is believed that Ayutthaya was

once the largest city in the World. Source: History of Ayutthaya - Historical Sites -
Ayutthaya Forts

The kingdom didn’t last forever though, as the Burmese sacked Ayutthaya twice, and during
the second sacking of Ayutthaya, the city was damaged beyond repair. After the Thai people
freed themselves from the Burmese yoke, the leader of the uprising proclaimed himself king
and moved the capital down to the area of present-day Bangkok at around the same time as
when the Americans freed themselves from the British yoke, which remains the capital to this
day.
Sukhothai could also be considered as more likely enlarged city states to become proto-kingdom
with alliances with other kingdoms and at that time Lopburi had started to broken away from Khmer
Empire while those who had been down South has set up Suphanburi city state as well as Phetburi
city state just like Sukhothai.

It was the formation of Ayutthaya by King U Thong was the real starting point of Ayutthaya even
though those from Lopburi and Suphanburi has gradually merge their city states into the true
Kingdom, started by the settlement in Ayutthaya.
The first thing to keep in mind when looking at these ancient kingdoms is that they're not totally
coupled — in many cases their period of existence overlap, sometimes significantly.

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Now, in the 1200s, in the sukothai kingdom the first common Thai identity emerged. King
Ramkanhaeng created the Thai alphabet and led the beginning of 'Thainess'.

After Sukothai, as regional kingdoms merged, things get a lot more organized. Ayuthaya, whose
fringe territories were vassals of Sukothai eventually took control and roles reversed…Sukothai
became part of the First Ayuthaya kingdom

Basically, the term refer to the 2 different kingdoms at various different point in time.

Ayuttaya is the old kingdom, the predecessor of modern day Thailand. The kingdom was
defeated and partitioned into many smaller states which were unified and re-incorporate in to
Thonburi and Rattanakosin, both of which are Bangkok-based Empire.

Technically, Thailand is not even a century old! What is now known as “Thailand” was
previously known as “Siam” until a WWII era PM who insisted on “modernization” of a lot
of aspects of the country (such as wearing Western-style clothings or simplify spellings of the
language and eliminated the linguistic roots of so many words) changed the name of “Siam”
into “Thailand.” Siam is the name given to Thai by foreign people for as far back as Ayuttaya
and possibly even older. The term came from the Khmer who name the ancient Tai tribe
“Siem” (Thief) and was pick up by every foreign traders and dignitaries eversince (the same
way people call the Deutch German)

By the late 19th century, Siam became the Rattanakosin was officially named Siam and was
composed of the original Bangkokian empire, Lanna (Chiangmai-based kingdom), Lanxang
(Lao), and a large part of Cambodia.

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During the 20th however, the arrival of the French and Britiah colonial empire saw the lost of
these territories which prompted the rise of nationalism.

This trend reached its peak in 1932 which saw the nationalist government overthrown the
monarchy and the country was henced renamed Thailand (land of the Thai and not Siem’s
country) to reflect this nationalistic tendecy. Territories were gained and lost again following
the WWII but the name stick and so it still is today.

area in purple-This is Siam

For the Thai people, the term “Siam” didn’t became used in official documents until the reign Rama
IV (aka King Mongkut) in 1860s and was pushed further in usage during Rama V (aka. King
Chulalongkorn) when he had to negotiate with the European in the matters of diplomatic relations
and settling boundaries, between British India and French Indochina, as a way to build a modern
nation; this kind of action was similar to French and the German model in unifying their states.
Before that, Siam was known just base on the capital’s name like Sukhothai= Kingdom of Sukhothai,
Ayutthaya= Kingdom of Ayutthaya, and Bangkok= Rattanakosin (based on the island that Bangkok
was built in; Bangkok was a foreign name that was based on a small village while to the Thais it was
known as Phra Nakhon, or the Great Capital). Back then, along with the rest of the early world, there
were no such thing as “country” but rather city-state kingdoms that were tied together by a king. By

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the time King Chulalongkorn, the term “Siam” refered to territories that Bangkok herited from the
presuccesor, Ayutthaya, and it’s vassal states in Lanna, Luang Prabang, Cambodia, and Malay States;
which is why many earlier maps of Siam before 1893 would often be worded as “Map of Siam and
it’s dependencies”

For the European, there was no name before “Siam” because the name was derieved from either
the Arabs, Indian, Chinese, or Khmer traders that came since the Ayutthaya Peried. Since the
Europeans were not aware on the Thai methods of adminstrating the kingdom, they marked the
whole known area as being “Siam” with the capital of Ayutthaya, or Bangkok, and often times not
include the Thai vassals like Laos or Cambodia as being part of the country. Which is why the
European maps of Siam’s boundaries differs before 1893.

On the last question, was the Thai kindom was ever part of the Khmer Empire, the answer would be
yes The yes part is that there was evidences throughout Northeastern and Central Thailand of the
Khmer Empire’s influence, which include the ruins found in Lopburi, Khorat, Buriram, Surin, etc.

Who came first-LAVO OR SOKHOTHAI?

It was a Khmer city Sukhotei became a Tai Sukhotai, then became a Sukhosiam then became
a Sukhothai, the first Kingdom of Tai, Siam, Thai. Thailand was built on top of the territory
of Cambodia where the Khmer culture has been existing already there. There are Khmer Pali
language and Khmer songs that Thai can’t read and understand in Thailand, but Khmer in
Cambodia can because Khmer are the creators of the culture in Thailand.

Our knowledge of the ancient Indianized kingdom of Dvaravati, which

attained its height during the VIth and VIIth centuries A.D. and occupied
the lower parts of the Menam and Meklong valleys of Central Siam, is at
present based almost entirely on the results of M. Cædes’s important
researches in this field. Finds made from time to time at Nak‘on Pathom
and elsewhere, and the excavations at P’ong TuK, [1] though they have
yielded no records of events nor provided us with the names and dates
of kings on which to base an outline of the history of the kingdom, have
yet given us a tolerably clear idea of the culture of the people, at least
during the period of their greatness. But the later centuries of the
Dvaravati period remain veiled in obscurity and a primary object of this
article is to suggest a means by which that veil might some day be rent
asunder.
Before I come to that, however, I should like to take the opportunity of
expressing my views on the questions as to whether or not this territory
played an important role as a medium for the distribution of Indian
cultural influences to the further east, either during the fourth and fifth
centuries when it seems to have formed part of the Fu-nan empire, or
after the middle of the sixth when it became the independent State of
Dvaravati. When speaking of the magnificent statues of Ankor Borei,
which are so closely related to the Gupta sculpture of India, M. Çœdes
says: “It is not impossible that this Buddhist art arrived in Cambodia, or
rather in Fu-nan, through the intermediary of Dvaravati…For the

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Buddhist art of Fu-nan. Dvaravati has perhaps played the part of
intermediary between Gupta India and the Mekong delta.” [2]
The difficulty of accepting this view is that the statues found at Ankor
Borei are so manifestly nearer Indian Gupta models than are any of the
numerous Buddhist images showing Gupta relationship that have been
found in Central Siam, and they must be placed at least a century earlier
in date. There is ample evidence that Indian influences reached the
mouth of the Mékong via the all-sea route, and afterwards via the
Takuapa-C’aiya transpeninsular route, at a very early period. It is
difficult therefore to resist the conclusion that these almost purely
Indian sculptures from Ankor Borei are the expression of influences
brought to Cambodia via one of the more direct colonial routes just
mentioned.
On the other hand the Dvaravati sculptures of Central Sian are without
exception definitely stylised, if not decadent. They must be looked upon
as the final expression of a more northerly stream of Indian culture that
has probably already passed through its period of active development in
the Mon country of Lower Burma before, penetrating eastwards via the
Three Pagoda and Papun routes, it exhausted itself on the rich plains of
Central Siam. In the neighborhood of the Prachin valley, towards the
border between modern Siam and Cambodia, these two cultural streams
must have established contact and no doubt cultural exchanges took
place; but it is difficult to imagine that cultural influences that had
travelled via Burma, the mountain passes, and finally the wide plains of
Dvravati, so far from their original Indian home-land, could have
retained vigour and party of conception enough to produce the superb
statuary of Ankor Borei. But if the influence of Dvaravati culture on the
growing Khmèr civilisation was probably small, its importance for the
future of Siam was great; and this brings me to the consideration of the
obscure later centuries of the kingdom of Dvaravati.

During the XIIth and XIIIth centuries the Khmèr empire extended its
sway over the territory of Dvaravati, and buildings of provincial Khmer
style were erected at almost all the cities of the Dvaravati kingdom that
had survived until that time. In the XIIIth century, with the break-up of
the Khmer empire, the Thai State of Sukhot’ai spread its power
southward over all this region. Bit its suzerainty was short-lived, and in
1350 A.D. we find a large part of Central Siam dominated by a Prince of
U T 'ông a city situated some fifty miles west of Ayuth’yaon what was
then the main Sup’an river but is now an insignificant tributary. H.R.H.
Prince Damrong, who visited the place in 1904, placed on record [3] the
legend that in 1350 A.D. the Prince of U T‘ong fleeing from an epidemic,
deserted the city and marched westwards to the Menam where he
founded the city of Ayuth’yawhich was for more than four hundred years
to be the capital of a united kingdom of Siam. Not only is the name
Dvaravati one of the title by which Ayuth’yacame to be known, but
Prince Damrong was able to establish a definite connection between U
T‘ong and the Dvaravati culture when he found statues and coins of
exactly the same type that had previously been found at Nak‘on

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Pathom. It seems very likely that U T‘ong was one of the old cities of the
Dvaravati kingdom, which, on account of its remote situation, had
retained much of a nominal vassalage to the Khmers. Later, having got
rid of its Khmer, and finally of its Sukhot‘ai Thai overlords, it was able to
re-establish its independence.
There is good reason for believing that the early civilisers of the
Dvaravati kingdom were Indianized Môn colonists from Lower Burma,
but the fact that the Prince of U T‘ong was himself a Thai need cause no
surprise. The local legend maintains that his family had comparatively
recently migrated from the North; and if that is so they were members
of one of the later waves of Thai immigration. But recent researches [4]
suggest that the Thai had become established on Central Siam at a
much earlier period than had formerly been supposed and the Thai of
the U T‘ong had no doubt absorbed their Môn civilisers centuries before
this city was deserted. I have mentioned that the Buddhist images found
at U T‘ong by Prince Damrong were of the Dvaravati style, and hence it
is necessary to note M. Çœdes’s explanation for denominating as
“School of U T‘ong” a number of sculptures found not actually at U
T‘ông, but at other cities in Central Siam, and showing mixed Dvaravati,
Khmer and Sukhot‘ai characteristics. M. Çœdès justifies this clarification
on the grounds that many of these sculptures may well date from the
early part of the fourteenth century, before Ayuth’yahad been founded
and when U T‘ong dominated the region. U T‘ông, indeed, during the
later centuries of its existence, could scarcely be expected to have been
brought to bear on what remained of the Dvaravati kingdom, and this is
certainly supported by the presence of several stone Hindu figures of
rather mixed ancestry still to be seen in the neighborhood of U T‘ông.
Following the useful pointers extended by Prince Damrong and M.
Çœdès I myself visited U T‘ong early in 1936. While my visit was too
short todojustice tothe site, it had the effect of still further stimulating
my interest. The city is a rectangular enclosure measuring about a mile
from north to south and half that distance from eats to west. It is
bounded by a moat and mound and the area within is largely occupied
by thin jungle broken by extensive bare patches where little vegetation
seems able to grow. Outside the city are one or two brick stupas the
style of which indicates that they probably date from not, much earlier
than the thirteenth century. Within the enclosure there are the remains
of only one monument, an old stupa basement, situated at the center of
the city. This basement was itself constructed from large re-employed
bricks, many of them ornaments with whorls, which must have once
formed part of a much earlier structure. At a spirit shrine in the
neighboring Chinese village I was shown a stucco head, said to have
been dug up near some stupa in the neighborhood. The features were of
exactly the same type as those of many of the heads found at Nak‘on
Pathom and believed to date from the VIth or VIIth century.

There had been several thunderstorms at U T‘ong at the time of my visit

and the rain had washed out large quantities of small objects from the

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surface soil of the open spaces that occupied so much of the city
enclosure. Besides household utensils and pottery we found the
crucibles of metal workers often associated with lumps of base metal
and a few specks of gold. Moreover agate, cornelian, crystal and garnet
beads mainly of Indian type were found in great abundance and here
and there were uncremated human bones. These objects were lying on
the sites of the houses of the last inhabitants of U T‘ong and, while it is
true that beads often tend to work to the surface, the evidence seems to
offer some support for the legend which tells us that the city had to be
hastily abandoned as the result of an epidemic. A few more objects of
interest were produced by the villagers who said they were accustomed
to search over the city site whenever heavy rain had washed over the
soil. Among these objects were several gold rings, a golden ear-ring set
with polished rubies and a large primitive bullet coin, stamped with lion,
elephant and cakra marks, of the type designated “pre-Ayuthian” by Dr.
Le May.

For the present it would obviously be premature to attempt to build

further on our scant knowledge of the remains at U T‘ong. But the fact
that at more than one level ancient brick courses were encountered in
my trail trial trenches suggests that thorough excavation might not only
tell us much about the everyday domestic life of the people, but that the
foundations of brick temples, perhaps with sculptures and even
inscriptions, might very well be brought to light. Indeed, now that P‘ong
Tu’k seems to have been more or less exhausted, and most of the other
known Dvaravati sites are not available for excavation either by reason of their
sanctity or their being modern centers of civilisation, the possibilities of U T‘ong deserve
careful attention, not only for the additional light that the excavation of that city might
throw on the heyday of Dvaravati culture, but because it might serve to illuminate the
whole history of Central Siam, right from the beginning of the Dvaravati kingdom until the
end of those later obscure centuries at the close of which the torch was handed on to the
new kingdom of Ayuth‘ya. To the careful investigator U T‘ong should make a strong
appeal by reason of the clear stratified nature of its deposits which have not attracted, and
are not likely to attract, the attention of the treasure-seekers who have harmed so many
other site sin Siam. The complete excavation of U T‘ong would be no small undertaking
and should not be undertaken lightly; but it is probably one of the most important of the
tasks that lie before the archaeologist of the future in Siam.

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This museum showcases exhibits on archaeological evidence and art objects from different
periods that have been uncovered in Suphan Buri. The first building displays U Thong City
artifacts from both the prehistoric era and Dvaravati era, alongside Buddha statues of the
Dvaravati style.An exhibition in the second building features information on the province's
ethnic groups and beads found from the same eras. Outside is a reconstruction of a Lao Song
ethnic group home, allowing visitors to learn about the group's traditions, clothing, and tools.

This is a serial property of three component parts: a distinctive twin-town site, featuring an
Inner and Outer Town surrounded by moats; the massive Khao Klang Nok ancient
monument; and the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient monument. Together these sites represent
the architecture, artistic traditions and religious diversity of the Dvaravati Empire that thrived
in Central Thailand from the 6th to the 10th centuries, demonstrating the influences from
India. The local adaptation of these traditions resulted in a distinctive artistic tradition known
as the Si Thep School of Art which later influenced other civilizations in Southeast Asia.

MARITIME TRADE IN THE INDIAN OCEAN AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ART

Som e Notes on the Kingdom of Dvaravati, H.G. QUARITCH WALES, The
Journal of the Greater India Society, vol.5, 1938, pp. 24-30

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The Ancient Town of Si Thep is a serial property of three component parts that represent
Dvaravati culture from the 6th to the 10th centuries, an important phase in the history of
Southeast Asia. The component parts are the unique twin-town lay-out of the Ancient Town
of Si Thep (component part 001), featuring Muang Nai (Inner Town) and Muang Nok (Outer
Town) surrounded by moats; Khao Klang Nok ancient monument (component part 002), the
largest surviving Dvaravati monument; and, the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient monument
(component part 003), a unique Mahayana Buddhist cave monastery that contains important
examples of Dvaravati art and sculpture.

More than 112 significant monastery sites have been identified at Si Thep, and the local
adaptation of Hindu artistic traditions resulted in a distinctive artistic tradition known as the
Si Thep School of Art which later influenced other civilisations in Southeast Asia. The
round-relief sculpture without a back-support arch in the standing Tribhanga posture,
depicting body movement, is especially distinctive.

Together these sites represent the architecture, artistic traditions and religious diversity of the
Dvaravati Empire that thrived in Central Thailand from the 6th to the 10th centuries,
demonstrating the influences from India including Hinduism, and Theravada and Mahayana
Buddhism.This Ancient Town demonstrates important interchanges of cultural and religious
traditions that originated in India and were adapted by the Dvaravati Empire between the 6th
and 10th centuries. Through these interactions, the town developed a distinctive identity
expressed in its artistic and architectural traditions. The Si Thep School of Art subsequently
influenced the art and architecture of other areas in Thailand. The cohabitation of Theravada

137
and Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism is a distinctive characteristic of Dvaravati
architecture, town planning and art, and these are demonstrated by the three component parts.
Together with the Khao Klang Nok ancient monument and the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient
monument bear an exceptional testimony to the Dvaravati culture and civilisation. Together,
these sites demonstrate the complexity and the specific artistic and cultural characteristics of
the Dvaravati period in terms of urban planning, religious architecture, and monasticism. The
architectural and artistic forms of Si Thep are not found elsewhere, particularly the unique
twin-town lay-out, and distinctive Dvaravati forms of sculpture such as the standing
Tribhanga posture depicting body movement. The Khao Klang Nok ancient monument is the
largest monument of Dvaravati art, influenced by South Indian and Indonesian artistic
traditions; and the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient monument is located in a sacred mountain
and the only known cave monastery in Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia.

The aerial photograph of Khao Klang Nok ancient monument

Mueang Uthong was inhabited from around the 10th century BC and became the state
society in the third to sixth-century CE. Uthong was one of the largest known city-states that
emerged around the plains of central Thailand in the first millennium but became abandoned
around 1000 AD due to the endemic and lost in major trading cities status. It was resettled in
the Ayutthaya period but was abandoned again after the fall of Ayutthaya in the 1760s.
Uthong is also considered the first city-state that practiced Brahmanism and Buddhism in
present-day central Thailand.[
Prehistory
The results of archaeological studies revealed that the area around U Thong has been
inhabited by humans since around 10th BC between the Neolithic and Metal Ages. The

138
evidence found was tools made of stone and metal, such as bronze spear blades, bronze axes,
and earring molds made of stone.
Funan Kingdom: before 7th century
Radiocarbon determinations from the sites of U-Thong suggest that the transition into
complex state societies in the area took place between about 300-600 AD. A copper
inscription from the mid-7th century states, "Sri Harshavarman, grandson of Ishanavarman,
having expanded his sphere of glory, obtained the lion throne through regular succession,"
and mentions gifts to a linga. The site includes a moat, 1,690 by 840 m, and the Pra
Paton caitya.
According to the archaeological evidence found in the area, suggests that Uthong was
probably the center or used to be a colony of the Funan Kingdom since the 1st century AD;
however, when the Funan Kingdom had lost its power, Uthong therefore became an
important trade city of the succeeding kingdom, Dvaravati, in the 7th-11th century AD.
The city-state of "Jinlin" which was mentioned in the Chinese archives of the Liang
Dynasty as the last state that was occupied by Fan Man, the Great King of Funan Kingdom,
in the 4th century AD, might be located in the area of Uthong, since the word "Jinlin" means
land of gold or Suvarnabhumi; as mentioned in the archive, it was a state located
approximately 2,000 li (800 kilometers) west of the Funan Kingdom, which corresponded to
the area of Uthong.
The city of Uthong was located on the bank of the Nam Chorakhe Suphan River (currently
called Khlong Chorakhe Sam Phan). Because the boundary of the Palaeo-gulf extended more
northward than the present-day shoreline, the trading ship easily navigated to the city by the
Nam Chorakhe Suphan River, making Uthong play a role as an important port city in the
area, along with the Funan's port city of Óc Eo in present-day southern Vietnam. The ancient
city of Uthong also had trade contacts with the West, from the Indians to
the Greeks and Romans in the Mediterranean Sea, that expanded the sea trade to countries
in Southeast Asia and China. Evidence found in the area, including glazed Chinese
ceramics from the Tang Dynasty, beads and jewelry from India, Persian wares, and
many other decorations from Greece, Rome, China, and the Middle East, proves the area was
contacted by external territories. The trade also
brought Brahmanism and Buddhism from India to U-Thong, making it the first settlement to
practice such religions in the region.
Dvaravati Kingdom: 7th-11th century
During the 6th-7th centuries, Uthong was considered one of the centers of Dvaravati culture.
Antiques were found scattered in the ancient ruins as well as along the banks of Khlong
Chorakhe Sam Phan from Phanom Thuan District of Kanchanaburi Province to Don Chedi
District and U Thong District of Suphan Buri Province. According to the Thai Chronicles, the
city of U Thong was resettled around the early 9th century by a royal lineage of Dvaravati,
who fled to establish the new city of Suvarnabhumi in the present-day Ladya
subdistrict, Kanchanaburi, after the old capital of Dvaravati was sacked by Chenla in the 8th-
9th centuries.
Since the Nam Chorakhe Suphan River was dried up in places, shallow, and consequently not
navigable, and also due to some pandemics, Uthong lost its influence as the port city and was
abandoned around the 11th century, thus escaping from the Khmer influence that came to the
most significant power in the 12th century during the reign of the great Khmer
king, Jayavarman VII. As a result of the mentioned circumstances, the city was moved

139
eastward, but the epidemic did not abate, causing the city to be relocated again to the east
bank of Tha Chin River, which is known as Suphan Buri in the present-day.
Ayutthaya Kingdom: 14th-18th century
The area was re-settled during the Ayutthaya period since some chedis discovered
by Damrong Rajanubhab appear to be of more recent origin and would appear to date from
the time of Ayutthaya.[3] No historical chronicle directly mentions Uthong in this period; the
area was controlled by Suphan Buri. However, after Ayutthaya was sacked by troops of the
Burmese Konbaung dynasty in 1767, both Suphan Buri as a frontier town and the
surrounding settlements was destroyed and left abandoned.[4]
U Thong also became the origin of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, as the first King of
Ayutthaya, Ramathibodi, was the prince of U Thong when the city was struck by an
epidemic, prompting him to relocate east and found Ayutthaya.
Rattakosin era: 1782–Present
In 1836, according to the Journey to Suphan a poem written by a royal poet, Sunthorn
Phu, Suphanburi as well as its surrounding area, which includes Uthong, was still wasteland;
however, the area was resettled with limited numbers of villagers about four years later,
around 1840] Later in 1895, during the reign of Chulalongkorn, due to the country's
administration reform, the area was governed by a newly established district, Bueng
Chorakhe Sam Phan, headed by the present-day Chorakhe Sam Phan sub-district However, to
conform with local history, the district government head office was relocated to the ancient
city of Uthong, and the district was also renamed to such in 1939.[13]
The ancient city of Uthong was officially excavated by Damrong Rajanubhab and George
Cœdès in 1930.
Dvaravati art is a form of artistic work originating from Mon. Dvaravati flourished from the
Dvaravati Mon ancient artifacts are in present-day Thailand and Burma, Mon states to the
west in southern Myanmar (Burma) and with the Mon state in northern Thailand. The
Dvaravati statues reflect characteristics of the Mon people, namely broad faces and noses,
full lips and joined eyebrow arches. This standing Buddha is typical of the style with its
meditative look, imposing size and the symmetry of its U-shaped robe. During the Dvaravati
period, houses were generally built of wood while fired brick and laterite were used for
religious structures. Furthermore, the larger Buddhist monuments, mostly of brick, were
constructed within the moats, while smaller ones stood outside the enclosures.

ooooooooooooooooo

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 VI

Vishnu in Thailand

Dr. UDAY DOKRAS,

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur Uni. India
Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada,
PhD Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Consultant –Vaastu & Astrology,
DIRECTOR (Technical) The Satguru Mahakali Kiran Foundation Bangkok,Thailand

#1 in the world
5 Categories for Book of World Records
141
Cover-This sculpture of Vishnu made from sandstone is from what is present-day Thailand. It likely comes from the
province of Prachinburi in the vicinity of Dong Si Maha Phot. It dates from the 7th-8th century CE. (Musée
Guimet, Paris)

Thai Hindus ชาวไทยฮินดู-Chāw thịy ḥindū ----Dr Uday Dokras

As the Khmer Empire ruled over modern-day Thailand, its Hindu ways and practices began
to shape the land and the culture. Hinduism’s roots in the foundation of Thailand are evident
all over the country. For example, Thailand’s former capital of Ayutthaya was named after
Ayodhya, the birthplace of the Hindu god Rama, whilst the Phanom Rung temple in Isaan,
built in the Khmer style, was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and made to represent the
sacred site of Mount Kailash. Even Thailand’s national epic, Ramakien, was derived from the
Hindu epic Ramayana.

Even though the days of the Khmer Empire ruling Thailand are long over, many temples still
have Hindu statues standing side by side with Buddhist statues. Buddhism isn’t like
Abrahamic religions that are strict on monotheism, and Thailand’s Hindu past means that
many figures have transcended through to Thai culture. Whilst you’ll often see a statue of the
Hindu god Ganesh, Thais refer to it as Phra Pikanet. Thais don’t generally pray to Phra
Pikanet, but do so in certain circumstances. For example, as Ganesh is seen as the remover of
obstacles and a fan of the arts, artists or those who are opening a new business pray to him.
Along with Ganesh, it’s common to see statues of Shiva (Phra Isuan), Brahma (Phra
Phrom), Indra (Phra In)and Vishnu (Phra Narai). Whilst they might not have the same
reputation or level of worship as the Buddha, they’re still important facets of Thai culture
even hundreds of years after the Khmer Empire left.

Hinduism in Thailand is a minority religion followed by

84,400 (0.1%) of the population as of 2020. Despite being a Buddhist-majority

nation, Thailand has a very strong Hindu influence. The majority of Thai Hindus
reside in Bangkok, Chonburi, and Phuket.

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Although Thailand has never been a majority-Hindu country, it has been influenced
by Hinduism. Despite the fact that today Thailand is a Buddhist-majority country,
many elements of Thai culture and symbolism demonstrate Hindu influences and
heritage. Southeast Asia, including what is now Thailand, has been in contact with
Hinduism through India for over 2000 years.[2] Indian settlement in Southeast Asia has
been ongoing since the 6th century BCE and has continued into the modern era,
influenced by various socioeconomic and political factors. Tamil
and Gujarati immigrants migrated to Thailand in the late 1800s, working in the gem
and textile industries, followed by a larger migration of both Sikhs and Hindus
from Punjab in the 1890s.

The popular Thai epic Ramakien is based on the Buddhist Dasaratha Jataka, which is
a Thai variant of the Hindu epic Ramayana. The national emblem of
Thailand depicts Garuda, the vahana (mount) of Vishnu.

The city Ayutthaya, near Bangkok, is named after Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama.
Numerous rituals derived from Hinduism are preserved in rituals, such as the use of
holy strings and pouring of water from conch shells. Furthermore, Hindu-Buddhist
deities are worshiped by many Thais, such as Brahma at the famous Erawan Shrine,
and statues of Ganesha, Indra, and Shiva. Reliefs in temple walls, such as the 12th-
century Prasat Sikhoraphum near Surin (Thailand), show a dancing Shiva, with
smaller images of Parvati, Vishnu, Brahma, and Ganesha.

The Devasathan is a Hindu temple established in 1784 by King Rama I. The temple is
the centre of Hindus in Thailand. The royal court Brahmins operate the temple and
perform several royal ceremonies per year.

An annual Giant Swing ceremony known as Triyampavai-Tripavai was held in major

cities of Thailand until 1935, when it was abolished for safety reasons. [6] The name of
the ceremony was derived from the names of two Tamil language Hindu
chants: Tiruvempavai and Tiruppavai. It is known that Tamil verses
from Tiruvempavai — poet pratu sivalai ("opening the portals of Shiva's home") —
were recited at this ceremony, as well as the coronation ceremony of the Thai king.
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 According to T.P. Meenakshisundaram, the name of the festival indicates that
[7]

Thiruppavai might have been recited as well. [8] The swinging ceremony depicted a
legend about how the god created the world. Outside shops, particularly in towns and
rural areas, statues of Nang Kwak as the deity of wealth, fortune and prosperity (a
form of Lakshmi) are found.

The elite, and the royal household, often employ Brahmins to mark funerals and state
ceremonies such as the Royal Ploughing Ceremony to ensure a good harvest. The
importance of Hinduism cannot be denied, even though much of the rituals has been
combined with Buddhism.

Tracing Vishnu in Thailand

Earliest Vishnu Sculpture Discovered in Thailand

Southern and Central Thailand are possibly the earliest regions,
where Vaishnavism flourished in the whole of Southeast Asia. Several sculptures of Vishnu
are discovered from the earliest period. These smaller-than-human-sized sculptures are
stylistically comparable to Mathura and Amaravati schools of Indian Art.

Second Phase of Vishnu Sculpture from Central Thailand, 7th-8th centuries CE

The human-sized sculpture of the second phase Vishnu with Pallava influence was
discovered in Sri Mahosot in Central Thailand. Vishnu is attired in a plain cylindrical crown
along with a transparent lower garment. The style of the sculpture shares a similarity with the
ones discovered in Southern Thailand.

Sculptures of Vishnu and Krishna discovered from Sri Thep

Sri Thep is one of the most important Dvaravati cities in Central Thailand which yields
several stone sculptures of Vaishnavism. Vishnu and Krishna are the most common
finds. Vishnu stands in the posture of Tribhanga, Krishna is portrayed with the left
band lifting Mount Govardhana.

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The Sukhothai Vishnu at the Bangkok National Museum, circa 14th century, found at the Sukhothai Historical
Park.////5th century CE, Hindu god Vishnu, Photograph from the National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand.

Four-armed Vishnu, 14th century CE

After the 13th century CE, the Thais were converted to Theravada Buddhism, kings
tried to claim himself as the incarnation of Vishnu. Vishnu bronze image was moulded
for Sukhothai's royal private worship. The image smiles with serenity, similar to
Sukhothai Buddha image. Shiva is the mighty god of destruction of the universe, and
sins. Shaivism, which originated in South India, was transmitted to the southern and
central parts of Thailand. This occurred during the 6th-10th century A.D.

145
Royal Brahmins performing a ceremony, mural painting from Temple of Emerald Buddha//
Southern Thailand; Lingam; Sculpture.
Lord Shiva is manifested in various forms. Among them the most popular one is that
of the lingam, in the shape of men's genital organs. It depicts the unison of the male
and female energies, which created the entire universe according to Hindu thought.
Several forms of Shiva Lingam have been found in Southern Thailand. One has the
Lord Shiva's face. This is known as the Mukha Lingam. Similarly, a gold lingam,
belonging to a hermit's private collection, has been discovered at a cave in the region.
A lingam shaped stone known as the Swayambhulingam has also been discovered.

Thai Brahmin community

Thailand has two ethnic Thai Brahmin communities - Brahm Luang (Royal Brahmins)
and Brahm Chao Baan (folk Brahmins). All ethnic Thai Brahmins are Buddhist by
religion, who still worship Hindu Gods. The Brahm Luang (Royal Brahmins) mainly
perform royal ceremonies of the Thai monarch, including crowning of the king. They
belong to the long family bloodline of Brahmins in Thailand, who originated from
Tamil Nadu. The folk Brahmins are the category of Brahmins who are not from a
lineage of priests. Generally, these Brahmins have less knowledge about the rituals
and ceremonies. Apart from this there are also Indian Brahmins from India who
migrated to Thailand more recently.

Brahmins once conducted the royal ceremony in other Southeast Asian countries as
well. The rituals were reinstated in Cambodia after the overthrow of the Khmer
Rouge. The Brahmins of Myanmar have lost their role due to the abolition of
monarchy. Historian Damrong Rajanubhab has mentioned about three kind of
Brahmins, from Nakhòn Sī Thammarāt, from Phatthalung, and those who originated
from Cambodia. During the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods, evidence of the
presence of sizable number of Indians in the Thai court is described by a number of
western travelers. However most of the contemporary Indians came to Thailand after
1920, and during the first half of the 19th century.

146
The Mariamman Temple, Bangkok is the first temple built in the South Indian
architectural style. It was built in 1879 by Vaithi Padayatchi,
a Tamil Hindu immigrant.

Hor Phra Narai, Nakhon Si Thammarat

Across the street from the shrine to Shiva is a VISHNU Shrine- the Ho Phra Narai
sits shaded by a huge tree. Narai is an incarnation of Vishnu, popular to this day
among Thais.

147
The Ho Phra Narai, a shrine to the Hindu god Vishnu

Inside the shrine is a battered old stone statue of Vishnu. Nobody is sure if the
statue is original or if it was carved to replace an even older altarpiece.
Five lingas uncovered in the grounds of the shrine are on display in the National Museum.
They are thought to be more than 1,000 years old.Although a modern building, the Hor Phra
Narai (Vishnu Shrine) is a remnant of the times when the worship of Hindu gods was
widespread in the region. Phra Narai is the most common Thai name for Vishnu.On display
in the hall is a replica of the original stone statue of Vishnu now in the Nakhon Si Thammarat
National Museum.The shrine is located on the east side of Ratchadamnoen Road, between the
Clock Tower and the City Wall, opposite the Hor Phra Isuan.

Vishnu is the supreme god "Svayam Bhagavan" of Vaishnavism. In addition, he is one of the five primary
forms of God in the Smarta tradition; he is conceived as the preserver and the protector. Hindu art often
depicts Vishnu with four arms and a dark blue complexion. From Thai-Cambodian border, 11th century
CE. (National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK)

148
Lord Vishnu Statue Sitting on Snake, Ko Samui Island, Thailand// This standing Vishnu embodies the
hero-warrior much favored in seventh-century mainland Southeast Asia. Figures of this type have a
highly developed musculature as well as a symmetrical frontal posture, sometimes slightly flexed, and
always wear an undecorated crown. There is a clear stylistic descent from a small group of Indic-style
Vishnus from peninsular Thailand datable to the fifth and early sixth centuries and related versions from
western Java. The products of the Muang Si Mahosot workshops are best understood as belonging to a
regional school inspired by the peninsular style of Chaiya.

Vishnu from Dong Si Mahapot, Thailand ) Undated

149
The seals represented four gods: Shiva (known in Thailand as Phra Isuan),
Vishnu (Phra Narai), Brahma (Phra Phrom) and Indra (Phra In). The first
three belong strictly to the Hindu Trimurti (or Trinity) and the last is a
popular king of the gods in Buddhism. From the stunning Grand Palace in
Bangkok to the local one hidden away in the soi, each of Thailand’s
temples are adorned with statues of Hindu gods such as Ganesh or
Brahman. Whilst Thailand is a country where 95% of its population are
Buddhists, this wasn’t always the case. Thailand’s past — before it was
even known as Thailand — was punctuated by a series of different ruling
kingdoms, but in its earliest days, it was ruled by the powerful Khmer
Empire. This empire, now modern-day Cambodia, followed Hinduism, and
as a result, the religion spread to places under its control, including
Thailand.

Phanom Rung Lintel of the Reclining Vishnu

Phanom Rung Historical Park is an archaeological site in Thailand, covering the ruins
of Prasat Phanom Rung a Hindu Khmer Empire temple complex set on the rim of an
extinct volcano at 402 metres (1,319 ft) elevation. It is located in Buriram Province in
the Isan region of Thailand, and was built at a time when Khmer social-political influences
were significant in Srisaket. It was built of sandstone and laterite between the 10th and 13th
centuries. It was a Hindu shrine dedicated to Shiva, and symbolises Mount Kailash, his
heavenly dwelling.

The Phanom Rung sanctuary compound was constructed over several phases, dated by means
of iconography of its art and architectural styles together with its inscriptions. These comprise
two foundations of sacred brick buildings of 10th century C.E., the minor sanctuary of 11th
century, the central sanctuary built by King Suryavarman II in 12th century and two
Bannalais (libraries) of the 13th century. Further sacred buildings built in the reign of
King Jayavarman VII in 13th century, including the Royal attire Changing Pavilion, the Kudi
Rishis of Nong Bua Ray, the medical centre or hospital (Arokayasala) and Prasat Ban Bu, a
rest house with fire where travelers could shelter (Dharmasala) on the plain at the foot of
Phanom Rung, alongside the road linking Angkor and Phimai. These evidence an important

150
vice-regal centre on and around the mountain that flourishes from the 10th to the 13th
centuries. Thailand's Department of Fine Arts spent 17 years restoring the complex to its
original state from 1971 to 1988. On 21 May 1988, the park was officially opened by
Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. In 2005, the temple was submitted to UNESCO for
consideration as a future World Heritage Site.

Phanom Rung is an extinct volcano 386 metres (1,266 ft) in elevation in Ta Pek
subdistrict, Chaloem Phra Kiat district, Buriram. The name comes from Khmer: meaning
'large mountain'

151
After the three-leveled lower stairway is the first cruciform platform, giving a first peek at the
main temple. On the right, northward, is Phlab Phla or the White Elephant House.
The pavilion is believed to be the place where kings and the royal family would
change attire before rituals. Royalty would then enter the processional walkway, one of the
most impressive elements of the park. It is 160 meters long and bordered by seventy
sandstone posts with tops of lotus buds. The walkway itself is paved with laterite blocks.

152
The walkway leads to the first of three naga bridges. The five-headed snakes face all four
directions and are from the 12th century. This bridge represents the connection between
heaven and earth. The naga bridge leads to the upper stairway, which is divided into five sets.
Each set has terraces on the sides. The last terrace is wide, made with laterite blocks. It has
a cruciform shape and four small pools. A couple more steps lead to the second naga bridge.
It has the same shape as the first one, only smaller. In the middle the remains of an eight
petalled lotus carving can be seen.

This final terrace leads to the outer gallery. It probably used to be a wooden gallery with a
tiled roof, but only a raised floor of laterite remains. After the outer gallery one reaches the
inner gallery, which is divided in long and narrow rooms. It served as a wall around the
principal tower. This last gallery leads to the third and last naga bridge, another small copy of
the first one.

The bridge leads directly into the main sanctuary. After the antechamber and the annex, one
reaches the principal tower. Double porches lead out in all directions. The inner sanctum used
to have the "linga", the divine symbol of Shiva. Currently, only the "somasutra" remains
which was used to drain water during religious rites. The entrances have
various lintels and icons depicting Hindu religious stories, e.g., the dancing Shiva and the
five yogis. The south entrance is guarded by a sandstone statue.

Apart from the main tower, other buildings in the compound are:

 Two brick sanctuaries built around the 10th century, northeast of the tower.
 The minor sanctuary southwest of the tower with a sandstone altar for a sacred image. It
was built with sandstone in the 11th century. Prang Noi has only one entrance facing east.
The sanctuary is square with indented corners, giving it a round feel.
 Two Bannalai southeast and northeast of the principal tower. The buildings are
rectangular and have only one entrance. They were built in the last period, around the
13th century, and used as a library for holy scriptures.

Phanom Rung temple ABOVE & BELOW

153
Thailand’s Hindu statues can be seen all over the country, but there are a few notable statues
that are popular attractions. Suvarnabhumi Airport and Bangkok’s Grand Palace have striking
statues of the Hindu giants, also known as yak, whilst the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok is home

154
to a small, golden statue of Brahma that was the subject of a terror attack. Outside of
Bangkok, Chachoensao Province is home to several huge statues of Ganesh, whilst other
temples around the country feature somewhat less grand but equally beautiful statues of
Hindu gods.

Chachoengsao Lord Ganesh Temple

155
 This
famous statue is in Wat Phrong Akat Temple, Bang Nam Priao district, Chachoengsao
province, Thailand.

Giant Standing Ganesha Statue at Khlong Khuean District,

Chachoengsao Province, Eastern Thailand

156
157
 VII
The Vehicle of Vishnu-GARUDA Symbol of
THAILAND

Emblem of Thailand-ตราแผ่นดินของไทย

The national emblem of Thailand is called Phra Khrut Pha; "Garuda as the vehicle"
(of Vishnu)). The Garuda was officially adopted as the national
emblem by Vajiravudh (Rama VI) in 1911. However, the mythical creature had been used as
a symbol of royalty in Thailand for centuries. The Garuda is depicted on seals, which are
used by the King and the Government of Thailand to authenticate official documents and as
its primary emblem.

The Garuda is a mythological beast of the Hindu and Buddhist tradition. According to Hindu
mythology, the Garuda is the vahana (vehicle) of the god Vishnu (Narayana). The
ancient kings of Thailand believed in divine kingship, and considered themselves the
incarnation of the god Narayana. Thus, the Garuda came to symbolise the divine power and
authority of the king.

The Garuda also features in the national emblem of Indonesia and the emblem of the city
of Ulaanbaatar.

158
Cabinet Secretary affixes the seals to the 2007 Constitution after it was signed by the King and
countersigned by the Parliament Speaker, 2007.////A Garuda decoration on the prang of the 15th
century Wat Ratchaburana, Ayutthaya Historical Park.
The Garuda is a birdlike mythological beast of the Hindu and Buddhist tradition. According
to mythology, the Garuda is a large hybrid half-man and half-bird creature. The Garuda is
often depicted in art as having the head, beak, wings and talons of an eagle, while his torso is
like that of a human man. In the book Traiphum Phra Ruang, a Thai Buddhist literary work
composed in the 14th century, he is described as having a body that was 150 yojanas across
(1 yojana equivalent to 1.6 kilometres), his left and right wings 150 yojanas each, his tail 60
yojanas long, his neck 30 yojanas, his beak 90 yojanas and his talons 12 yojanas each.

The Garuda's physical strength and martial prowess is recounted in the Sanskrit Puranas,
these stories he is described as the most powerful of all the winged-creatures and as such is
regarded as the king of all the birds.[5] In Buddhist literature, the Garuda lives in the
legendary Himavanta forest and is regarded as semi-divine or supernatural.[2] In the Buddhist
tradition the emphasis is put on the Garuda's deeds, which portray him as a righteous and
merciful being.

According to the Mahabharata, the Garuda was so powerful that no god could defeat him in
battle, eventually the Hindu god Vishnu intervened. Impressed with his abilities, Vishnu
made the Garuda immortal and promised him a higher seat than that of his own. Henceforth,
the Garuda became the 'vahana' or vehicle of Vishnu and was allowed to sit atop the god's
flagpole as a reward.

The Garuda's relationship with Vishnu or Narayana is especially significant. The doctrine of
ancient Thai kingship was heavily influenced by those of India. Accordingly, the king was
nothing less than an 'avatar' or incarnation of god, just as King Rama of the
epic Ramayana was the incarnation of Narayana. Thus, the god Narayana and the Garuda
became the accepted symbol of divine and sacred kingship in ancient Thailand.[8]

Royal seals
During the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767), the king had in his possession
several seals (ตรา, tra) of various designs. These stamp seals were used in the authentication
of official documents, especially on those sent out from the central administration to the
provinces. They were usually made from carved blocks of ivory. 1635 a law was passed,
regulating the use of each seal for a specific purpose or on specific documents. For example,
one was used for the interior administration, one for foreign affairs, one for military affairs
and one for dynastic affairs. The king entrusted a seal to an individual minister, with a
"Master of the Seal", whose role it was to write and seal all documents on his behalf.

The importance of the seals were attested when another law provided a punishment for the
forgery and altering of sealed documents.[9] Simon de la Loubère remarked that the king's
own authority was linked to that of his seal. In times of turmoil and dynastic conflict,
exceptional importance was attached to the seals, as it was considered that the kingdom's
power and authority laid with their custodian. These seals did not survive the sacking and
destruction of the city by a Burmese army in 1767.

The use of royal seals continued in the first four reigns of the Rattanakosin
Kingdom (founded in 1782). The Chakri kings would use a personal seal for private letters
and four official seals for government business. The four great royal seals (พระ

159
ราชลัญจกร, Phra Ratcha Lanchakon) included: the Maha Ongkan (มหาโองการ),
the Khrut Pha (ครุฑพ่าห์), the Hongsaphiman (หงสพิมาน) and the Airaphot (ไอราพต)
seals. The seals represented four gods: Shiva (known in Thailand as Phra
Isuan), Vishnu (Phra Narai), Brahma (Phra Phrom) and Indra (Phra In). The first three
belong strictly to the Hindu Trimurti (or Trinity) and the last is a popular king of the gods in
Buddhism.

The four seals are now kept by the Secretariat of the Cabinet and are affixed to documents by
its officers in different combinations, depending on the purpose of those documents.

Four great royal seals of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Indra

Phra Ratcha Phra Ratcha

Lanchakon Maha Lanchakon Phra
Ongkan Khrut Pha
Royal Seal of the Royal Seal of
Great Decree Garuda the
An Unalom symbol Carrier
inside a Narayana
royal Busabok pavili mounted on the
on, flanked by two back of Garuda.
seven-tiered royal Within the
umbrellas. The seal Garuda's claws are
represents Shiva. two Nāga serpents
. Narayana was an
Phra Ratcha incarnation of
Lanchakon Vishnu.
Airaphot
Royal Seal of Phra Ratcha
Airavata elephant Lanchakon
A royal pavilion Hongsaphiman
mounted on the back Royal Seal of the
of Airavata (a Swan Pavilion
mythical three- A royal pavilion
headed elephant), mounted on the
flanked by two five- back of hamsa (a
tiered royal mythical swan), at
umbrellas. The its feet are lotus
Airavata according flowers and
to myth is the leaves. The hamsa
vehicle of Indra according to myth
is the vehicle of
Brahma.

Garuda emblem-Royal symbols

160
 1. Constitutional Court Decision No. 12-14/2553 dated 3 November 2010, as
published in the Government Gazette. The Garuda emblem is used on the
letterhead, as is common on all Thai government documents.

2. A proclamation dated 19 October 2006. King Bhumibol Adulyadej signed at the

top of the paper and prime minister Surayud Chulanont countersigned at the
bottom. All of the four seals were used on this modern document.

3.
Thai kings recruited Brahmins from India and adopted Hindu court rituals. The national and
royal symbol of Thailand is Garuda, the mount of Lord Vishnu. Thailand uses the Garuda as
its national symbol, known as the Phra Khrut Pha, meaning "Garuda, the vehicle (of
Vishnu)," also used as the symbol of royalty It adorns the banknote of thai currency - the
Baht - as well.

These seals were used until 1873, when a European inspired coat of arms was designated by
King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) as the national emblem of Siam. However, the creation of the
coat of arms did not entirely replace the old royal seals, for a law promulgated in 1890, stated
that the Khrut Pha and the Airaphot seals would continue to be used. In 1893 the King
changed his mind and decided that the heraldic arms was too foreign, and ordered his brother
the Prince Narisara Nuvadtivongs to design a new seal featuring the Garuda. The Garuda as a
symbol has been depicted in royal seals since the times of Ayutthaya. The Prince drew a new
seal, which was based on the old design, featuring the god Narayana mounted on the Garuda's
back. This version of the seal was used only briefly, as the King was not satisfied with this
rendition. Soon after he asked the Prince to redesign the seal depicting the Garuda alone.

161
 The royal standard of Thailand or Thong Maha Rat (ธงมหาราช).
The Garuda also features in standards of other members of the royal family.
In 1910, King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) decided to abandon the coat of arms altogether and use
the Garuda as his primary device. The King asked Phra Dhevabhinimit (a famous artist at the
time) to design a new seal, using Prince Naris' drawing of the Garuda, but with an addition of
an encirclement of the King's ceremonial name on the outer edge. In 1911 an Act on the Seals
of State was passed establishing the Garuda seal as the principal seal "To be impressed for
authentication of the King's signature on all important deeds and documents." From then on
the Garuda seal named Phra Khrut Pha became the country's official emblem.
King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) continued the use of the seal by replacing his predecessor's
name with his own. As King Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII) was never crowned in
a coronation ceremony (and therefore was never bestowed with a regnal name), a seal for his
reign was never carved, instead he used his grandfather's (those of King Rama V's) instead.
The seal made for King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) was carved in 1946, soon after his
coronation.

The Garuda also became the official symbol of the Thai monarchy. In 1910 King Rama VI
passed an Act on Flags, which created a new set of the royal standards, in which the Garuda
took a prominent place. The standard would fly above various royal residences, signifying the
king's presence there. The standard would also fly in front of the king's royal vehicles. In
1996 a royal barge called Narai Song Suban (เรือพระที่นั่งนารายณ์ทรงสุบรรณ;
Narayana on his carrier) was launched, the bow of the barge depicts Narayana mounted on
the back of a Garuda

Drawn by Prince Naris in The final version depicts King Vajiravudh introduced the
1893. The seal depicts the the Garuda alone, with encircling of the king's
Garuda, with wings wings outstretched. This ceremonial name around the
outstretched, with Narayana version was used by Garuda. This example is the seal
mounted on his back. This King Chulalongkorn. used by King Bhumibol
version was only used Adulyadej (Rama IX) which was
briefly. carved for his coronation in
1950.

162
Seal of King Vajiralongkorn, encircled with the king's official name before his coronation: " "
("Somdet Phra Chao Yu Hua Maha Vajiralongkorn Bodindradebayavarangkun.")
Official emblem
The Garuda was also adopted by the Royal Thai Government as its official emblem. The
Garuda emblem appears on the letterhead of almost all Thai government documents.The
position of the king as the earthly personification of Narayana is symbolised through the use
of the Garuda. This symbolism also illustrates the belief that the government (as represented
by the Garuda) is the vehicle (or instrument) of the king. The figure of the Garuda is also
used as symbol of state property, and as such is displayed on government buildings, title
deeds, boundary markers and in the uniforms of the Royal Thai Police and Royal Thai Armed
Forces

King Rama VI was the first to regulate the use of the Garuda emblem by the government
through legislation in 1911. The use of the Garuda emblem was further regulated in an Act on
the Garuda Emblem in 1991. A penalty for the misuse and misrepresentation of the Garuda
was set to; imprisonment of no longer than one year, or a fine of between three and six
thousand Baht, or both.[24] In 2001 the Office of the Prime Minister issued a guideline
outlining the use of the emblem. The document recommended that the Garuda should be
treated with respect as it is considered a sacred symbol.

At first there was no fixed rule as to what posture the Garuda should be depicted. King
Rama VI eventually selected an attitude for the Garuda called Khrut Ram (ครุฑรํา)
or 'dancing Garuda' (wings displayed and elevated). However no law ever prescribed a
specific design for use, as a result several designs are in use by various government
departments.

Government use

Strictly for use by the Used on general Used on general Used on general
monarch. Also used on documents, such as documents, such as documents and
the cover of the Royal land deeds and letters court orders. on Thai banknotes.
Thai Government (most common).
Gazette and Thai

163
passports.
Royal warrant
Private entities such as businesses may be granted permission to use and display the
Garuda emblem. Deserving firms, such those of good standing, could apply for
a Royal warrant of appointment from the king through the Bureau of the Royal
Household or the Prime Minister. Once permission is given the firm is then allowed to
display a Tra Tang Hang (ตราตั้งห้าง) or store standing emblem, which is a
large sculpture of the Garuda, on all of their business premisesReceiving a Royal
warrant is considered a great honour and a mark of distinction for any Thai company

The Garuda sculpture depicts the beast adorned with a golden crown and regalia,
wearing a robe of blue and green, with wings outstreched. Underneath the figure is a
ribbon with the phrase "By Royal Assent." Previously a sculpture of the royal arms
was displayed during the reign of King Rama V, these were replaced with the Garuda
in 1911

Historical emblems-Coat of arms of Siam

 Royal coat of arms of Siam

 พระราชลัญจกรประจำแผ่นดินสยาม

164
A Buddhist Theological degree from 1910, from Uttaradit Province. The coat of arms of
Siam is used on the letterhead.
From 1873 to 1910, a heraldic style coat of arms (ตราอาร์ม, Tra Arms) became the
national emblem of Siam (renamed Thailand in 1939). The Western-style coat of arms
was created at the command of King Rama V. The king ordered his cousin Prince
Pravij Jumsai to design the arms for him. The armorial emblem contains almost all the
elements of a European coat of arms; however, all the components of the emblem are
traditional Thai royal symbols. The emblem is called the Phra Ratcha Lanchakon
Pracham Phaen Din Sayam.

The escutcheon or shield, is divided into three quadrants. The first (chief) quadrant
depicts an Airavata on a yellow field. This quadrant represents the Thai heartland, the
three heads of the elephant represents its northern, central and southern regions. The
lower left quadrant (dexter base) depicts a white elephant on a red field. This quadrant
represents the Laotian suzerainty (the symbol comes for its native name Lan Xang,
land of a million elephants). The lower right quadrant (sinister base) depicts two-
crossed krises (one with and one without a scabbard) on a pink field, this represents
the Malay (Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu) suzerainty in the south.[

Above the shield is the symbol representing the Chakri dynasty, a disc and a trident
(Chakra and the Trisula). The shield is then surrounded by the chain of the Order of
the Nine Gems (representing Buddhism) with a chain and pendant from the Order of
Chula Chom Klao (featuring a portrait of King Rama V).

The arms contains all the six Royal regalia of Thailand. The shield is crowned by
the Great Crown of Victory, with a rays of light emitting from the top. Besides the
shield are two seven-tiered Royal umbrellas of state. Crossed behind the shield is
the Sword of Victory to the left and the Royal staff to the right. In front of them are
the Royal fan and flywhisk (to the right and left, respectively). And finally on the
compartment, a golden multi-layered royal seat, are the Royal slippers.
165
The motto is in the Pali language written in Thai script- Sabbesaṃ saṅghabhūtānaṃ
sāmaggī vuḍḍhi sādhikā meaning "The unity of a people come together as a party
shall be a guarantor of prosperity". This motto was composed
by Ariyavangsagatayana, the Buddhist Supreme Patriarch at the
time.The supporters of the arms are two mythical creatures. To the left of the shield
(dexter) is an elephant lion (a lion with a trunk) or a Gajasiha . To the right of the
shield (sinister) is the king of the lions, the Rajasiha . The two supporters represents
the two ancient departments of Kalahom (Gajasiha) and Mahatthai (Rajasiha).
Kalahom was the department of the Military and the south, while Mahatthai was
department of the civil service and the north. The mantle around the arms is the cloak
of the Order of Chula Chom Klao, tied with pink ribbons (pink being the colour of
Tuesday, the day of King Rama V's birth).

The coat of arms was restored in the time of the Luang Phibunsongkhram and Sarit
Thanarat military regimes (1948-’63) for use by the army and the police. It featured
also on coins struck 1950-’57. At present, the coat of arms is still used as the cap-
badge of the Royal Thai Police and is the official symbol of the Chulachomklao Royal
Military Academy. Courts of Justice and the Supreme Court of Justice also uses the
arms as its official seal.

Emblem of the Chakri dynasty

In 1782, King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) established the Chakri dynasty with
a new capital city at Bangkok. A symbol representing the new dynasty was created,
featuring two intertwined weapons, Chakra (a throwing disc) and
the Trisula (a trident). The weapons are derived from an official title; Chao Phraya
Chakri, that King Rama I held from 1770 to 1778. The title was usually given to the
kingdom's greatest warlord. The word Chakri (จักรี) in Sanskrit means: 'The
Wielder of the Discus'. The Chakra and Trisula according to tradition are the divine
weapons of the gods Vishnu (or Narayana) and Shiva, respectively.

Chakri emblem, the Intertwined divine The Royal Command The Royal Command
symbol of the Chakri weapons, emblem incorporates the emblem
dynasty, founded in the Chakra and Chakri symbol, from the (1940–present).
1782 by King Rama I. the Trisula. Royal gazette (before
1940).

Seals of the provinces of Thailand

166
This is a list of the seals of the provinces of Thailand (Thai: ตราประจำ จังหวัดของ
ไทย).

This list includes all the seals of the provinces of Thailand. It also includes the special
administrative area of the capital, Bangkok.

Location Seal Province Observations

Amnat This seal shows the 20 metres (66 ft)

Charoen high Buddha-Statue Phra Mongkhon
อำ น า จ เ จ Ming Mueang that stands in the
ริญ provincial capital Amnat Charoen.

Ang Thong province is one of the

main rice-producing areas of Thailand.
Ang Thong On the centre of the seal there is a
อ่างทอง bowl with water and rice ears, a
symbol of Mae Po Sop, the rice
goddess.

A pavilion sheltering a
white conch (Shankha) on a phan
Ayutthaya (tray) in honor of King Uthong, the
legendary founder of the city. Behind
stands the Fragrant Manjack (Cordia
dichotoma), the provincial tree

Hindu god Indra with a vajra in his

hand on the mythological four-headed
Bangkok
elephant Erawan (Airavata). The seal
was based on a painting by
Prince Narisara Nuvadtivong.

The silhouette of Phu Thok

Bueng Kan
rocky sandstone outcrop on whose
summit stands Wat Phu Thok temple.

167
 A dancing deity in front of Phanom
Rung Prasat Hin Phanom Rung, a
Buri Ram
Khmer temple complex set on the rim
of an extinct volcano at 1,320 feet
(400 m) above sea level

Wat Sothonwararam, the temple that

Chachoengsao
houses the Luangpho Phuttha Sothon,
a revered statue of the Buddha.

Dharmachakra held aloft by Garuda in

Chainat front of the locally revered
mountain Khao Phlong and the Chao
Phraya River.

Chaiyaphum Dvaja, the flag, an ancient Hindu

ชัยภูมิ symbol of victory in battle

The Moon surrounded by an aura.

Inside the moon disc is a dark rabbit,
Chanthaburi
for according to Thai tradition the dark
areas on the moon (maria) form a
rabbit shape.

A white elephant in a glass pavilion to

commemorate the offering of such an
elephant by Thammalangka, a ruler of
Chiang Mai, to his overlord,
Chiang Mai
King Rama II of Bangkok. The
pavilion symbolizes that Buddhism
prospered in Chiang Mai, especially
when in 1477 the teachings of Buddha,
the Tripitaka, were reviewed.

168
 A white elephant, AIRAVAT the royal
symbol, as a reminder of the fact that
Chiang Rai Chiang Rai was founded by
King Mangrai because his elephant
liked the place, according to the
legend.

Over the sea the outline of Khao Sam

Muk, on which a shrine is located.
Local people believe that the spirit of
Chonburi
that mountain protects the fishermen
from harm. The silhouette of Ko
Sichang Island is displayed in the
background.

An apsara giving blessings to the

Chumphon people standing between two Cluster
Fig trees (Ficus glomerata), the
provincial tree

The seal of the province shows a pond,

in the background the Phu Phan
Mountains forming the boundary of
Kalasin the province and stylized clouds in the
sky. The water in the pond is black, for
the name Kalasin means "black water".
The big clouds as well as the water
symbolize the fertility of the province.

Kamphaeng The city walls surmounted

Phet by diamonds, since the city name
means diamond wall

Representation of the three stupas,

located on Bantadthong Mountain.
Kanchanaburi
They gave the name to the mountain
pass to Myanmar, called "Three
Pagodas Pass".

169
 The stupa of Phra That Kham Kaen,
which is believed to contain relics
Khon Kaen of Buddha. Two trees are depicted on
both sides, one is a banyan tree (Ficus
benghalensis), the other a Golden
Shower Tree (Cassia fistula).

Two crossed krabi, ancient Siamese

swords, in front of the Indian
Krabi
Ocean and the Phanom
Bencha mountain, the highest
mountain of the province.

A white rooster at the gates of Wat

Lampang Phra That Lampang Luang, illustrating
a local legend about the Buddha's visit
to the province.

Wat Phra That Haripunchai temple,

Lamphun which was already the main temple of
the city Lamphun during
the Mon epoch.

The stupa at Phra That Si Song

Rak built by King Maha
Chakkraphat of the Ayutthaya
Loei
Kingdom, and
King Setthathirath of Lan Xang in the
16th century marking the friendship
between the two kingdoms.

God Vishnu (aka Narayana, refers

Lopburi to King Narai of Ayutthaya Kingdom)
in front of Khmer Temple Phra Prang
Sam Yod.

170
 The provincial seal, Rup chang nai
thong nam shows an elephant in the
Mae Hong
water as a reference to the founding of
Son
the town by Lord Kaeo of Ma when he
was sent to capture elephants for the
Lord of Chiang Mai (1825-1846).

Maha A big tree in front of big rice fields,

Sarakham symbolizing the richness of resources
มหาสารคาม in the province.

Prasart Song Nang Sathit palace, in

Mukdahan
which an opal is displayed on a phan
มุกดาหาร
(tray).

An elephant holding ears of rice with

its trunk. This symbolizes the fertile
Nakhon rice fields of Nakhon Nayok, as well
Nayok as the forests with numerous elephants.
In the background two piles of straw,
trees and stylized clouds symbolize the
natural beauty of the province.

The Phra Pathom Chedi stupa, at 127

m, the highest pagoda of the world.
Located at the city center, it has been
Nakhon an important Buddhist center since the
Pathom 6th century. The current building was
created by king Mongkut in 1860. On
the pagoda a royal crown is depicted,
the symbol for King Mongkut's
reconstruction.

Nakhon
The 57 m high chedi at Wat Phra That
Phanom
Phanom in Amphoe That Phanom.

171
 The revered heroine of Korat, Thao
Nakhon
Suranari (1771–1852), fight
Ratchasima
against Vientianian, standing in front
of the old gate of Pratu Chumpon.

Wiman, a mythological palace located

Nakhon
in heaven. This relates to the name of
Sawan
the province which translates to
Heavenly City

Phra Baromathat Chedi of the Wat

Phra Mahathat Voramahavihan, one of
the most important historical sites in
southern Thailand. According to the
city chronicle it was already built in
311, but archaeology dates it to the
13th century. The chedi is surrounded
by the animals of the Chinese
zodiac in the seal. The twelve animals
represent the twelve Naksat cities or
city-states which were tributary to the
Nakhon Si Thammarat kingdom:
Nakhon Si the Rat of Saiburi; the Ox of Pattani;
Thammarat the Tiger of Kelantan;
the Rabbit of Pahang (actually a city in
Pahang which is said to be submerged
by a lake now); a
large Dragon of Kedah; a
small Snake of Phatthalung;
a Horse of Trang;
a Goat of Chumphon; a Monkey of
Bantaysamer (might be Chaiya, or a
town in Krabi province); a Rooster of
Sa-ulau (unidentified city, might
be Songkhla, Kanchanadit or Pla Tha);
a Dog of Takua Pa and
a Pig of Kraburi.

172
 A deity bull named Usubharaja
Nan (aka. Nandi, the Shiva's Vahana)
carrying the stupa of Phrathat Chae
Haeng.

A sailing boat with a white elephant on

the sail. The white elephant. a royal
Narathiwat symbol, commemorates the white
elephant Phra Sri Nararat Rajakarini
which was caught here and presented
to the king.

King Naresuan in front of a shrine.

This shrine was built to commemorate
the visit of King Naresuan to the city
Nong Bua of Nong Bua Lamphu in 1574 when he
Lam Phu was gathering troops to fight
the Burmese kingdom of Taungoo.
Behind the shrine is a pond with lotus
flowers (Nymphaea lotus), which is the
provincial flower.

A pond with a bamboo clump close to

Nong Khai it. The bamboo symbolizes stability,
glory and continuity for the peaceful
and fertile land.

A pot (Kalasha), made of

fine earthenware is a traditional
Nonthaburi
product from Nonthaburi. The pot also
symbolizes the fertility of the
province.

A pink lotus flower with two rice ears

Pathum Thani
bending over it. Both symbols stand
for the fertility of the province.

173
Pattani The cannon known as Phraya Tani,
which was cast in the Pattani province.

Phu Khao Chang mountains in the

Phang Nga background and Ko Tapu in front, as
well as a dredge to represent
the tin mining in the province.

Phatthalung Phu Khao Ok Thalu mountain, the

ลุง symbol of the province.

The Buddha's statue called Phra Chao

Ton Luang from the temple Wat Si
Phayao Khom Kham. Behind are 7 flames
showing the glory of Buddha. In front
of Buddha is a bowl and two ears of
rice.

A diamond before a mountain, as

diamonds are found in
Phetchabun
this mountainous province. In the front
are tobacco plants as one of the crops
grown in the province.

Khao Wang palace in the background.

Phetchaburi In front are rice fields bordered by
two coconut palm trees, symbolizing
the major crops in the province.

174
 A pond, which refers to the old name
of Phichit, Mueang Sra Luang (‘city at
the royal pond’). The banyan tree in
front refers to the temple Wat Pho
Prathab Chang. The temple was built
Phichit
in 1669-71 by
King Suriyenthrathibodi, aka, Luang
Sorasak or Phrachao Suea, who was
born in the village of Pho Prathab
Chang, between a banyan and a sacred
fig.

Buddha Chinnarat, considered one of

Phitsanulok the most beautiful Buddha figures in
Thailand. It is located in Wat Mahathat
temple in the city Phitsanulok

According to legend the two cities of

Phrae and Nan were once ruled by
brothers. When they met to divide the
land between them the one from Phrae
rode on a horse, the one from Nan on a
buffalo to the meeting point on top of a
mountain. Hence Phrae uses a horse in
Phrae
their seal, while Nan uses a buffalo.
When the provincial government
proposed the seal in 1940, the Fine
Arts Department suggested adding a
historic building to the seal in addition
to the horse, thus it now has
the stupa of Phra Tat Cho Hae on the
back of the horse.

The sisters Thao Thep Kasattri and

Phuket
Thao Sri Sunthon, fighters against the
Burmese.

175
 A Bodhi tree symbolizing the first
Prachinburi
Bodhi tree planted about 2000 years
ago in Wat Si Maha Phot temple.

Kuha Karuhas pavilion, which was

built when King Chulalongkorn (Rama
V) visited the Praya Nakorn Cave
Prachuap
(Amphoe Sam Roi Yot). Depicted
Khiri Khan
behind the pavilion is the island of Ko
Lak in Prachuap Bay, the historic
center of administration of the
province.

A palace on top of a hill, to remember

that King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)
Ranong
once visited Ranong and stayed at the
Ratana Rangsan Palace on top of the
Niveskiri Hill.

The royal sword above the royal

Ratchaburi
sandals on a phan (tray), for the name
Ratchaburi means City of the King.

Rayong
Island Ko Samet and a coconut palm.

The shrine of the city pillar (Lak

Mueang), which is located in the
Roi Et
artificial lake Bueng Phlan Chai. The
spirit of the shrine, Mahesak, is highly
revered by the local people.

176
 The sun rising over the archeological
ruins Prasart Kao Noi Si Chom Poo, an
important Khmer temple. The rising
Sa Kaeo
sun symbolizes the location of the
province in the east. In the front
is Buddha's statue in a pond
with lotus flowers.

Phrathat Choeng Chum, a Lao-

Sakon
style stupa built during
Nakhon
the Ayutthaya period over a Khmer-
style prang.

Phra Samut Chedi, the most important

Samut Prakan
site of Buddhist worship in the
ร
province.

A Chinese junk in front of the coast,

with a smoking chimney, referring to
the Tha Chin River (ท่าจีน;
Samut Sakhon "Chinese Port"), as well as the old of
the province, Mueang Tha Chin City
of Chinese Port". It also refers to the
old trading tradition as well as the
local industries.

Garuda above a drum over a river. The

Thai word for drum is klong, thus
refers to the Klong River (แม่
กลอง mae klong), as well as the old
Samut
name of the province, Mueang Mae
Songkhram
Klong (เมืองแม่กลอง; "City of
Klong River"). On both sides of the
river coconut trees are displayed as
one of the main product of the
province.

177
 Wat Phra Phuttha Bat temple. In the
17th century a hunter found a puddle
of water which looked like a
Saraburi
(oversized) footprint. It was declared a
footprint of Buddha, and the temple
was built around it. Phra Phutthabat
means footprint of Buddha.

Phra Samut Thewa, a deity who guards

the sea, sitting on a stone in the sea
Satun with the sunset behind. The stone is his
divine vehicle. The sunset symbolizes
the Andaman Sea, which lies to the
west of the province.

The former provincial seal showed the

fort of Khai Bangrachan, a historical
monument. When
the Burmese attacked Ayutthaya in
1765, eleven villagers
Sing Buri
from Bangrachan fought the army
when it stopped north of Ayutthaya.
They managed to delay them for five
months before they were finally
defeated, soon thereafter Ayutthaya
fell as well.

Prasat Hin Ban Samo, a Khmer temple

Sisaket
about 1000 years old, located in the
Prang Ku district.

Songkhla A white conch (shankha) on a phan

(tray)

178
 King Ram Khamhaeng the
Great sitting on the Manangkhasila
Sukhothai
Asana throne. Under King Ram
Khamhaeng the kingdom of Sukhothai
flourished the most.

The elephant duel between

Suphan Buri King Naresuan and the crown prince
of Burma named Mingyi Swa in 1592,
which took place in Suphan Buri.

Surat Thani Phra Boromathat Chaiya Chedi,

reportedly built in the 9th century.

Indra atop his celestial

white elephant, Airavata which is
Surin based on the design found on a famous
Khmer temple in the province. Both
Khmer temples as well as elephants
are commonly found in Surin.

King Naresuan on the royal elephant.

Sometimes below the elephant
a garuda is depicted, as the garuda is
the state symbol of Thailand. King
Naresuan is shown pouring
Tak
consecrated water on the ground, a
symbolic act to declare independence.
This refers to the war of 1584
with Burma, when Tak was the first
border town to be liberated from
Burmese control.

A lighthouse jetty and sea tides. The

jetty represents the fact that the area
Trang has long been a port town. The tides
indicate the meaning of the province's
name, which is from Sanskrit
"तरङ्ग" (taraṅga; "tide", "wave").[3]

179
Trat The sea and Khao Banthat mountain
range in the background

A lotus flower in a pond in reference

Ubon
to the meaning of the name of the
Ratchathani
province, ‘Royal City of the Lotus
Flower’.

A Yak (Yaksha) in honor

Udon Thani of Kuvera (aka. Vaiśravaṇa), the
guardian of north direction in Buddhist
mythology.

The pavilion at Wat Khao Sakaekrang.

It houses the statue of Thongdee, the
Uthai Thani father of King Rama I. The mountain
in the background symbolizes the
location of the pavilion on top of Khao
Sakae Krang hill.

The mondop at Wat Phra Thaen Sila

At temple, in Baan Phra Thaen in the
Laplae district. The main item of
Uttaradit worship in the temple is
a laterite block, which is believed to
have been used by Buddha to seek
enlightenment. The mondhop is built
upon this block.

A miner with simple mining tools

Yala including hoe, crowbar, and baskets.
Yala was originally a mining town
with tin and tungsten ores.

180
 Two mythical lions, called singh,
facing the chedi Phra That A-non
Yasothon
(named for Ananda, a devout attendant
of Gautama Buddha), in the temple
Wat Maha That in the city of Yasothon

Former provinces

Lan Chang Corresponds to present-day Sainyabuli

ลานช้าง province in Laos.

Corresponding to present-day
Phibunsongkhram
Cambodian Siem Reap, Oddar
พิบูลสงคราม
Meanchey and Banteay Meanchey provinces.

Phra Tabong The area is now covered by the provinces

พระตะบอง of Battambang and Pailin of Cambodia.

Phra Nakhon Phra Nakhon province merged with the

พระนคร Bangkok administrative area in 1972.

Thonburi Thonburi province merged with the Bangkok

ธนบุรี administrative area in 1972.

181
 City of Bangkok (Thailand)
Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, Central Region

"Bangkok" when referring to the capital of Thailand. Actually, the official name of
the capital is Krungthepmahanakhon Amonratanakosin Mahintharayutthaya
Mahadilok Phopnopparat Ratchathaniburirom Udomratchaniwet Mahasathan
Amonphiman Awatansathit Sakkathuttiya Witsanukamprasit. Rather loosely
translated, this becomes The City of Gods, the Great City, the Residence of the
Emerald Buddha Capital of the World Endowed with Nine Precious Gems, the
Happy City Abounding in Enormous Royal Palaces Which Resemble the Heavenly
Abode Wherein Dwell the Reincarnated Gods, A City Given by Indr and Built by
Witsanukam. To the lighthearted Thai, the capital is Krung Thep.

The Thai Ministry of Interior in 2000 displayed no flag for Bangkok (Krung Thep
Maha Nakhon) but only the seal. The city flag can be seen on a poster on the city
website. It has a monochrome white seal on a green background::

"The emblem of the BMA represents a figure from Thai mythology, Phra Indra, the
keeper of Amara-wadee, carrying his three-bladed weapon and seated atop a white
elephant, whose four ivory tusks denote celestial status. The emblem symbolizes
that the Governor of Bangkok, like Phra Indra, heads the capital and provides
leadership to further the welfare of the city’s residents. The BMA emblem was
first used during the term of office of Bangkok’s first Governor, General, Chao
Phraya Ramarakop (1937-1938).The BMA emblem can be seen on BMA vehicles,
at the site of public works and improvement programs, and wherever it is serving
the public through numerous and varied activities. It is Bangkok’s ˜Symbol of
Service™." Olivier Touzeau, 1 September 2012

City Seal since 1938

182
 The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration website mentions a city flag, but has
neither an image nor a description of it. The image of the badge is shown on the
site on a light green square, but it does not appear to be a representation of the
Bangkok flag:

The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration's emblem shows Phra Indr, the keeper
of Amarawadee ("immortal" of ing") in Dawa Doeng, the highest of the seven
heavens of Thai mythology, carrying his three-bladed weapon, Vajira ("thunder-
mader"), and seated atop a white elephant whose four ivory tusks denote celestial
status. (...) The City is provided with a four tusked elephant, an [animal?] which
ordinarily accomplishes twice as much as its earthly brethren.

His Royal Highness Prince Naris graciously granted the emblem to the Bangkok
Metropolitan Administration during the term of office of our first Mayor, General
Chao Phraya Ramarakop (1937-1938). You will see it on the city flag, on city
buildings, on our motor vehicles and at the site of public works (...). It is Bangkok's
Symbol of Service.

"Krung Thep" mean "City of Gods and Bangkok" is from an old map of Fernão
Vaz Dourado where the capital of Siam is a huge area painted red, to include the
old capital Ayutthya, the successor Thonburi (Chanburi) and Bangkok. In the 16th
century the building of a big pagoda was started in Bangkok, and in the 17th
century English, French and Dutch fought for the right to have a trading post there.
The French won and built a fort there in 1687, which was demolished in 1688. It
was a tiny fisherman's village in 1792, when it became the capital of
Siam/Thailand. In Countries of the World, a 6-volume edition of c. 1930, p. 3628,
one reads:

183
The capital is a narrow strip, mostly nothing but a mile wide, along the banks of
the Menam River. It begins at or below Krung Tep, the Heavenly Royal City itself,
and according to inhabitant’s runs up to Ayuthia Krung Kao, the Old Capital, 40
miles away.
Krung Tep (etc.) would thus indicate the Royal City (like in Beijing) and the
surrounding area Bangkok. If I remember correctly the name Bangkok or Bankok
was the Chinese name of the place. (...)

Bangkok means "village of the wild plum". The name is derived from 17th century
Western maps, which referred to the city (or town as it then was) as Bancok. This
name was only superseded by Krungthep in 1782, and so the Western name has
deeper historical roots. Source: 1993 Thailand, Indochina and Burma Handbook,
Bath, England, 1992. Jarig Bakker, 20 and 25 February 2000

0o0oo00oo00oo0o00oo0o0o0o0o0

184
 VIII

The City of Phitsanu-lok or Vishnu's Heaven

During the 11th century, the city of Phitsanulok was but a small Khmer outpost
called Song Khwae, meaning two rivers. At that time, the Nan and Khwae Noi Rivers both
flowed through the city, making it a strategic gateway to northern Thailand.

The urban development of Phitsanulok, which began during the trail end of the era of
the Khmer Empire, was to a great extent modeled on the earlier development of the Khmer
capital city of Angkor in Cambodia. In fact, Angkor Wat, the chief temple of Angkor, was a
temple to the god Vishnu, whereas Song Khwae's forthcoming new name Phitsanu-
lok literally means Vishnu's Heaven. The Tai language spoken in Phitsanulok (and most of
modern Thailand) was heavily influenced by the Khmer culture as well, and evolved into the
language we now call Thai, which is considerably different from other Tai dialects. Even
after this Thai migration, the population in present-day Phitsanulok Province, other than
along the banks of the Nan River was sparse. Predator animal species, as well as malaria,
tropical temperatures and other hardships, kept the population from expanding far from the
river, despite the region's extremely fertile soil.

A Brief History of Phitsanulok during the Sukhothai and Ayutthayan Periods-

ROBERT SMITH, AUTHOR

The history of modern Phitsanulok can be traced back to the 11th Century, when its role was
a Khmer town known as Song Khwae (Two Rivers) situated on the confluence of the Nan
and the Khwae Noi rivers then near the site where Wat Chula Mani is today. King Luthai
relocated the town during his reign. The Khmer, the builders of Angkor Wat and the Bayon
and many other temples, were the dominant power of the period with their empire extending
north into Laos, east to the coastal kingdoms of the Dai-Viet and Champa (modern-day

185
Vietnam,) west to the Burman Empire, and along the northern Malay peninsula to the shores
of the Andaman Sea and encompassing most of modern-day Thailand.

Song Khwae stood at the meeting point of the two rivers and held a position of considerable
strategic importance with its ability to control river traffic. Roads were almost an unknown in
this time period and outside towns and cities and people, animals, and goods used the rivers,
in the same manner, we would use the road network, and Song Khwae's central position
ensured its importance. It was a time of change. To the north, the Singhanavati Kingdom
bordered the Khmer Empire and pushed its domains southwards finally establishing a capital
city in Nakhon Thai (about 100 miles north of Song Khwae.) Further north, wars raged in
China, driving many people southwards into what were the relatively underpopulated but
often heavily forested lands to the south, providing both an elite and farmers who were
looking to establish themselves.

The Khmer Empire was imperceptibly moving toward its gradual decline. One of its greatest
kings, King Jayavarman VII had retaken the sacred city of Angkor from the Cham invaders
and extracted his retribution when invading their lands and making them part of the Khmer
Empire. Under his rule he built the city within a city of Angkor Thom and the world famous
temple of the Bayon. The KhmerEmpire was at its greatest extent yet was about to fall.
The Khmer Empire came under threat after over-extending itself during the reign of King
Jayavarman VII (1181-1220) at the point where the Khmer Empire reached its zenith and its
greatest extent. Angkor was reputed to have been a city of over one million inhabitants - the
largest city in the world at the time. The great Khmer king was followed by King
Indravarman II. The people were exhausted after the demands placed on them by the late
king. The new King looked to withdraw from the many wars that the Khmer were engaged in,
halt building projects, and repair the neglected infrastructure of the both the cities and of
agriculture.

The Kingdom of Sukhothai, at that time a loose confederation of tribes bordering the Yom
River came together to make a stand against their Khmer masters. Two petty kings, Pho
Khun Pha Mu'ang and Pho Khun Bang Klang, joined forces and routed the Khmer army of
General Khlonlampong. The Khmer retreated, never to return. George Cœdès recorded the
following from the Nagara Jum in 'The Origins of the Sukhodaya Dynasty' published in the
Journal of the Siam Society 14. No.1 (1921.) "Afterwards Pho Khun Pha Mu'ang consecrated
…. Pho Khun Bang Klang as Chao Mu'ang Sukhothai, and conferred his own name on his
ally, that is to say the name of King Sri Indrapatindraditya."

The Kingdom of Sukhothai drew inspiration from its past under the Khmer, its neighboring
countries, and the people fleeing from the unrest in China to the north. Under King Ram
Khamheang, the Kingdom stretched from Phitsanulok and beyond in the east, to the Malay
Peninsula in the south and the Burman Empire in the west. King Ram Khamheang was more
than a military leader. He used marriage and diplomacy in much the same way the Khmer did
to expand his influence. He embraced Theravada Buddhism and, although the tradition
animist practices continued, made it his kingdoms official religion as can still be evidenced
by a visit to Sukhothai Historical Park.

186
"There is fish in the water and rice in the field. The lord of the realm does not levy toll on his
subjects for traveling the roads, they lead their cattle to trade or ride their horses to sell;
whoever wants to trade in horses does so ... he does not covet it, when he see someone's
wealth he does not get angry. "
Quote from the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription (Opposite)

The original is now housed in the Bangkok National Museum but a replica can be found in
the Sukhothai Heritage Museum in Sukhothai Historical Park.

The Kingdom of Sukhothai flourished before being eclipsed by the newly founded Kingdom
of Ayutthaya to its south, but its legacy remains in the hearts and minds of the Thai people.
Sukhothai arts as seen in the temples and images of Buddha took on their own unique form,
the Code of Wareru which formed the basis for Thai law until 1908 was developed during
this period, the Thai written language was developed, and the role of the king who ruled his
subjects as a 'father who looks after his children' differed greatly from the rule of the Khmer
and the Ayutthayan Kingdom where the king was Devaraja or Chakravartin (supreme ruler.)
Known more commonly as King Si Inthrathit, his statue (top left) can be found as you enter
Nakhon Thai from the south.

187
Sukhothai expanded rapidly, particularly under King Ram Khamhaeng the Great, not only
filling the void left by the retreating Khmer but in establishing itself as a religious center
dedicated to Theravada Buddhism the remains of which can be seen today.
The ruins of Sukhothai are more compact than those of Ayutthaya and well worth a visit.
The statue of King Ram Khamhaeng (Opposite) is located in Sukhothai National Park.
Kingdom of Ayutthaya was founded in 1351 and in due course conquered both the
Sukhothai Kingdom and much of the Khmer Empire. The story of the rise and fall of both
these kingdoms can be found in my books The Kings of Angkor and The Kings of
Ayutthaya.
The latter is published in Thailand by Silkworm Books and is available throughout Thailand
and worldwide, although not in Phitsanulok. Song Khwae (later called both Chinnarat and
Phitsanulok) lies geographically east but between Ayutthaya and Sukhothai and due both to
its proximity and growing importance found itself embroiled in the drawn-out conquest
between the two kingdoms. Opposite: The U Thong (King Ramathibodi) monument in
Ayutthaya.

Song Khwae (later called both Chinnarat and Phitsanulok) lies geographically east but
between Ayutthaya and Sukhothai and due both to its proximity and growing importance
found itself embroiled in the drawn-out conquest between the two kingdoms.
The leading houses from two cities dominated Ayutthaya; Lopburi and Suphanburi. The
different factions within these cities fought for political control over the kings of Ayutthaya.
Suphanburi quested for revenge against Sukhothai who had conquered the city following the
fall of the Khmer and Lopburi wanted to put right the wrongs committed to it by the Khmer
over the centuries, the enslavement of its people and the high taxation demanded. The first
king of Ayutthaya was King Ramathibodi (known more commonly as U-Thong.) He was of
the House of Lopburi and during his reign set out on what would be the first of many
attempts to conquer the Khmer and their capital Angkor. (It was not until 1431 that an
Ayutthayan army under King Borommaracha II finally took the city, sacked it, and forced the
Khmer to flee south.)
TheKingdom of Ayutthaya differed from the Kingdom of Sukhothai to its north in that it
followed the model of government used by the Khmer who were advised by Hindu Brahmin
priests skilled. not only in the ways of government, but in construction, agriculture,
hydraulics, and management.

The King was revered as a supreme being. The weakness of the system lay in the weakness of
the King. The Khmer king, King Jayavarman II united his people under the Hindu banner that
dominated at that time as Devaraja, Lord of the Universe who is king. The King was the
supreme being. King Ramathibodi, a Buddhist not a Hindu aspired to be Chakravartin based
on the Indian concept of world ruler derived from the Sanskrit chakra, 'wheel,' and 'vartin,'
one who turns. Chakravartin can be understood as a ruler 'whose chariot wheels roll
everywhere,' or 'one who is unobstructed.' He and the kings who followed him were viewed
by their subjects as a universal monarch in much the same was as a Devaraja was in the
Hindu religion.

The Brahmin, who acted as advisers to the King, put forward the concept of 'Mandala” where
chiefs or warlords would come together under the protection of one leader in return for
protection for themselves. They would offer their allegiance in return for protection.

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When the city of Ayutthaya was founded by King Ramathibodi its reach was limited, but it
expanded rapidly. The city of Phitsanulok lay on the flood plain close to the then northern
border of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. It was one of the four “cardinal points” decreed by the
Brahmin advisers to define Ayutthaya's Mandala, the cities that surround and protect the
capital. Ayutthaya lay at the center of the kingdom, with the four cardinal points around it.
Phitsanulok to the north, Phrapradaeng to the south, Nakhon Nayok to the east, and
Suphanburi to the west. These muang lik luang, cities of the royal sons, were ruled by the
sons of the king or by his close family or most trusted friends. The cities served to protect and
enclose Ayutthaya.

Shortly after Ayutthaya was founded the city of Nakon Nayok was attacked and integrated
into the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. It is reasonable to assume that Phitsanulok either joined
willingly or faced war. Phitsanolok became an integral part of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya.Kin
When King Ramathibodi died, he was succeeded by King Borommaracha I who was of the
House of Suphanburi. They wanted revenge against Sukhothai,. At some point, Phitsanulok
declared for Ayutthaya. Sukhothai was by now an inward-looking kingdom focused on its
Buddhist religion but under a new king, King Maha Thammaracha they recognised the threat
from Ayutthaya adopting a military stance and regaining much of their territory lost in
previous years to Ayutthaya. King Borommaracha I visited Phitsanulok in 1371 where he was
shown the legacies of Phitsanulok's association with Sukhothai including Wat Phuttha Phra
Chinnarat and Wat Phra Si Satsadaram. Within Wat Phuttha Phra Chinnarat the King would
have viewed the red glazed image of Phra Buddha Chinnarat (it was not covered in gold leaf
until the reign of King Ekathotsarot early in the 1600's.)

Above: Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat (Photo by JJ Harrison www.jjharrison.com.au)

Phitsanulok is home to Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat (known locally as Wat Yi – the Big
Temple.) The temple was built in 1357 during the reign of the pious King Lu Thai of
Sukhothai. Within the temple, the King wanted three bronze images and sent for sculptors
from Si Satchanalai, Chiang Sen and Hariphunchai. The first two castings proceeded well but
the third required three attempts to finish it. A 'Rusi,' an old hermit clad in a white robe told
the King that he could create an image that would please his lord. The image he created was
the Chinnarat in the Sukhothai style, famed to this day. The other two images, Phra Chinnasi
and Phra Si Satsada, that were originally housed in the temple were later moved to Wat

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Bowonniwet in Bangkok. The reign of King Lu Thai also saw the building of Wat Phra
Phuttha Chinna Si and Wat Phra Si Satsadaram.

In 1371, King Borommaracha led his army against Sukhothai but was unable to progress
further than the cities of Nakon Phangka and Phichit. The war continued. In 1376 King
Borommaracha failed to take Kamphaeng Phet gaining the city the sobriquet of the 'Wall of
Diamonds.” It was not until 1378 that the King of Sukhothai surrendered and offered his
suzerainty to the King of Ayutthaya. The war was not that easily won and rumbled on over
the following decades. Subsequent Ayutthayan kings divided the vassal kingdom between
two brothers in an attempt to weaken it, and finally moved the Sukhothai Dynasty to
Phitsanulok where it would be more under the influence of Ayutthaya. Sukhothai was now
part of Ayutthaya with its kings residing in Phitsanulok, and as a result, Phitsanulok became
acknowledged as Ayutthaya's second city. It became the convention that the king would send
the Upparat, the heir apparent as governor of Phitsanulok in order to gain experience for his
eventual kingship.

According to Brahmanic belief, if a monarch possessed one or more 'white’ elephants,' it was
a glorious and happy sign. King Trailok is reputed to have possessed the first. In the Thai
language, they are called albino, not white, indicating “pale yellow eyes and white nails”,
with white hair. The rough skin was either pink all over or had pink patches on the head,
trunk, or forelegs. A White Elephant need not be white.

“They were not worshipped for themselves and were regarded as an appendage to the King’s
majesty.” In Thailand, white elephants ( chang phueak, also known as Pink Elephants) are
considered sacred and are a symbol of royal power; all those discovered are presented to the
king (although this presentation is usually a ceremonial one—the elephants are not actually
taken into captivity). Historically, the status of kings has been evaluated by the number of
white elephants in their possession.

In 1448, King Borommatrailokanat, more commonly known as King Trailok came to the
throne. His father, King Borommaracha II had died on campaign against the kingdom of Lan
Na to the north. His death left King Tilokkarat to claim the kingship of Lan Na. King Trailok
would have a long and glorious reign ushering in many changes to society, but his reign was
also remembered for the on-going war against Lan Na.
The new King's father was from the house of Suphanburi, and his mother was a princess of
Sukhothai. As Upparat he was given the governorship of Phitsanulok. It was his father, King
Borommaracha II who had moved the Kings of Sukhothai to Phitsanulok. The two sides of
his background looked set to collide as he knew many within the royal family would not be
happy with a King of Ayutthaya as King of Sukhothai, a kingdom that still valued its
independence and its approach to the way a nation should be ruled. The 'Pho” approach of
Sukhothai still influences the Thai monarchy to this day.

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Wat Chula Mani

It was in 1463 that King Trailok moved his capital from Ayutthaya to Phitsanulok to be
nearer the enemy (although it is recorded that he was also getting increasingly tired of court
intrigue.) He placed his son as King, not Upparat, of Ayutthaya. The city walls were
strengthened in preparation and just in time as Phitsanulok came under siege in the years
1459 and 1460. King Trailok had already ordered that Wat Chula Mani, the oldest temple in
Phitsanulok should have a viharn (an assembly hall) added in preparation for him entering the
monkhood . Now he took his army and moved north to Phitsanulok to ensure the city not only
would not fall but to could be used as a base to operate northwards toward Lan Na and its
capital of Chiang Mai.
Under King Trailok significant reforms to the Kingdom were undertaken. To the north, King
Tilokkarat of Lan Na proved himself not only to be a wise ruler but one bent on conquest.
The war with Lan Na continued with Ayutthaya suffering major defeats on both sea and land.
Prince Yuthisathian of Sukhothai, second in line to the throne of Sukhothai had declared
himself as an independent King of Sukhothai and formed an alliance with King Tilokkarat. A
major attack by King Tilokkarat and the self-proclaimed King Yuthisathian failed to
materialise as planned when the army of Lan Na were forced to return when a Chinese army
attacked Chiang Mai. King Borommaracha II, the son of King Trailok, met the pretender
King of Sukhothai in battle defeating his leading general, General Han Nakhon in
Yuddhahatthi, the elephant battle where the winner can claim victory over the battle. These
events weakened both Lan Na and Sukhothai, and a peace treaty was signed in 1464.

Moving his capital to revitalised Phitsanulok. Temples and palaces were renovated and new
ones established. Workers and artisans came into Phitsanulok, making it a vibrant,
cosmopolitan city and one at the forefront of a change in thinking that gripped much of south-
east Asia at the time. It was in 1465 that King Trailok entered the monkhood at the recently
completed Wat Chula Mani. He was the first King to do so. It is speculated that he did not
use Phra Buddha Chinnarat as a sign of respect to his family from Sukhothai although the
convention of the time dictated that if a king moved his seat of government, he had to move
his entire court with the King being obligated to build a monastery of suitable grandeur.
King's other predicament lay in the fact that Phra Buddha Chinnarat (Wat Yai - the Big
Temple as it is known locally) was regarded as the leading temple in the north if not the
whole of the kingdom of Ayutthaya.

Wat Chula Mani is considered to be the oldest temple in Phitsanulok with its roots dating
back to the time of the Khmer (Khmer Temple ruins opposite). The temple underwent
considerable changes to enable King Trailok to enter the monkhood. The King chose to have

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five men ordained before him. They were chosen by the King based on their learning, their
potential, and their austere nature. An ordained monk from Sri Lanka, the home of Theravada
Buddhism officiated, and neighboring kings either attended or sent representatives as in the
case of King Tilokkarat of Lan Na in their stead along with royal gifts suitable for such an
occasion.

Over 2,300 people attended the ceremony of the king entering the monkhood. The king
became a monk at Wat Chula Mani. His move spearheaded a period of religious revival as
other regional kings sought to show their dedication to the Buddhist doctrine and peace
reigned, but only for a few years.King Tilokkarat of Lan Na was also a strong patron of
Thervada Buddhism and hosted the Buddhist Council of Tripitaka Recompilation in Chiang
Mai (1477.)Til
Following an accusation taking animist actions against the King of Lan Na (i.e. bones left at
inappropriate sites, rituals and the burning of holy relics) King Tilokkarat had the entire
diplomatic presence of Ayutthaya in Chiang Mai killed after he had sent them from the city.
Angered, he then marched his army south towards Phitsanulok only to be beaten back. A
stalemate ensued and held until King Tilokkarat died in 1487. Both kings relying on each
other's word rather than sign a formal peace treaty. King Trailok, his court still in
Phitsanulok, died the following years after reigning for forty years. Phitsanulok had been the
capital of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya for twenty-five years (1463 – 88) King Borommaracha
II returned the court to Ayutthaya.

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As second city Phitsanulok often found it on the fringes of events unfolding in Ayutthaya
and, on occasions was dragged into many of the issues of the capital city.
One of the most colourful characters in Ayutthayan history is the Lady Si Suda Chan, the
wife of King Chairacha (1534 -46) and a daughter of Lopburi who rose to a position where
she was de facto queen before being forced to flee and eventually meeting her death. Her
machinations were watched from afar by the Burman king, King Tabinshwehti. He saw the
internecine strife of the battle for the throne of Ayutthaya weaken the city. One of the first of
the 'Gunpowder Kings' he embraced the new weapons brought by the Portuguese and left his
mountainous kingdom of Toungoo in central Burma to gradually claim the country as his. He
cast his eye on Ayutthaya.
The defeat of Lady Si Suda Chan was in no small part down to two individuals, Khun
Phirenthrathep and Khun Intharathep who enabled Prince Thianracha to claim the throne of
Ayutthaya as King Maha Chakkraphat. In gratitude, King Maha Chakkraphat gave Prince
Intharathep the title of Chao Phraya and the regency of the southern city of Nakhon Si
Thammarat (Ligor) while he gave Khun Phirenthrathep, a prince of Sukhothai the ancient
Sukhothai title of Maha Thammaracha as well as the governorship of Phitsanulok and the
hand of his daughter in marriage.
King Maha Chakkraphat was aware of the threat posed by King Tabinshwehti but had to fight
first against the Khmer who raided the south coast and where the king's eldest son Prince Ong
died while astride an elephant. Shortly after the Khmer had been driven back King
Tabinshwehti attacked via the southern Three Pagodas Pass route in what has been dubbed
'The First War of the White Elephant'. His attack ultimately proved unsuccessful but gave
Ayutthaya one its unlikely heroines. The Ayutthayan force came out from behind the walls of
Ayutthaya and gave battle on the Lumpli Plain. King Maha Chakkraphat found himself in
trouble pursued by the viceroy of Prome. Queen Suriyothai and her daughter Princess
Boromdhilok sat on top of the same elephant dressed as men. Both were killed in the battle.

King Maha Thammaracha of Phitsanulok and Prince Ramesuan pursued the Burman King
Tabinshwehti as he took the northern route back to his homeland. They were ambushed and
captured and ransomed. Among the payment demanded by King Tabinshwehti was two white
elephants that had blessed the first year of King Maha Chakkraphat's reign. The elephants
proved troublesome and were returned but their significance remained in the mind of General
Bayinnaung, second-in-command to King Tabinshwehti.
Opposite: Burman Nat (religious symbol) of King Tabinshwehti.

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Maha Thammaracha, the king of Sukhothai in Phitsanulok/ Opposite: The King Bayinnaung
statue outside the National Museum of Myanmar.

/
Following the death of King Tabinshwehti, the Burman throne was won by King
Bayinnaung. He has been described by the historian G.E. Harvey as 'the greatest explosion of
human energy ever seen in Burma.' His story is recounted, along with the other Kings of the
Toungoo Empire in my novel of the same name. He wanted revenge on Ayutthaya and
mounted a huge and well-organised attack that deposed King Maha Chakkraphat and made
Ayutthaya part of the expanding Toungoo Empire. As I say in my blurb for the book 'the
largest empire you have never heard of.'

In what has been dubbed 'The Second War of the White Elephant', King Bayinnaung opened
his conquest by asking King Maha Chakkraphat for two white elephants. By the thinking that
prevailed at the time, to do so would have shown acceptance of suzerainty to the Toungoo
Empire. The Kingdom of Ayutthaya chose to fight.

Maha Thammaracha, the king of Sukhothai in Phitsanulok and a 'lesser' king allied himself
with King Bayinnaung and join the attack on Ayutthaya. The reasons for this are unclear. It
could have been that he saw defeat as inevitable and changed sides. At this time in history,
the sense of country and nationhood did not exist in this part of the world. The traditional
concept of 'mandala,' an area of control, still remained. Whatever the reason King Maha
Thammaracha allied himself with King Bayinnaung and attacked Ayutthaya. The full story,
or my take on it, can be found in my novel 'The Kings of Ayutthaya.'
After time and events had passed, including a siege on Phitsanulok by the Lan Xang (Lao)
King Setthathirath supported by Prince Mahin the eldest son of King Maha Chakkraphat,
King Bayinnaung made King Maha Thammaracha king of Ayutthaya as King Sanpet I. In
doing so the 'Sukhothai Dynasty' acceded to the throne, although one paying homage to the

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Toungoo Empire. As surety, the Kings sons Prince Naresuan and Prince Ekathotsarot, both
born in the Chan Palace in Phitsanulok were taken to Pegu, the capital of the Toungoo
Empire as hostages.
King Naresuan

When I arrived in Phitsanulok there was one incident that piqued my interest in Thai history
and illustrates the on-going importance of King Naresuan the Great to the nation of Thailand.
In Phitsanulok, the birthplace of King Naresuan, stands the temple known locally as Wat Yi,
Wat Phra Rattana Mahathat. One day a cavalcade of cars passed through Phitsanulok. Inside
were successful Muay Thai fighters together with their managers and trainers, coming to
honor both King Naresuan, who was a leading exponent, and pay homahe to the Buddha
image of Phra Buddha Chinnarat following their recent international victories. This is
something that Muay Thai fighters have done for many previous years, and will continue to
do so long into the future.Maha Thammaracha of Phitsanulok and Prince Ramesuan pursued
the Burman King Tabinshwehti as he took the northern route back to his homeland. They
were ambushed and captured and ransomed. Among the payment demanded by King
Tabinshwehti was two white elephants that had blessed the first year of King Maha
Chakkraphat's reign. The elephants proved troublesome and were returned but their
significance remained in the mind of General Bayinnaung, second-in-command to King
Tabinshwehti.

It was while held hostage in Pegu that Thailand's greatest hero emerged. Prince Naresuan,
born in Phitsanulok, took responsibility from freeing the Kingdom of Ayutthaya from the
yoke of the Toungoo Empire. Tributes, in the form of a fighting cocks can be found
throughout Phitsanulok Province.

At military school in Pegu, an early friendship with Mingyi Swa, the son of Nanda Bayin the
heir-apparent to the Burman throne soured. Mingyi Swa challenged Prince Naresuan to a
cockfight, a popular pastime. It is reputed that Prince Naresuan said that 'if my cock wins
then Ayutthaya is free.” To Mingyi Swa, Ayutthaya was just a small part of the vast Toungoo
Empire but he took the inference seriously. He added 'a war slave animal,' inferring that even
if Prince Naresuan won his kingdom would still be a vassal state of the Toungoo Empire. On
a dirt patch worn down by the feet of generations, the two fighting cocks fought until the
cock of Prince Naresuan killed that of Mingyi Swa. This was the first move toward the
Kingdom of Ayutthaya freeing itself from the Toungoo Empire.

Prince Naresuan and his brother Prince Ekathotsarot returned to Ayutthaya when they were
of age. Already acknowledged as a skilled warrior Prince Naresuan was welcomed by his
father, King Maha Thammaracha who made him Upparat (heir-apparent) in Phitsanulok,
away from the prying eyes of their Burman overseers. Called on to fight for King Bayinnaung
it is reputed that Prince Naresuan survived an assassination attempt while fighting in the
northern kingdom of Lan Xang by feigning smallpox. King Bayinnaung died on 10 October
1581. The succession was not disputed however his heir King Nanda Bayin faced holding
together a vast empire which owed its loyalty to one man, his father. The stories leading to
Ayutthayan independence are legendary. The king of the mountain-top fortress of Muang
Khan failed to attend the coronation of King Nanda Bayin. In retribution, the new Burman
king sent his son Crown Prince Mingyi Swa to quell the revolt. He failed, only to see his
childhood rival Prince Naresuan succeed. An attempt was made on Prince Naresuan's life but
forewarned by two friends he escaped the trap that Mingyi Swa had laid for him..Prince

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Naresuan left Burma but paused at the town of Muang Khraeng and on the third of May,
1584 poured holy water from a cup onto the ground with the words:

Because the King of Hongsawadee (Burma) has not adhered to the ways of faithful friendship
and royal tradition … Ayutthaya and Hongsawadee shall not form a single golden kingdom
as in the past, but shall be totally divorced from each other from this day.'
Statue of King Naresuan at WaT Yi Chaimonkol.
After releasing many of the Siamese captives held in Pegu and pursued by Mingyi Swa he
crossed the Sittaung River. Looking back Prince Naresuan saw the Burman General
Surakamma astride his elephant. With what became known as 'the shot across the Sittaung
River' King Naresuan shot and killed the general. For many years the musket formed part of
the Siamese royal regalia. There followed a series of five attempted invasions of Ayutthaya
by the Burmese in order to regain their lost city. His father King Maha Thammaracha died in
1590 and he became King Naresuan and earning the sobriquet 'the Great.' The final battle was
the Battle of Nong Sarai located outside of Suphanburi near the Thakhoi River. The Burmese
troops held the upper hand until King Naresuan spotted the Burmese Crown Prince atop his
elephant. Despite many soldiers dressed to look like Mingyi Swa, it was only the real one
who could wear a certain amulet. It is reputed that King Naresuan recognised the amulet and
asked the following of his childhood nemesis:
'My brother, whatever is our royal older brother doing under the shade of a tree? Come forth
and let us fight an elephant duel for the honour of our kingdoms. No future kings will do
what what we are going to do.'

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197
King Naresuan triumphed and the Burmese retreated not to return for two centuries. The
battle and Phitsanulok's most famous son, Thailand's national hero is remembered in the
statue of 'The Great Battle of Yuttahadhi' at Mueang Boran in Samut Prakan Province as well
as on Royal Armed Forces Day on the 18th January each year, on banknotes, on film and
T.V, and by having Phitsanulok's university, Naresuan University named in his honour. King
Naresuan went on to play a major role in dismantling the Toungoo Empire before his death in
1605.
The picture opposite shows KIng Naresuan leading his troops into Pegu, the capital of the
Toungoo Empire only to find he had been double-crossed by his allies who got there first.
King Naresuan triumphed and the Burmese retreated not to return for two centuries. The
battle and Phitsanulok's most famous son, Thailand's national hero is remembered in the
statue of 'The Great Battle of Yuttahadhi' at Mueang Boran in Samut Prakan Province
(Opposite)as well as on Royal Armed Forces Day on the 18th January each year, on
banknotes, on film and T.V, and by having Phitsanulok's university, Naresuan University

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named in his honour. King Naresuan went on to play a major role in dismantling the Toungoo
Empire before his death in 1605.

King Narai the Great, the second of the Ayutthayan Kings to be honoured with the sobriquet
"the Great" visited Wat Chula Mani during his reign where he left a holy footprint of Buddha
and a stone inscription situated inside the Mondop (Building) King Narai spent much of time
in Lopburi where he oversaw major changes to the Kingdom.
Phitsanulok served as the second city until the Burmese returned first under King Alaungpaya
and later by his son King Hsinbyushin in 1765. Three Burmese led armies attacked, one
coming north from the Malay Peninsula, one from the Three Pagodas Pass over the
Tenasserim Hills, and one from the north under General Ne Myo Thihapate (pictured
opposite) which bore down on Phisanulok.

The Burman army took both Sukhothai and Phitsanulok before all three of their armies
converged on Ayutthaya. The city was ravished and its artifacts and gold stolen. Ayutthaya
was abandoned, but within a few decades a new capital Bangkok was founded, and a new
dynasty reigned.

Opposite: Aung Pinle Hsinbyushin nat (spirit), in the official pantheon of Burmese nats

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"The sinful Burmese ravaged our villages and cities. A great number of our citizens and
many temples were killed and ruined. Our peaceful kingdom was abandoned and turned into
forest. The Burmese showed no mercy to the Thai and felt no shame for all the sins they had
committed."
Account of Maha Sura Singhanat.

The Chan Royal Palace Historical Center is located on the banks of the Nan River at the site
of the Chan Palace of King Maha Thammaracha, King Naresuan, and many others. It is the
home of the King Naresuan Shrine (Opposite) and the Center features a exhibits in both Thai
and English.

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

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 IX
The Mysteries of the Vat Phou Temple Complex
Hindu temples are home to various sets of beliefs, faiths, values and varied modes of worship.
Temples underline a strong link between God, human and universality in a designated sacred
place. A Hindu Temple is fundamentally based on a sacred geometrical design based on
Vastupurush mandala and ancient Vastu principles. Among the prominent features of Vastu,
East direction is considered auspicious and sacred as Sun rises from that direction. Sun brings
light and life to planet earth. An ideal temple construction takes into account the directions,
entrances, placement of deity and various other aspects. These guidelines to build a temple have
been well enshrined in many ancient scriptures including Mayamatam and Manasara.

Lord Shiva has five major temples built in its name and are based on Panchbhootas/tatvas i.e.
Earth, Fire, Water, Fire and Space. These 5 specific Shiva temples are:
1. Ekambreshwar–Kanchipuram-(Earth),2. Arunachaleshwar–Tamilnadu (Jambukeshwar-
Thiruvannamalai)-(fire), 3. Tiruvanaikval (Tamilnadu)- (Water), 4. Nataraj (Tamilnadu)
Chidambram– (Space) and 5. Kalahasti (Andhra Pradesh) – (Air)

As per Yogic sciences, all these Shiva temples are geographically aligned in an axis. It gives
them extraordinary power. They were built in an axis when no satellite technologies were
available. How people constructed these temples in different regions of India with axis
alignment is nothing but a magical phenomenon. Lord Shiva is one of the members of trinity of
Gods. Other Gods of trinity are Vishnu and Brahma. Shiva is regarded as God of Gods and
Representation of Supreme Being. Shiva controls 5 Panch Mahabhootas i.e. Earth, Water, Fire,
Air and Space. The above mentioned 5 temples have been built in the name of Lord Shiva
representing 5 elements. 4 such temples are situated in Tamilnadu and one in Andhra Pradesh.
Tiruvanaikval (Tamilnadu) is represented by a water spring in the innermost sanctum and is a
manifestation of water element. Flickering lamp (Diya) in the Srikalahasti temple shows the
manifestation of the wind element.

The Karthikai Deepam festival at Tiruvannamalai with a giant lamp is lighted atop the
Annamalai hill. It is fundamentally Annamalaiyaar’s manifestation as the fire element. The self-
originated lingam of sand at Kanchipuram is a manifestation of the deities’ association with the
earth element. The formless space element at Chidambaram temple in Tamilnadu shows the
association of the Supreme Being with formlessness or nothingness.

These 5 Shiva temples based on 5 elements were constructed to worship the Supreme Being and
are unique in every sense as all were built as per accurate Vastu principles.

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India

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 Why is Shiva temple in same longitude?

How people have constructed temples separated by thousands of miles (2383 km between
Kedarnath and Rameswaram) on almost same longitude, remains a mystery. There was
nothing in Hinduism without any reason. Ujjain is considered to be the centre of the Earth.
Yes, out of the many ancient temples dedicated to Lord Shiva there are a few temples that lie
more or less on the same longitude like the Kedarnath temple, Kaleshwara Mukteeshwara
Swamy Temple, Srikalahasti Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple, Jambukeswara Temple,
Annamalaiyar Temple, Nataraja Temple, and Ramanathaswamy

Kedarnath, Kaleshwaram, Kalahasti, Akhaseshwar, Chidambaram and finally the

Rameswaram temples have been built in the geographical straight line of or nearer to that of
79° E 41 '54 “Longitude. Further, it is believed that many more temples fall in this straight
line from Kedarnath to Rameswaram.The Srirangam Temple is often listed as the largest
functioning Hindu temple in the world. The temple, located in Tamil Nadu, occupies an area
of 156 acres (631,000 m²) with a perimeter of 4,116m (10,710 feet), making it the largest
temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.

Many ancient Lord Siva temples from Kedarnath till Rameswaram with Kaleshwaram, Sri
Kalahasti, Ekambareswar at Kancheepuram, Thillai Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram are
aligned in a geographic straight line around 79° E 41'54” Longitude.
Associated with time, Lord Shiva or Mahadeva is considered as the destroyer of all things.
He is identified as many personalities - an ascetic, a warrior, leader of ghosts and spirits, he is
related to goodness and benevolence and mysticism and the occult as well. He is the Adi yogi
- the first yogi who inculcated the seed of wisdom in the first seven rishis also known as the
Saptrishis.

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If you go searching about him then you are bound to find an abundance of stories and legends
about this being.Not many of us know that Ganga was given to Lord Shiva by the Supreme
being Vishnu. The reason being that he couldn’t take any more of the quarrels between his
then three wives Goddess Lakshmi, Goddess Saraswati, and Goddess Ganga.

However, to protect the world from the power of Ganga and to shield the impact it was Lord
Shiva who took the holy river water in his hair knot. This event showcases his quality of self-
sacrifice. Thus, it is only natural to see that he is a being of mighty spiritual reverence and
considered as a God.

Shiva’s Ardhnarishwar Form

It is believed that Shiva and his beloved wife Parvati represent the form of Ardhnarishwar.
Yes, our universe in itself is considered to be a play of yin and yang energies. In other words,
it is an interplay of Masculine and Feminine energies. And this is what Lord Shiva represents
- an amazing concoction of balance and flow of both these energies.

However, there are some Shiva temples around which there is a certain sense of mysterious
aura!

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Yes, out of the many ancient temples dedicated to Lord Shiva there are a few temples that lie
more or less on the same longitude like the Kedarnath temple, Kaleshwara Mukteeshwara
Swamy Temple, Srikalahasti Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple, Jambukeswara Temple,
Annamalaiyar Temple, Nataraja Temple, and Ramanathaswamy Temple. All of them more or
less around the same geographic longitude which is 79° E 41’54”.

And if you look at the map then you will get to know that if we connect the dots then it will
make a straight line.

So, the question which arises here is that was there some reason to take such a step? Because
our ancestors didn’t have any means to specifically map out the exact geographical locations
of these places. If yes, what kind of tools or instruments they used? And where is the record
for such tools to have existed in the current timeline?

Furthermore, what is really interesting to know is that each of these temples signifies a
respective element of the Pancha Boota namely Earth, Water, Fire, Air, and Space.

The temple signifying water element is located in Thiruvanaikaval, the temple signifying fire
is in Thiruvannamalai, the temple for air element is situated in Kalahasti, the Earth element is
in Kanchipuram. The temple depicting the space element is in Chidambaram.

The Geographical Alignments

It is said that these temples were particularly built according to the certain yogic sciences.
And accordingly, they have been placed in certain geographic alignment. The reason for that
could be to enhance the spiritual possibilities which they can offer. But this is just a guess.

There is no denying the fact that these temples have been there for thousands of years. And at
that time there were also no measures to see that what has been done is right or not that is to
say if the temples have been located on the right longitude or not.

But how these temples were constructed is quite a mystery till now. And perhaps will remain
one for a long time.

It is interesting to know that the flickering lamps in the Srikalahasti show how the wind
functions. And the water spring in the sanctum of Tiruvanaikka temple depicts the
relationship it to the element of water. The Swayambhu lingam of the sand at Kanchipuram
signifies the prominence of Shiva’s relation with Earth. Whereas it is mostly the formless
space located at the Chidambaram temple showcases the association of the lord with the
popular belief of nothingness. Here are the latitude and longitude positing of these temples.

 Kedarnath – Kedarnath Temple (30.7352° N, 79.0669)

 Kaleshwaram – Kaleshwara Mukteeshwara Swamy Temple (18.8110, 79.9067)
 Srikalahasti – Srikalahasti Temple (13.749802, 79.6983)
 Kanchipuram – Ekambareswarar Temple (12.847604, 79.7003)
 Thiruvanaikaval – Jambukeswara Temple (10.853383, 78.705455)
 Tiruvannamalai – Annamalaiyar Temple (12.231942, 79.0677)
 Chidambaram – Nataraja Temple (11.399596, 79.693559)
 Rameswaram – Ramanathaswamy Temple(9.2881, 79.3129)

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Champasak plain in Laos, once the territory of the Khmer Empire contained at least two
cities, Shrestrapura and Lingapura. Both with Sanskrit HINDU names.
Lingapura would mean the city of Shiva since Linga is his symbol.
Shrestapura would mean the Great City

Lingapura, just to the south of the Vat Phou Temple Complex, was built and occupied
beginning in the 12th century, around the time that the Khmer Empire was ruled from
Angkor, in present day Cambodia. The name comes from linga (symbol of Shiva) and pura
(city) and refers to the presence of the Lingaparvata, which continued to be sacred long after
the power of Khmer Empire had shifted to Angkor. The city was focused on the temple of
Nang Sida The remains of Lingapura are in the area known as Hong Nang Sida. Until
research in the Champasak plain identified the site as Lingapura, however, no one was even
sure it ever really existed.

0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

V
X
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 Mysterious regions of S.E.Asia
Once on the throne, Jayavarman II begun to conquer Vandan (Land Chenla ) and
Water Chenla. An unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and asserted Khmer
independence in 802, when he declared himself cakravartin, or universal ruler on
Phnom Kulen.Since arriving from Java, Jayavarman II established a series of
capitals at

1. Indrapura

2. Hariharalaya,

3. Mahendraparvata, not far from Angkor, the next seat of the Khmer Empire,
which remained its capital for 600 years. He built monuments on Phnom
Kulen:

1. Prasat Khting Slap dedicated to Siva;

2. Prasat Bos Nek, Chrei, Nak Ta, and

3. Anlong Tom, all were dedicated to Vishnu;

4. Prasat Kraham I, one of the best-known sanctuaries of Phnom Kulen, dedicated

to the linga. Jayavarman II died in 850 AD; he received a posthumous name
Paramesvara (Supreme Lord). He was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III.

The lost,
mysterious, enigmatic, secretive, unknown, not familiar, call them what you want-
Kingdoms one may recall of the area that one may loosely depict is Mainland Southeast

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Asia (also known as Indochina or the Indochinese Peninsula) spanned many centuries but
some extinguished earlier than others.— These principal kingdoms were
1. Pyu,
2. Funan,
3. Zhenla,
4. Champa,
5. Dvāravatī,
6. Śrīvijaya—
7. Wendan

Some are unfamiliar, if not unknown, to many. Others strike a note of familiarity. “Lost
Kingdoms” tracks the interactions between South and Southeast Asia in the first millennium,
largely through the circulation of Hindu-Buddhist imagery throughout the diaspora,
revealing the vast flow of ideas, imagery, artistic styles, and religious and political structures
across the region.

What Does Vandana Mean? Vandana is a Sanskrit word meaning “worship,” “reverence,”
“adoration” or “praise.” It is also a popular name for a male or female in India as well as
Slavic countries. Several yoga studios and disciples incorporate this word into their name
as well.

In Cultural Connections and Shared Origins between Campā and Dvāravatī: A Comparison of
Common Artistic and Architectural Motifs, ca. 7th–10th Centuries ce Stephen A.
Murphyunderlines the stark connections between Dvāravatī and Campā.
Mainland Southeast Asia (also known as Indochina or the Indochinese Peninsula) is the
continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south
of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Pacific Ocean to
the east. It includes the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,
and Peninsular Malaysia.
The term Indochina (originally Indo-China) was coined in the early nineteenth century,
emphasizing the historical cultural influence of Indian and Chinese civilizations on the area.
The term was later adopted as the name of the colony of French
Indochina (today's Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). Today, the term Mainland Southeast
Asia, in contrast to Maritime Southeast Asia, is more commonly referenced.

208
209
.
Mekong River/ 1886 map of Indochina, from the Scottish Geographical Magazine

The origins of the name Indo-China are usually attributed jointly to the Danish-French
geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, who referred to the area as indo-chinois in 1804, and the
Scottish linguist John Leyden, who used the term Indo-Chinese to describe the area's
inhabitants and their languages in 1808. Scholarly opinions at the time regarding China's and
India's historical influence over the area were conflicting, and the term was itself
controversial—Malte-Brun himself later argued against its use in a later edition of
his Universal Geography, reasoning that it overemphasized Chinese influence, and
suggested Chin-India instead. Nevertheless, Indo-China had already gained traction and
soon supplanted alternative terms such as Further India and the Peninsula beyond the
Ganges. Later, however, as the French established the colony of French Indochina (covering
present-day Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam), use of the term became more restricted to the
French colony, and today the area is usually referred to as Mainland Southeast Asia.
In biogeography, the Indochinese bioregion is a major region in the Indomalayan realm, and
also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Oriental Paleotropical Kingdom. It includes
the native flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers
the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalayan and Australasian
realms.
The Indochinese Peninsula projects southward from the Asian continent proper. It contains
several mountain ranges extending from the Tibetan Plateau in the north, interspersed
with lowlands largely drained by three major river systems running in a north–south
direction: the Irrawaddy (serving Myanmar), the Chao Phraya (in Thailand), and
the Mekong (flowing through Northeastern Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). To the
south it forms the Malay Peninsula, located on which are Southern Thailand and Peninsular
Malaysia; the latter is variably considered part of Mainland Southeast Asia or separately as
part of Maritime Southeast Asia.
Mainland Southeast Asia contrasts with Maritime Southeast Asia, mainly through the
division of largely land-based lifestyles in Indochina and the sea-based lifestyles of
the Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago, as well as the dividing line between
the Austroasiatic, Tai–Kadai, and Sino-Tibetan languages (spoken in Mainland Southeast
Asia) and the Austronesian languages (spoken in Maritime Southeast Asia). The languages of
the mainland form the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area: although belonging to
several independent language families, they have converged over the course of history and
share a number of typological similarities.

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The countries of mainland Southeast Asia received cultural influence from both India and
China to varying degrees. Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand are all influenced
by Indian culture, only Vietnam is influenced by Chinese culture but still has minor
influences from India, largely via the Champa civilization that Vietnam conquered during its
southward expansion. Overall, Mainland Southeast Asia is predominantly Buddhist with
minority Muslim and Hindu populations.
Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th
century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems.
Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent had established trade, cultural
and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Bhutan, Thailand, the Sunda
Islands, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, and Champa. This led to
the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere, Southeast

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Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and
confederacies).
Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including early
Southeast Asian, specifically Austroasiatic influence onto early Indians.[2] A reason for the
acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian
culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be
explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as later Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and
linguistic influence onto various Indian groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski,
Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic,
and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and
traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This
distinctly Indian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social
construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and
stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the Pallava
empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural
restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.The Chola empire, which executed
the South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya,
profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with Southeast
Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in many
countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.
The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present-day Malaysia, Indonesia and
the Philippines — are thought to have migrated southward from South China sometime
between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian
Subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant
among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland.
Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating
influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to
these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration.
Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.
The key drivers of the Indianisation of Southeast Asia were the Austronesian and Indian
maritime trade especially the Spice trade and the Maritime Silk Road, the emissaries
of Ashoka, and the Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka the Great.

Indian maritime trade with Southeast Asia

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Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean//
Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and
trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the mythological epic the Mahabharata.
Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in India, as described
by Megasthenes (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (reign 322—298
BCE). The Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of
emperor Ashoka (reign 273—232 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to
Greece, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and Epirus.[8] Following nomadic interference
in Siberia—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to the Malay
Peninsula, which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a
series of maritime trade routes. The period under the Mauryan Empire also witnessed
various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime
voyages.
Buddhist missions
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out
nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This
tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission
comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder. [10] To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son
Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.
Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions
such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra,
Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the
following missionaries:

 Mahinda to Sri Lanka

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 Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
 Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
 Rakkhita to Vanavasa
 Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
 Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
 Maharakkhita to the Greek country
 Majjhima to the Himalayas
 Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to
Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.
The missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical and only a part of this story
is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the Vinaya Nidana mentions names of five
monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been
found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been
dated to early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the
Himalayan school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the
caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month
before setting out for Sri Lanka. The mission may have included representatives of other
religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist
chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline
Buddhism. Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler
could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the
Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order
to glorify their sect. and Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal
patronage.
Early Common Era—High Middle Ages

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 Chola
territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030 CE.

During this era, Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be
associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which
would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and
promotion of trading activities. Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the maritime
trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.
In Java and Borneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and
trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets. Maritime history of Odisha,
known as Kalinga in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The
people of this region of eastern India along the coast of the Bay of Bengal sailed up and
down the Indian coast, and travelled to Indo China and throughout Maritime Southeast
Asia, introducing elements of their culture to the people with whom they traded. The 6th
century Manjusrimulakalpa mentions the Bay of Bengal as 'Kalingodra' and historically the
Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean
Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the maritime trade. The old traditions
are still celebrated in the annual Bali Jatra, or Boita-Bandana festival held for five days in
October / November.
The Chola dynasty (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the
medieval period. Emperors Rajaraja Chola I (reigned 985–1014) and Rajendra Chola
I (reigned 1012–1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits. At its
peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to
the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river
Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered

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Srivijaya and Srivijaya was the largest empire in Maritime Southeast Asia. Goods and ideas
from India began to play a major role in the "Indianization" of the wider world from this
period.
Quilon or Kollam in Kerala coast, once called Desinganadu, has had a high commercial
reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans. Fed by the Chinese trade, it was
mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in
the course of his travels during twenty-four years. The Kollam Port become operational in
AD.825opened Desinganadu's rulers were used to exchange the embassies with Chinese
rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at Quilon. The Indian commercial
connection with Southeast Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia between
the 7th and 8th centuries CE.The kingdoms of Vijaynagara and Kalinga established footholds
in Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java.
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence
overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India
had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession
of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of
these ventures. The Tang dynasty (618–907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in Maritime
Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad were the main
trading partners.
During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790), the Chera dynasty were a
close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the
help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country
were common. Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-
Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). Chinese
traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant
countries."

A bird's eye view of Si Thep Historical Park.

216
Located in Phetchabun, the ancient town of Si thep was one of the most significant
Dvaravati culture sites (6th-11th centuries). Surrounded by a city wall and moat, the town
consists of the inner town and the outer town, occupying a total area of 4.7km². A team of
archaeologists of the Fine Arts Department found more than 100 ancient Buddhist and
Hindu monuments such as Khao Khlang Nai, Prang Si Thep and Prang Song Phi Nong as well
as dozens of ancient reservoirs of different sizes. An additional 50 monuments were found
outside of the town such as Khao Khlang Nok, Prang Rue Si and Khao Khlang Sa Kaeo
monument complex. A large number of artefacts were excavated from the area including
human skeletons, pottery and other items dating back up to 2,000 years ago.

A research team from the Historic Site Restoration for the Foundation of Sustainable
Conservation project conducted a structural analysis of the park. Funded by the Thailand
Science Research and Innovation, the research team created 3D images of the ruins,
analysed the strength of the structures and developed damage scenarios to check if the
ruins can withstand possible threats including an earthquake, vibration generated by traffic
or noisy ambience. The team also found possible artefacts buried under the Khao Khlang
Nok ruin.

The ancient city of Si Thep, was a site inhabited from around the third to fifth century CE
until the thirteenth century, spanning cultural periods from late prehistory,
through Dvaravati, to the golden age of the Khmer Empire. Si Thep was one of the largest
known city-states that emerged around the plains of central Thailand in the first millennium,
but became abandoned around the time the Thai-speaking cities of Sukhothai and
later Ayutthaya emerged as new centres of power in the Chao Phraya River basin.
As per historical evidence found on the site, Si Thep was possibly the center of
the Dvaravati mandalas. Via royal intermarriage, it was also considered the sister
city of Sema [fr], the capital of the neighboring state, Canasapura, located eastward on the
opposite side of the Dong Phaya Yen Mountains in the Mun River basin.
Early settlement: 4th–5th century CE
Si Thep was developed from a prehistoric farming village in the Pa Sak valley approximately
2,500–1,500 years ago. In the first archaeological phase (c. 4th–5th century CE), the early
settlement of Si Thep occupied the inner town and there was a burial tradition with
offerings related to India and communities to the central region and Moon River basin to
the northeast.
Hindu-influenced era: 6th–8th century CE
The second phase of occupation (c. 6th–8th century CE) was characterized by the expansion
to the outer city. As the monarchy emerged, Vaishnavism took an important role in Si Thep's
society, with relationships to India, Funan, Chenla, and Dvaravati cultures.
Si Thep was an urban Dvaravati culture center since the 6th century CE, and one of the
earliest communities in Thailand that made contacts with India, attested in stone inscription

217
K 978, written in Sanskrit with Pallava script dated to the 6th century CE. So, Si Thep was
developed into an early state along with other early Southeast Asian states like Funan,
Chenla, and Sri Ksetra. A 7th-century Dvaravati inscription from Si Thep that states, "In the
year...a king who is nephew of the great King, who is the son of Pruthiveenadravarman, and
who is great as Bhavavarman, who has renowned moral principles, who is powerful and the
terror of his enemies, erects this inscription on ascending the throne." A moat enclosed 4.7
square km, while the Khao Klang Nai structure dates from the 6th to 7th century.

Buddhism-influenced era: 8th–10th century CE

This phase (c. 8th–10th century CE) was the most prosperous. An irrigation system was
developed, and Mahayana Buddhism influenced art as relationships with
India, Dvaravati and northeastern cities continued. Si Thep, Sema [fr], and Lopburi sites
controlled the routes in the region. The growth of Si Thep led to the establishment of its
neighboring city, Tha Rong, located 20 kilometers northward on the bank of the Pasak River,
which was later renamed Wichian Buri during the reign of
King Nangklao of Rattanakosin. Several historical evidences supports the connection
between Si Thep and another Dvaravati-influenced political entities in present Northeast
Thailand, Wen Dan.
During this era, Si Thep, together with Lavo, was the center of the mandala-
style state, Dvaravati; however, due to the weather-induced migration or the pandemic, Si
Thep lost its prosperity, and Lavo became the only center of power in the area until it fell
under Khmer hegemony during the 10th to 11th centuries.

Rise of Angkorian: 11th–13th century CE

During this phase (c. 11th–13th century CE), Shaivism was a great influence in Si Thep
at Angkorian times, and Si Thep had relationships with Phimai in Mun River basin
as Sema [th] ceased to control the routes. Due to Jayavarman VII's policy, Si Thep lost
importance and was almost abandoned around the 14th century. Prang Song Phi Nong and
Prang Si Thep were built in the 11th to 12th centuries.
After the decline of Si Thep in the 14th century, a new kingdom, Ayutthaya, was
subsequently founded southward on the bank of the Chao Phraya River in mid-14th CE, as
the succeeded state, as its capital's full name referred to the mandalas of Dvaravati; Krung
Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya. The connection between the ancient Mon people, the
predominant population of the Dvaravati, and the present-day Thai people in central
Thailand, who are the inheritors of Siamese's Ayutthaya, was established in several genetic
studies performed in the 20th century.
Modern Times
The site gained the attention of modern archaeology in 1904 following surveys by
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab, and it was listed as an ancient monument in 1935. The Fine

218
Arts Department has undertaken continued study and excavations of the site, which has
also been studied by archaeologists Prince Subhadradis Diskul, H. G. Quaritch
Wales and Jean Boisselier, among others.
Si Thep was listed as a historical park in 1984 and was proposed as a tentative
UNESCO World Heritage Site by Thailand in 2019. On 19 September 2023, it was inscribed
on the World Heritage List as The Ancient Town of Si Thep and Its Associated Dvaravati
Monuments. It is Thailand's first successful cultural World Heritage Site nomination
since Ban Chiang in 1992.

VXI
( SHIVA TEMPLE of VAT PHOU)
Aestheitics of Shrestapura, Laos

219
Vat Phou has been founded by the Cham, according to the historians and was later one of the
first temples of the Khmers outside Cambodia. The oldest ruins date from the fifth and sixth
century. Vat Phou nestles at the base of Mount Phou Pasak that got the name Lingaparvata
because on top a 60 metres high monolith reaches into the sky. This natural outcropping has
led the people to consider it a sacred place long ago. It resembles to linga of Shiva, the god of
the Hindu. To some visitors it resembles also a female breast (see picture by Diane, taken on
Don Daeng). "Parvata" means "mountain," so "Lingaparvata" is literally "Linga Mountain." It
is the same word-root as "Parvati" the name of Shiva's consort, a mountain-goddess,
notes art-and-archaeology.com. Willard Van De Bogart tells the story of Lingaparvata, the
story was also published with a lot of book references. Read also the official site description
by the Museum of Vat Phu. ,(See further on Page 46 for full interpretation of
LINGAPARVATA) Wat Phu on Laos’ Lingaparvata)

Mount Phou Pasak

The temple of Vat Phou and its surroundings represent an important cultural heritage of
southern Laos. The heritage has various facets. Functioning as a religious centre for the
Buddhist population, the remains also have a historic importance. They show one of the first
major urbanised areas in Southeast Asia. The more recent temples and buildings of the
former capital of the Kingdom of Champasak also have their place in Lao heritage This site is
a remarkably well-preserved planned landscape more than 1,000 years old. It was shaped to
express the Hindu vision of the relationship between nature and humanity, using an axis from
mountain top to river bank to lay out a geometric pattern of temples, shrines and waterworks
extending over some 10 km. Two planned cities on the banks of the Mekong River are also
part of the site, as well as Phou Kao mountain. The whole represents a development ranging
from the 5th to 15th centuries, mainly associated with the Khmer Empire. Dominic Goodall
in Two Inscriptions from Lingaparvata (VAT PHU), one dating to JAYAVARMAN I'S
reign (K. 1059)& the other to JYAVARMAN II'S (K. 1060), along with the re-edition of K.
762. ( published in the Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, Yosothor, 2021, 15, pp.3-38.)
refers in detail to the existence of inscriptions underlining the fact that the area was Shaivite
landscape with numerous Temples (possibly) brought about by discoveries of several
inscriptions.

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221
Northern palace in the Wat Phou complex.

Vat Phou, temple-mountain, is a ruined Khmer Hindu temple complex in southern Laos. It is
at the base of mount Phou Khao, some 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from the Mekong in Champasak
Province. There was a temple on the site as early as the 5th century, but the surviving
structures date from the 11th to 13th centuries.
It has a unique structure: The elements lead to a shrine where a lingam dedicated to
Lord Shiva was bathed in water from a mountain spring. The site later became a centre
of Theravada Buddhist Warrior's worship, birth grounds for warrior offsprings. Phou Name

Meaning inCambodian: Written ភូ Of Chinese Origin But Unexplained Etymology. The

Surname ភូ Also Corresponds To The Khmer Word Meaning ‘Braid Of Hair’. Vat Phou
was initially associated with the city of Shrestapura, which lay on the bank of the Mekong
directly east of Lingaparvata Mountain (now called Phou Khao). By the latter part of the fifth
century, the city was the capital of a kingdom that texts and inscriptions connect with
the Chenla Kingdom and Champa. The first structure on the mountain was constructed
around this time. The mountain gained spiritual importance from the lingam-shaped
protuberance on its summit. The mountain itself was, therefore, considered the home
of Shiva, and the river as representing the ocean or the Ganges. The temple was naturally
dedicated to Shiva, while the water from the spring directly behind the temple was considered
sacred.

Vat Phou was a part of the Khmer Empire centred on Angkor to the southwest, at least as
early as the reign of Yasovarman I in the early 10th century. Shrestapura was superseded by a
new city in the Angkorian period, directly south of the temple. In the later period, the original
buildings were replaced, re-using some of the stone blocks; the temple now seen was built
primarily during the Koh Ker and Baphuon periods of the 11th century. Minor changes were
made during the following two centuries, before the temple, like most in the empire, was
converted to Theravada Buddhist use.

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This continued after the area came under control of the Lao, and a festival is held on the site
each February. Little restoration work has been done, other than the restoration of boundary
posts along the path. Vat Phou was designated a World Heritage Site in 2001.

Phou Khao has a natural lingam on its peak.

Other temples
In the plain, about 1km south of the so-called “Nandin temple”, one can visit the remains of
the Nang Sida temple (beginning of the XIIth century) and further on, but not easily
accessible, the Thao-Tao temple (beginning of the XIIIth century, Jayavarman VII).

SITE
The axial temple of Wat Phu is spectacularly situated at the base of Lingaparvata. In this
photo, looking east from the sanctuary partway up the mountain, we see the temple's
causeway, which runs east-southeast and terminates in two grand barays (excavated
reservoirs). The "middle baray," seen end-on in this photo, measures 200x600 meters. Its
great length recedes much further into the distance than one can accurately judge here, being
approximately equal to the distance from its near bank to the base of the mountain. The north
baray (photo left) is wider, and lies due east of the sanctuary. The barays were probably built
by Suryavarman II (1113-1150).

One asks why the axis of the temple is south of due east, and why the two barays are situated
as they are. The answer lies in astronomy: the barays were designed to reflect the image of
the sun, from the north baray at the equinoxes, and from the middle baray at the winter
solistice. On either side of the temple axis there are two large buildings (next page), of
unknown function, each enclosing a square courtyard. Like most of the surviving buildings,
these were built earlier (11th - early 12th century) than the barays.

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Causeway & Basin
Like most Khmer temples, Vat Phou is oriented towards the east, although the axis faces
eight degrees south of due east, being determined primarily by the orientation of the
mountain and the river. Including the barays (reservoirs), it stretches 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi)
east from the source of the spring, at the base of a cliff 100 metres (330 ft) up the hill. 6
kilometres (3.7 mi) east of the temple, on the west bank of the Mekong, lay the city, while a
road south from the temple itself led to other temples and ultimately to the city of Angkor.
Approached from the city (of which little remains), the first part of the temple reached is a
series of barays. Only one now contains water, the 600 by 200 m middle baray which lies
directly along the temple's axis; there were reservoirs north and south of this, and a further
pair on each side of the causeway between the middle baray and the palaces.
Lingaparvata- Champasak, Laos

Crossing the Mekong river near Champasak, one sees the mountain called "Lingaparvata," so
named because the natural formation (top of mountain, center of photo) seems to resemble
Shiva's linga. To many visitors, it even more closely resembles a female breast. Wat Phu
nestles at the base of this mountain, which has been a sacred site from at least the 5th century
A.D., being associated with the early kings of Chenla.

"Parvata" means "mountain," so "Lingaparvata" is literally "Linga Mountain." It is the same

word-root as "Parvati," the name of Shiva's consort, a mountain-goddess.

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 Main Monuments and their Organization BACKGROUND

It is far easier to understand the organisation of the main monuments of the vat Phou and
their relationship with mythology. The west-east axial composition, running from the
mountain to the baray and the symbolic role of the river on the horizon, place the Vat Phou
monument squarely in a religious and legendary context. We can also see this axial
organisation in the Ancient City monuments, as well as at Nang Sida and even beyond the
classified heritage site, in such places as Nong Din Chi – on Phou Malong mount - and Ban
That. This symbolic aspect of the site’s organisation has been placed at the forefront of
UNESCO considerations. The factor which unites these different sites in a cultural landscape
is above all their contribution to a common imaginary universe. Axial organization connects
“nodes” that are figural points in a space with a well defined axis. Gothic churches are good
examples of axial organization with the main aisles connecting the narthex with the
altar.Definition of spatial: relating to, occupying, or having the character of space. of,
relating to, or involved in the perception of relationships (as of objects) in space tests of
spatial ability spatial memory

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Spatial organization can be defined as how something is organized internally as well as
externally in relation to its surroundings. It can be viewed both on a large or small scale and
may also include in its discussion, the factors and conditions that lead to a specific
organization pattern.Spatial organization refers to the placement of sites or objects relative to
one another. Four basic components of the spatial organization are. - points. - lines. – areas.
A grid organization is comprised of a 3-dimensional composition of linear reference points.
Usually, they are perpendicular from one another, though they need not be. The continuity
and regularity created by the grid gives the composition a strong sense of stability and
organization.

A spatial organization example of a city would include a region concentrated with people and
places, such as houses, businesses, and schools. The region may also include highways and
roads. People may be more concentrated in a region because of the availability of resources,
such as jobs, housing, and transportation.Types of spatial patterns represented on maps
include absolute and relative distance and direction, clustering, dispersal, and elevation.
Spatial organization is the way a group or phenomenon is arranged on the surface of the
Earth. Geographers like to split things into functional regions, or areas defined by business
and economic activities around a focal point or node.

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Spatial Relationships Types. Adjacency, contiguity, overlap, and proximity are the four ways of
describing the relationship between two or more entities.

All layout grids can be designed in two ways: symmetric or asymmetric. Symmetric grids
follow a center line. The vertical margins are equal to each other, as are the horizontal ones.
Columns in a symmetric layout are also the same width. Spatial order results in clear writing.
A scene can be completely described using logical order.

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Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut

Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres (53 mi)
west of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin
volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo.
According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese "sacred" place and has
been dubbed "the garden of Java" due to its high agricultural fertility. During the restoration
in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region,
Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line. A ritual relationship
between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is unknown.

A lintel showing Vishnu on Garuda, on the northeast wall of the sanctuary./View from near the sanctuary on the
upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong

The two palaces North and South( see pic above) stand on a terrace on either side of the axis.
They are known as the north and south palaces or, without any evidence, the men's and
women's palaces (the term "palace" is a mere convention and their purpose is unknown).
Each consisted of a rectangular courtyard with a corridor and entrance on the side towards the
axis, and false doors at the east and west ends. The courtyards of both buildings

228
have laterite walls. The walls of the northern palace's corridor are laterite, while those of the
southern palace are sandstone. The Northern building is now in better condition. The palaces
are notable chiefly for their pediments and lintels, which are in the early Angkor Wat style.

Top Left Pic.Carving of a crocodile on the upper level, possibly the site of an annual human sacrifice in
pre-Angkorian times. "Palace" on the Lower Terrace-Wat Phu, Laos-11th - 12th
century

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 This is one of two large
buildings, the so-called "palaces," on either side of the temple axis (see previous page). Their function is unknown. Each
building encloses a square courtyard.

Sanctuary-Wat Phu, Laos

The side-chambers in this building may have influenced the subsequent design of Angkor
Wat. The Buddha statues in its central chamber are modern. The next terrace has a small
shrine to Nandi (Shiva's mount) to the south, in poor condition. The road connecting Vat
Phou to Angkor ran south from this temple. Continuing west, successive staircases lead up
further terraces; between them stands a dvarapala which has come to be worshiped as
king Kammatha, mythical builder of the temple. On the narrow next terrace are the remains
of six small shrines destroyed by treasure-hunters.

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The path culminates in seven sandstone tiers which rise to the upper terrace and central
sanctuary. The sanctuary is in two parts. The front section, of sandstone, is now occupied by
four Buddha images, while the brick rear part, which formerly contained the central lingam,
is empty.
The entire roof is missing, although a makeshift covering has been added to the front. Water
from the spring which emerges from the cliff about 60 m southwest of the sanctuary was
channeled along stone aqueducts into the rear chamber, continuously bathing the lingam. The
sanctuary is later than the north and south palaces, belonging to the Baphuon period of the
later 11th century. The east side has three doorways: from south to north, their pediments
show Krishna defeating the nāga Kaliya; Indra riding Airavata; and Vishnu riding Garuda.
The east wall bears dvarapalas and devatas. Entrances to the south and north have inner and
outer lintels, including one to the south of Krishna ripping Kamsa apart.

A lintel showing Krishna killing Kamsa, on

the south wall of the sanctuary.

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Other features of the area are a library, in poor condition, south of the sanctuary, and a relief
of the Trimurti to the northwest. There are other carvings further north: a Buddha footprint on
the cliff face and boulders shaped to resemble elephants and a crocodile. The crocodile stone
has acquired some notoriety as being possibly the site of an annual human sacrifice described
in a sixth-century Chinese text. The identification is lent some plausibility by the similarity of
the crocodile's dimensions to those of a human.
Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the Champasak Cultural Landscape -
(extracts from UNESCO's website). The Champasak cultural landscape, including the Vat
Phou Temple complex, is a remarkably well-preserved planned landscape more than 1,000
years old. It was shaped to express the Hindu vision of the relationship between nature and
humanity, using an axis from mountain top to river bank to lay out a geometric pattern of
temples, shrines and waterworks extending over some 10 km. Two planned cities on the
banks of the Mekong River are also part of the site, as well as Phou Kao mountain. The
whole represents a development ranging from the 5 th to 15th centuries, mainly associated with
the Khmer Empire.

Main entrance background holy Phu Kao Mountain, the spiritual centre of the ancient Khmer
Shrestapura area.

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Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the Champasak Cultural Landscape

233
234
 Vi
The Axis of the Temple
Sanskrit Inscriptions in Champasak

The pre-Angkorian pieces belonging to the Ancient City stele said to be “of Vat Louang
Kao” (VLK I 736, n° of inscription K. 365) is one of the most ancient testimonies in the
Sanskrit language known until now in the Indochinese peninsula. Found at the beginning of
the 20th century at the very heart of the Ancient City – at the mouth of the Houay Sa Houa
stream or perhaps a little further south – on the lands of the Catholic mission, it is in the form
of a quadrangular milestone, 1,80 m high, engraved with sixteen lines on each face, and
extended by a long and wide square pillar with cut corners serving as a tenon. Dated
paleographically from the second half of the 5th century, the inscription most likely
commemorates the “foundation” of the Ancient City situated beside the Mekong. The
Mahārājādhirāja (great supreme king of kings) Devānīka, “coming from far away”, would
have created there a Mahātīrtha named Kurukśetra, considered today to be that 4 km2 area
delimited by double earthen ramparts. Inside the enclosure, the remnants of more than thirty
monuments can be seen, often associated with basins.

Two more Sanskrit inscriptions (K. 1173 and K. 1174), kept today in the Champasak store
room, are of major interest for the history of the region. Consisting of a few lines, they are
engraved on two cubic pedestals found on the Houay Sa Houa 2 (HSH2) site, at Ban Vat
Louang Kao, at the upper limit of the Ancient City. These are dedications dated by Claude
Jacques to 590. Both mention erection of an image of the Bull (Nandin) by Prince Citrasena
(the future King Mahendravarman), for the benefit of his father, Vīravarman and his uncle
Kṛtāntapāśa. These inscriptions seemingly confirm that the Vat Phou region is in truth the
cradle of the dynasty that contributed to the foundation of the Khmer empire to which the
Angkorian kings were keen to relate themselves. It is noted that the dimensions of the plinth
of the pre-Angkorian Bull shown at the Vat Phou museum (VP I 369, cf. infra), from the
same village, does not match either of the two pedestals.
Inscriptions from to the 5th and 6th centuries mention a sanctuary built on the mountain,
during the same period as the foundation of the city. This sanctuary has disappeared and has
been replaced by the religious complex we see today. This complex was built during the first
part of the 11th century, with some additions and reconstructions from the 12 th and
13th centuries.
Built along an East-West axis, it extends over 1.4 km and climbs up the slope, starting from
the plain and ending about 100m above, where the main sanctuary is situated. The main
sanctuary is located on a terrace at the foot of the cliff where the sacred spring flows.

The religious complex of Vat Phou is of Khmer architecture and Hindu religion and is
situated at the foot of a hill. The summit, the Phou Kao, immediately commands one's
attention because of its shape, identified in ancient times with the linga, the phallic symbol of
Shiva, from which originated its ancient name, Lingaparvata, and its reputation as a sacred
hill.

The permanent spring, at the foot of the cliffs, is probably one of the main reasons that
induced the ancient rulers of the area to establish a shivaist sanctuary at this
location. Associated with this religious complex, in the plain below, on the banks of the
Mekong, is a pre-angkorian city, the remains of which (large earthen enclosure walls, brick

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monuments) are barely visible on the ground, although they appear quite clearly on aerial
pictures.
Since 1991, excavations have been undertaken by P.R.A.L. (Projet de Recherches en
Archéologie Lao) with the aim of producing a precise archaeological map.

The historic landscape of Champasak is the result of more than one thousand years of intense
sedentary human occupation. This occupation was subject to population movements and
changes which historical research has only begun to study.

Lintel: Vishnu upon Garuda

Sanctuary, Wat Phu

Vishnu rides his mount, Garuda. The bird-man grasps a multi-headed naga in either arm,
while he tramples one-headed nagas who, rearing up, obscure his legs. The calm and
symmetry of this design emphasize its purely formal elements, and the well-judged curve and
modeling of Garuda's torso are especially pleasing. White patches on this lintel are lichens,
not paint.

Pre-Angkorian temple lintel, photographed at its place of discovery, in a rice field in Ban Vat
Louang Kao, in the Ancient City

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Apsaras or Devata-Sanctuary, Wat Phu
This beautiful maiden is still worshiped today, as can be seen by the applied color on her
breast and the flowers in her hand. The depth of the niche in which this relief has been carved
allows a more realistic treatment of her feet, compared to the shallower reliefs
at sikhoraphum.

Trimurti RIGHT PIC ABOVE

This undated, free-standing relief depicts a cosmic form of Shiva, standing, flanked by
kneeling Brahma (photo left) and Vishnu (photo right).

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 VIi
Who were the ancient Dvaravati in Thailand? Are they related to modern Thais,
Laotians, or Cambodians (Khmers)?

The name Dvaravati is after DWARHS also called Dwaravati the legendary city of Sri
Krishna the Hindu God. Today, Dwarka is a town and municipality of Devbhumi Dwarka
district in the state of Gujarat. It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula
on the right bank of the Gomti river at the mouth of the Gulf of Kutch facing the Arabian
Sea.Dwarka has the Dwarkadhish Temple dedicated to Krishna, which is one of four
sacred Hindu pilgrimage sites called the Chardham founded by Adi Shankaracharya at the
four corners of the country. Dwarka is considered as the first capital of Gujarat. The name
literally means gateway. Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as
"Mokshapuri", "Dwarkamati", and "Dwarkavati".It is mentioned in the ancient epic period of
the Mahabharata.[5] According to legend, Krishna settled here after he defeated and killed his
uncle Kamsa at Mathura.[7] This mythological account of Krishna's migration to Dwarka from
Mathura is closely associated with the culture of Gujarat.[8] Krishna is also said to have
reclaimed 12 yojanas or 96 square kilometres (37 sq mi) of land from the sea to create
Dwarka.

Archaeological findings suggest the original temple Dwarkadhish Temple dedicated to

Krishna was built in 200 BCE at the earliest. The temple was rebuilt and enlarged in the
15th–16th century. The temple is also the location of Dwaraka maţha, also
called Sharada Matha/Peeth and "western peeth", one of the four peeths (Sanskrit: "religious
center") established by Adi Shankaracharya. As an important pilgrimage centre for Hindus,
Dwarka has several notable temples, including Rukmini Devi Temple, Gomti Ghat, and Bet
Dwarka. There is also a lighthouse at the land end point of Dwarka.

Archaeological investigations at Dwarka, both on shore and offshore in the Arabian Sea, have
been performed by the Archaeological Survey of India. The first investigations carried out on
land in 1963 revealed many artefacts. Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of
Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements, a large stone-built jetty, and triangular stone
anchors with three holes. The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls, and
fort bastions. From the typological classification of the anchors it is inferred that Dwarka had
flourished as a port during the period of the Middle kingdoms of India. Coastal erosion was
probably the cause of the destruction of what was an ancient port.

Dwarka is mentioned in the copper inscription dated 574 CE of Simhaditya, the Maitraka
dynasty minister of Vallabhi. He was the son of Varahdas, the king of Dwarka. The nearby
Bet Dwarka island is a religious pilgrimage site and an important archaeological site of
the Late Harappan period, with one thermoluminescence date of 1570 BCE. Author believes
that Dvaravati in Thailand was named after Dvaravati in India just as Ayutthaya Kingdom is
named after Ayodhya the Capital and birth place of Lord Ram the other Hindu God

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The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be
U Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon Pathom,
Phong Tuk, Si Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others.Dvaravati was an ancient
Mon political principality from the 6th century to the 11th century that was located in the
region now known as central Thailand.While in the beginning of the first Millennium
Buddhism had been rejected in India in the favour of the Hindu religion, Dvaravati was one
of the two austroasiatic Monish realms in the Chao Phraya basin, properly the Lower part
while in the Upper part resided the Mon of Hariphunchai, which was first Hindu and later
Buddshist. Many descriptions, stelas, manuscripts and artefacts still have been preserved in a
very good shape. Before the Khmer came to dominate the region of Thailand, the country
was dominated by the Mon who established different kingdoms, like Dvaravati, Lavo,
Hariphunchai, Sikoktabun, etc; they also were the first the establish Buddhism in their
kingdoms. The Dvarvati kingdom existed from about 800 — 1200AD and was centered
around Lopburi, central Thailand. The kingdom was heavily influenced by the Mon culture
probably not as the Mon history mentions the sort of 'stateless' situation of the people.
Dvaravati was more like the aggregated city states with the similar cultures that called
Dvaravati which had been rising and declined to the point that the old Dvaravati people have
become tribes in forest after Khmer empire had expanded its hegemony. Now the Sukothai’
kingdom emerged as a power in it's own right around 1250AD, it was growing and maturing
for a few hundred years before that — I think as a separate kingdom but vassal state of the
Khmer kingdom, based at Angkor Wat.

By the time the Khmer started to expand their empire, those early Mon kingdoms were put
either as vassals or exterier part of the Khmer Empire and were forced to accept the Khmer’s
Hindu belief and culture. The first “Thai” state of Sukhothai didn’t occur 1238 which was
created after the breakaway of the Mon Kingdom of Lavo. Therefore one is able to conclude
that “Siam” was never part of the Khmer Empire but rather a break -away state from another
state that declared independence earlier which is often overlooked by many historians and
nationalist.

The Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya was a union state between the Mon/Khmer Lavo Kingdom,
Thai Kingdom of Suphanburi, Kingdom of Ligor (Nakhon Si Thammarat), and later the old
Thai kingdom of Sukhothai; this lead to the early Chinese name of the Thai kingdom as being
Xianlo which refers as “Siam-Lavo”. To be clear, the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya inherited
territories that were formally “vassals” of the Khmer Empire which is like how the Holy
Roman Empire inherited the Franks territories that broke after the fall of the Western Roman
Empire. In addition, many of the Ayutthayan culture that were “Khmer” was inherited from
the Lavo Kingdom, like the Hindu belief, laws, early arts, and the early royal family
connections, which made the kingdom the precessor of both the Khmer, Mon, and Thai
culture. The Khmer Empire was merely like the Cambodian version of the Eastern Roman
Empire that struggle to survive for many centuries.

The Lao people in the Middle Mekong basin never had direct contacts with the Mon but via
the Tai Yuan (the people who founded Lan Na, twin kingdom to the Lao Lan Xang, today
northern provinces of Thailand) adopted the Theravada Buddhism and the writing from them.
The Monish so-called Tham Script is still in use in Laos by scholars and monks. Let aside the
Monish-style temples and stupas. “Siam” refers to a polity of Thai-speaking people in the
Chao Phraya River basin in Central Thailand. Due to the fertility of the alluvial plains of the
basin, Thai-speaking people migrated from the mountainous North to settle there. The

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fertility of the Chao Phraya River basin means great rice harvest that could support large
populations. Hence, the Thai kingdoms such as Sukhothai (Northern Chao Phraya Basin),
Ayutthaya, and then Bangkok (Lower Chao Phraya Basin). Sukhothai was the first Thai
kingdom in the basin dated back to around 1200 AD. Before that, Thai-speaking people
settled mostly in the mountainous areas in the present-day Northern Thailand.

Chao Phraya River Basin (Green). Ayutthaya is in the large delta area just north of
Bangkok./Right yellow Thailand

But later on, around 1400 AD, another Thai kingdom rose to the prominence - Ayutthaya in
the Lower Chao Phraya Basin. Ayutthaya has a very strategic location - the city is surrounded
by 3 rivers merging together to form an island. With lots of water and good soil, agricultural
yields around Ayutthaya is even better and soon Ayutthaya eclipsed Sukhothai as the most
prominent Thai kingdom. At one point, it was believed that Ayutthaya was even the largest
city of the World! Moreover, Ayutthaya is closer to the sea than Sukhothai, so Ayutthaya
benefited from burgeoning foreign trades. At that point, the Ayutthaya kingdom was also
known as “Siam,” and the Thai polity remained known as such until the 20th century.

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The Island-City of Ayutthaya is surrounded by 3 rivers. It is believed that Ayutthaya was
once the largest city in the World. Source: History of Ayutthaya - Historical Sites -
Ayutthaya Forts

The kingdom didn’t last forever though, as the Burmese sacked Ayutthaya twice, and during
the second sacking of Ayutthaya, the city was damaged beyond repair. After the Thai people
freed themselves from the Burmese yoke, the leader of the uprising proclaimed himself king
and moved the capital down to the area of present-day Bangkok at around the same time as
when the Americans freed themselves from the British yoke, which remains the capital to this
day.
Sukhothai could also be considered as more likely enlarged city states to become proto-
kingdom with alliances with other kingdoms and at that time Lopburi had started to broken
away from Khmer Empire while those who had been down South has set up Suphanburi city
state as well as Phetburi city state just like Sukhothai.

It was the formation of Ayutthaya by King U Thong was the real starting point of Ayutthaya
even though those from Lopburi and Suphanburi has gradually merge their city states into the
true Kingdom, started by the settlement in Ayutthaya.
The first thing to keep in mind when looking at these ancient kingdoms is that they're not
totally coupled — in many cases their period of existence overlap, sometimes significantly.

Now, in the 1200s, in the sukothai kingdom the first common Thai identity emerged. King
Ramkanhaeng created the Thai alphabet and led the beginning of 'Thainess'.

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After Sukothai, as regional kingdoms merged, things get a lot more organized. Ayuthaya,
whose fringe territories were vassals of Sukothai eventually took control and roles reversed…
Sukothai became part of the First Ayuthaya kingdom

Basically, the term refer to the 2 different kingdoms at various different point in time.

Ayuttaya is the old kingdom, the predecessor of modern day Thailand. The kingdom was
defeated and partitioned into many smaller states which were unified and re-incorporate in to
Thonburi and Rattanakosin, both of which are Bangkok-based Empire.

Technically, Thailand is not even a century old! What is now known as “Thailand” was
previously known as “Siam” until a WWII era PM who insisted on “modernization” of a lot
of aspects of the country (such as wearing Western-style clothings or simplify spellings of the
language and eliminated the linguistic roots of so many words) changed the name of “Siam”
into “Thailand.” Siam is the name given to Thai by foreign people for as far back as Ayuttaya
and possibly even older. The term came from the Khmer who name the ancient Tai tribe
“Siem” (Thief) and was pick up by every foreign traders and dignitaries eversince (the same
way people call the Deutch German)

By the late 19th century, Siam became the Rattanakosin was officially named Siam and was
composed of the original Bangkokian empire, Lanna (Chiangmai-based kingdom), Lanxang
(Lao), and a large part of Cambodia.

During the 20th however, the arrival of the French and Britiah colonial empire saw the lost of
these territories which prompted the rise of nationalism.

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This trend reached its peak in 1932 which saw the nationalist government overthrown the
monarchy and the country was henced renamed Thailand (land of the Thai and not Siem’s
country) to reflect this nationalistic tendecy. Territories were gained and lost again following
the WWII but the name stick and so it still is today.

area in purple-This is Siam

For the Thai people, the term “Siam” didn’t became used in official documents until the reign
Rama IV (aka King Mongkut) in 1860s and was pushed further in usage during Rama V (aka.
King Chulalongkorn) when he had to negotiate with the European in the matters of
diplomatic relations and settling boundaries, between British India and French Indochina, as a
way to build a modern nation; this kind of action was similar to French and the German
model in unifying their states. Before that, Siam was known just base on the capital’s name
like Sukhothai= Kingdom of Sukhothai, Ayutthaya= Kingdom of Ayutthaya, and Bangkok=
Rattanakosin (based on the island that Bangkok was built in; Bangkok was a foreign name
that was based on a small village while to the Thais it was known as Phra Nakhon, or the
Great Capital). Back then, along with the rest of the early world, there were no such thing as
“country” but rather city-state kingdoms that were tied together by a king. By the time King
Chulalongkorn, the term “Siam” refered to territories that Bangkok herited from the
presuccesor, Ayutthaya, and it’s vassal states in Lanna, Luang Prabang, Cambodia, and

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Malay States; which is why many earlier maps of Siam before 1893 would often be worded
as “Map of Siam and it’s dependencies”

For the European, there was no name before “Siam” because the name was derieved from
either the Arabs, Indian, Chinese, or Khmer traders that came since the Ayutthaya Peried.
Since the Europeans were not aware on the Thai methods of adminstrating the kingdom, they
marked the whole known area as being “Siam” with the capital of Ayutthaya, or Bangkok,
and often times not include the Thai vassals like Laos or Cambodia as being part of the
country. Which is why the European maps of Siam’s boundaries differs before 1893.

On the last question, was the Thai kindom was ever part of the Khmer Empire, the answer
would be yes The yes part is that there was evidences throughout Northeastern and Central
Thailand of the Khmer Empire’s influence, which include the ruins found in Lopburi, Khorat,
Buriram, Surin, etc.

Who came first-LAVO OR SOKHOTHAI?

It was a Khmer city Sukhotei that became a Tai Sukhotai, then became a Sukhosiam then
became a Sukhothai, the first Kingdom of Tai, Siam,Thai. Thailand was built on top of the
territory of Cambodia where the Khmer culture has been existing already there. There are
Khmer Pali language and Khmer songs that Thai can’t read and understand in Thailand, but
Khmer in Cambodia can because Khmer are the creators of the culture in Thailand.
The English term Sukhothai is the romanization of the Thai word per the Royal Thai
General System of Transcription. The Thai word for the historical country was
a transliteration of the Khmer spelling, rendered in English as Sukhodaya. The Khmer term is
itself derived from the Sanskrit sukha (Sanskrit: सुख, 'lasting happiness')
and udaya (Sanskrit: उदय, 'rise' or 'emergence'). Together, the phrase can be interpreted as
meaning "dawn of happiness".

Our knowledge of the ancient Indianized kingdom of Dvaravati, which

attained its height during the VIth and VIIth centuries A.D. and occupied
the lower parts of the Menam and Meklong valleys of Central Siam, is at
present based almost entirely on the results of M. Cædes’s important
researches in this field. Finds made from time to time at Nak‘on Pathom
and elsewhere, and the excavations at P’ong TuK, though they have
yielded no records of events nor provided us with the names and dates
of kings on which to base an outline of the history of the kingdom, have
yet given us a tolerably clear idea of the culture of the people, at least
during the period of their greatness. But the later centuries of the
Dvaravati period remain veiled in obscurity and a primary object of this
article is to suggest a means by which that veil might some day be rent
asunder.
Before I come to that, however, I should like to take the opportunity of
expressing my views on the questions as to whether or not this territory
played an important role as a medium for the distribution of Indian
cultural influences to the further east, either during the fourth and fifth
centuries when it seems to have formed part of the Fu-nan empire, or

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after the middle of the sixth when it became the independent State of
Dvaravati. When speaking of the magnificent statues of Ankor Borei,
which are so closely related to the Gupta sculpture of India, M. Çœdes
says: “It is not impossible that this Buddhist art arrived in Cambodia, or
rather in Fu-nan, through the intermediary of Dvaravati…For the
Buddhist art of Fu-nan. Dvaravati has perhaps played the part of
intermediary between Gupta India and the Mekong delta.”
The difficulty of accepting this view is that the statues found at Ankor
Borei are so manifestly nearer Indian Gupta models than are any of the
numerous Buddhist images showing Gupta relationship that have been
found in Central Siam, and they must be placed at least a century earlier
in date. There is ample evidence that Indian influences reached the
mouth of the Mékong via the all-sea route, and afterwards via the
Takuapa-C’aiya transpeninsular route, at a very early period. It is
difficult therefore to resist the conclusion that these almost purely
Indian sculptures from Ankor Borei are the expression of influences
brought to Cambodia via one of the more direct colonial routes just
mentioned.

On the other hand the Dvaravati sculptures of Central Sian are without
exception definitely stylised, if not decadent. They must be looked upon
as the final expression of a more northerly stream of Indian culture that
has probably already passed through its period of active development in
the Mon country of Lower Burma before, penetrating eastwards via the
Three Pagoda and Papun routes, it exhausted itself on the rich plains of
Central Siam. In the neighborhood of the Prachin valley, towards the
border between modern Siam and Cambodia, these two cultural streams
must have established contact and no doubt cultural exchanges took
place; but it is difficult to imagine that cultural influences that had
travelled via Burma, the mountain passes, and finally the wide plains of
Dvravati, so far from their original Indian home-land, could have
retained vigour and party of conception enough to produce the superb
statuary of Ankor Borei. But if the influence of Dvaravati culture on the
growing Khmèr civilisation was probably small, its importance for the
future of Siam was great; and this brings me to the consideration of the
obscure later centuries of the kingdom of Dvaravati.

During the XIIth and XIIIth centuries the Khmèr empire extended its
sway over the territory of Dvaravati, and buildings of provincial Khmer
style were erected at almost all the cities of the Dvaravati kingdom that
had survived until that time. In the XIIIth century, with the break-up of
the Khmer empire, the Thai State of Sukhot’ai spread its power
southward over all this region. Bit its suzerainty was short-lived, and in
1350 A.D. we find a large part of Central Siam dominated by a Prince of
U T 'ông a city situated some fifty miles west of Ayuth’yaon what was
then the main Sup’an river but is now an insignificant tributary. H.R.H.
Prince Damrong, who visited the place in 1904, placed on record [3] the
legend that in 1350 A.D. the Prince of U T‘ong fleeing from an epidemic,
deserted the city and marched westwards to the Menam where he

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founded the city of Ayuth’yawhich was for more than four hundred years
to be the capital of a united kingdom of Siam. Not only is the name
Dvaravati one of the title by which Ayuth’yacame to be known, but
Prince Damrong was able to establish a definite connection between U
T‘ong and the Dvaravati culture when he found statues and coins of
exactly the same type that had previously been found at Nak‘on
Pathom. It seems very likely that U T‘ong was one of the old cities of the
Dvaravati kingdom, which, on account of its remote situation, had
retained much of a nominal vassalage to the Khmers. Later, having got
rid of its Khmer, and finally of its Sukhot‘ai Thai overlords, it was able to
re-establish its independence.
There is good reason for believing that the early civilisers of the
Dvaravati kingdom were Indianized Môn colonists from Lower Burma,
but the fact that the Prince of U T‘ong was himself a Thai need cause no
surprise. The local legend maintains that his family had comparatively
recently migrated from the North; and if that is so they were members
of one of the later waves of Thai immigration. But recent researches [4]
suggest that the Thai had become established on Central Siam at a
much earlier period than had formerly been supposed and the Thai of
the U T‘ong had no doubt absorbed their Môn civilisers centuries before
this city was deserted. I have mentioned that the Buddhist images found
at U T‘ong by Prince Damrong were of the Dvaravati style, and hence it
is necessary to note M. Çœdes’s explanation for denominating as
“School of U T‘ong” a number of sculptures found not actually at U
T‘ông, but at other cities in Central Siam, and showing mixed Dvaravati,
Khmer and Sukhot‘ai characteristics. M. Çœdès justifies this clarification
on the grounds that many of these sculptures may well date from the
early part of the fourteenth century, before Ayuth’yahad been founded
and when U T‘ong dominated the region. U T‘ông, indeed, during the
later centuries of its existence, could scarcely be expected to have been
brought to bear on what remained of the Dvaravati kingdom, and this is
certainly supported by the presence of several stone Hindu figures of
rather mixed ancestry still to be seen in the neighborhood of U T‘ông.
Following the useful pointers extended by Prince Damrong and M.
Çœdès I myself visited U T‘ong early in 1936. While my visit was too
short todojustice tothe site, it had the effect of still further stimulating
my interest. The city is a rectangular enclosure measuring about a mile
from north to south and half that distance from eats to west. It is
bounded by a moat and mound and the area within is largely occupied
by thin jungle broken by extensive bare patches where little vegetation
seems able to grow. Outside the city are one or two brick stupas the
style of which indicates that they probably date from not, much earlier
than the thirteenth century. Within the enclosure there are the remains
of only one monument, an old stupa basement, situated at the center of
the city. This basement was itself constructed from large re-employed
bricks, many of them ornaments with whorls, which must have once
formed part of a much earlier structure. At a spirit shrine in the
neighboring Chinese village I was shown a stucco head, said to have

246
been dug up near some stupa in the neighborhood. The features were of
exactly the same type as those of many of the heads found at Nak‘on
Pathom and believed to date from the VIth or VIIth century.

There had been several thunderstorms at U T‘ong at the time of my visit

and the rain had washed out large quantities of small objects from the
surface soil of the open spaces that occupied so much of the city
enclosure. Besides household utensils and pottery we found the
crucibles of metal workers often associated with lumps of base metal
and a few specks of gold. Moreover agate, cornelian, crystal and garnet
beads mainly of Indian type were found in great abundance and here
and there were uncremated human bones. These objects were lying on
the sites of the houses of the last inhabitants of U T‘ong and, while it is
true that beads often tend to work to the surface, the evidence seems to
offer some support for the legend which tells us that the city had to be
hastily abandoned as the result of an epidemic. A few more objects of
interest were produced by the villagers who said they were accustomed
to search over the city site whenever heavy rain had washed over the
soil. Among these objects were several gold rings, a golden ear-ring set
with polished rubies and a large primitive bullet coin, stamped with lion,
elephant and cakra marks, of the type designated “pre-Ayuthian” by Dr.
Le May.

For the present it would obviously be premature to attempt to build

further on our scant knowledge of the remains at U T‘ong. But the fact
that at more than one level ancient brick courses were encountered in
my trail trial trenches suggests that thorough excavation might not only
tell us much about the everyday domestic life of the people, but that the
foundations of brick temples, perhaps with sculptures and even
inscriptions, might very well be brought to light. Indeed, now that P‘ong
Tu’k seems to have been more or less exhausted, and most of the other
known Dvaravati sites are not available for excavation either by reason of their
sanctity or their being modern centers of civilisation, the possibilities of U T‘ong deserve
careful attention, not only for the additional light that the excavation of that city might
throw on the heyday of Dvaravati culture, but because it might serve to illuminate the
whole history of Central Siam, right from the beginning of the Dvaravati kingdom until the
end of those later obscure centuries at the close of which the torch was handed on to the
new kingdom of Ayuth‘ya. To the careful investigator U T‘ong should make a strong
appeal by reason of the clear stratified nature of its deposits which have not attracted, and
are not likely to attract, the attention of the treasure-seekers who have harmed so many
other site sin Siam. The complete excavation of U T‘ong would be no small undertaking
and should not be undertaken lightly; but it is probably one of the most important of the
tasks that lie before the archaeologist of the future in Siam.

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This museum showcases exhibits on archaeological evidence and art objects from different
periods that have been uncovered in Suphan Buri. The first building displays U Thong City
artifacts from both the prehistoric era and Dvaravati era, alongside Buddha statues of the
Dvaravati style.An exhibition in the second building features information on the province's
ethnic groups and beads found from the same eras. Outside is a reconstruction of a Lao Song
ethnic group home, allowing visitors to learn about the group's traditions, clothing, and
tools.The museum is located on Malai Maen Road, next to U Thong District Office and U
Thong Sueksalai School. The museum opens Wednesdays through Sundays, from 9.00 am-
4.00 pm. Admission is 150 baht. Call 0 3555 1040 or 0 3555 1021 for more information. This
is a serial property of three component parts: a distinctive twin-town site, featuring an Inner
and Outer Town surrounded by moats; the massive Khao Klang Nok ancient monument; and
the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient monument. Together these sites represent the architecture,
artistic traditions and religious diversity of the Dvaravati Empire that thrived in Central
Thailand from the 6th to the 10th centuries, demonstrating the influences from India. The
local adaptation of these traditions resulted in a distinctive artistic tradition known as the Si
Thep School of Art which later influenced other civilizations in Southeast Asia.

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Brief synthesis

The Ancient Town of Si Thep is a serial property of three component parts that represent
Dvaravati culture from the 6th to the 10th centuries, an important phase in the history of
Southeast Asia. The component parts are the unique twin-town lay-out of the Ancient Town
of Si Thep (component part 001), featuring Muang Nai (Inner Town) and Muang Nok (Outer
Town) surrounded by moats; Khao Klang Nok ancient monument (component part 002), the
largest surviving Dvaravati monument; and, the Khao Thamorrat Cave ancient monument
(component part 003), a unique Mahayana Buddhist cave monastery that contains important
examples of Dvaravati art and sculpture.

More than 112 significant monastery sites have been identified at Si Thep, and the local
adaptation of Hindu artistic traditions resulted in a distinctive artistic tradition known as the

MARITIME TRADE IN THE INDIAN OCEAN AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ART

Som e Notes on the Kingdom of Dvaravati, H.G. QUARITCH WALES, The
Journal of the Greater India Society, vol.5, 1938, pp. 24-30

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The aerial photograph of Khao Klang Nok ancient monument

Mueang Uthong was inhabited from around the 10th century BC and became the state
society in the third to sixth-century CE. Uthong was one of the largest known city-states that
emerged around the plains of central Thailand in the first millennium but became abandoned
around 1000 AD due to the endemic and lost in major trading cities status. It was resettled in
the Ayutthaya period but was abandoned again after the fall of Ayutthaya in the 1760s.
Uthong is also considered the first city-state that practiced Brahmanism and Buddhism in
present-day central Thailand.[
Prehistory
The results of archaeological studies revealed that the area around U Thong has been
inhabited by humans since around 10th BC between the Neolithic and Metal Ages. The
evidence found was tools made of stone and metal, such as bronze spear blades, bronze axes,
and earring molds made of stone.
Funan Kingdom: before 7th century
Radiocarbon determinations from the sites of U-Thong suggest that the transition into
complex state societies in the area took place between about 300-600 AD. A copper
inscription from the mid-7th century states, "Sri Harshavarman, grandson of Ishanavarman,
having expanded his sphere of glory, obtained the lion throne through regular succession,"
and mentions gifts to a linga. The site includes a moat, 1,690 by 840 m, and the Pra
Paton caitya.
According to the archaeological evidence found in the area, suggests that Uthong was
probably the center or used to be a colony of the Funan Kingdom since the 1st century AD;
however, when the Funan Kingdom had lost its power, Uthong therefore became an
important trade city of the succeeding kingdom, Dvaravati, in the 7th-11th century AD.

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The city-state of "Jinlin" which was mentioned in the Chinese archives of the Liang
Dynasty as the last state that was occupied by Fan Man, the Great King of Funan Kingdom,
in the 4th century AD, might be located in the area of Uthong, since the word "Jinlin" means
land of gold or Suvarnabhumi; as mentioned in the archive, it was a state located
approximately 2,000 li (800 kilometers) west of the Funan Kingdom, which corresponded to
the area of Uthong.
The city of Uthong was located on the bank of the Nam Chorakhe Suphan River (currently
called Khlong Chorakhe Sam Phan). Because the boundary of the Palaeo-gulf extended more
northward than the present-day shoreline, the trading ship easily navigated to the city by the
Nam Chorakhe Suphan River, making Uthong play a role as an important port city in the
area, along with the Funan's port city of Óc Eo in present-day southern Vietnam. The ancient
city of Uthong also had trade contacts with the West, from the Indians to
the Greeks and Romans in the Mediterranean Sea, that expanded the sea trade to countries
in Southeast Asia and China. Evidence found in the area, including glazed Chinese
ceramics from the Tang Dynasty, beads and jewelry from India, Persian wares, and
many other decorations from Greece, Rome, China, and the Middle East, proves the area was
contacted by external territories. The trade also
brought Brahmanism and Buddhism from India to U-Thong, making it the first settlement to
practice such religions in the region.[1]
Dvaravati Kingdom: 7th-11th century
During the 6th-7th centuries, Uthong was considered one of the centers of Dvaravati culture.
Antiques were found scattered in the ancient ruins as well as along the banks of Khlong
Chorakhe Sam Phan from Phanom Thuan District of Kanchanaburi Province to Don Chedi
District and U Thong District of Suphan Buri Province. According to the Thai Chronicles, the
city of U Thong was resettled around the early 9th century by a royal lineage of Dvaravati,
who fled to establish the new city of Suvarnabhumi in the present-day Ladya
subdistrict, Kanchanaburi, after the old capital of Dvaravati was sacked by Chenla in the 8th-
9th centuries.
Since the Nam Chorakhe Suphan River was dried up in places, shallow, and consequently not
navigable, and also due to some pandemics, Uthong lost its influence as the port city and was
abandoned around the 11th century, thus escaping from the Khmer influence that came to the
most significant power in the 12th century during the reign of the great Khmer
king, Jayavarman VII. As a result of the mentioned circumstances, the city was moved
eastward, but the epidemic did not abate, causing the city to be relocated again to the east
bank of Tha Chin River, which is known as Suphan Buri in the present-day.
Ayutthaya Kingdom: 14th-18th century
The area was re-settled during the Ayutthaya period since some chedis discovered
by Damrong Rajanubhab appear to be of more recent origin and would appear to date from
the time of Ayutthaya.[3] No historical chronicle directly mentions Uthong in this period; the
area was controlled by Suphan Buri. However, after Ayutthaya was sacked by troops of the
Burmese Konbaung dynasty in 1767, both Suphan Buri as a frontier town and the
surrounding settlements was destroyed and left abandoned. U Thong also became the origin
of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, as the first King of Ayutthaya, Ramathibodi, was the prince of U
Thong when the city was struck by an epidemic, prompting him to relocate east and found
Ayutthaya.
Rattakosin era: 1782–Present

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In 1836, according to the Journey to Suphan a poem written by a royal poet, Sunthorn
Phu, Suphanburi as well as its surrounding area, which includes Uthong, was still wasteland;
however, the area was resettled with limited numbers of villagers about four years later,
around 1840] Later in 1895, during the reign of Chulalongkorn, due to the country's
administration reform, the area was governed by a newly established district, Bueng
Chorakhe Sam Phan, headed by the present-day Chorakhe Sam Phan sub-district However, to
conform with local history, the district government head office was relocated to the ancient
city of Uthong, and the district was also renamed to such in 1939.[13]
The ancient city of Uthong was officially excavated by Damrong Rajanubhab and George
Cœdès in 1930.
Dvaravati art is a form of artistic work originating from Mon. Dvaravati flourished from the
Dvaravati Mon ancient artifacts are in present-day Thailand and Burma, Mon states to the
west in southern Myanmar (Burma) and with the Mon state in northern Thailand. The
Dvaravati statues reflect characteristics of the Mon people, namely broad faces and noses,
full lips and joined eyebrow arches. This standing Buddha is typical of the style with its
meditative look, imposing size and the symmetry of its U-shaped robe. During the Dvaravati
period, houses were generally built of wood while fired brick and laterite were used for
religious structures. Furthermore, the larger Buddhist monuments, mostly of brick, were
constructed within the moats, while smaller ones stood outside the enclosures.

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