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part 1 part 1 - 3
 - ll - - III -

Preface to the lecture, I" Edition 1996

Scalar Waves
The theme encloses tbe electromagnetic compatibility of both technical and biological
Edition belonging to the lecture and seminar systems. Only part of the electromagnetic wave can be considered for function troubles,
namely tbe part that was absorbed and has rolled up to a vortex. The activity depends on
"Electromagnetic environmental compatibility" the number of created vortices and of their lifetime, their decay.
of T he eddy current only manifests in conducting materials. Jn the air and in dielectric
Professor Dr.-Ing. Konstantin Meyl materia ls on the other band the vortex of the electric field will form, also called the
potential vortex. To calculate and to measure this vortex is our goal.
I. Edition (2003), with 320 tables and 665 pages
F irst we' ll carry oul a survey of the problems and the usual methods. From the analysis of
unso lved problems the need for tbe introduction of the new vortex phenomena is deducted
and an adequate fi eld-theoretical approach will be chosen. Afterwards the potential
vortices are calcu lated and their properties are discussed and interpreted.
For the purpose of proving their existe nce, on the one hand the Schrodingcr equation will
Mcyl, Konstantin :
be derived and on the other hand the quantum properties of the most important elementary
Scalar Waves, from an extended vortex and field theory to a technical, biological and
historical use of longitudina l waves. - by Konstantin Meyl.- particles w ill be calculated and compared with the well-known measured values.
Vill ingen-Schwcnningcn: INDEL GmbH, Verl.-Abl. 1996-2002, Measuremen t and calculation are in excellent agreement for weight, charge, magnetic
I st Eng lish Edition 2003 moment and spin . So the theory not only proofs it's correctness, in addition it
demonstral es ii ca n achieve much more. T he theory takes us to the unification of the well-
known intcr<lctions and physical phenomena and shows itself as an unified theory.
ISBN 978-3-940 703-23-1 Tn the practical convers ion and usage of the theory there w ill not only be informed but by
(formerly: lSBN 3-9802542-4-0) all means a lso be provoked as an entrance in a fruitfully discussion. Fundamental
questions w i.11 be taken up like: What is in formatio n, energy, temperature or smell? T he
connection to the theme of tbc e lectromagnetic environmental compatibility is formed by
the technical and the b io logical usage of the potential vortices, the energy transmission of
This work incl uding all of it's parts is protected by copyright law. All righ ts Nikola Tesla exactly like the in a similar way funct ioning nerve conduction. Here we
reserved by the author and pub lisher, especially those of reprint, rep roduction, already can expect biologica l reactio ns.
microfilming, translation and storage in elect ronic systems.
This lecture, held fo r the first time in the winter semester of 1995/96, is available i11 book
form, as an edition be long ing to the lecture. This lecture wi ll not deliver ready recipes or
© fNDEL GmbH, Verlagsabteilung instructions. The goal is reached when the critical sense of the listeners and readers has
Vill ingen-Schwenn ingen 1996 ( I st German Edition), been inspired and discussions have been set going. Everybody has to draw the
2003 (lst English Edition) consequences o ut of such a thco1y by him- or herself.
In addition to this lecture a sem inar is offered, wherein several themes are supplemented
or deepened, different theories are compared and possible consequences are discussed.
Tbe appearance of an edition belonging to the semina r has started in l998 <i>_
Regard ing lhe conversion of consequences both politicians and scie ntists are equally
Postal and ordering address: addressed, because the e lectromagnetic environmental compatibility has developed to one
of the most urgent problems of today's world. But in last consequence all of us bury the
/NOEL G mbH, Erikaweg 32, D- 78048 Villingen-Schwenningen worldwide respons ibility for our environment.

Fax: +49-772 1-5 1870; E-Mail: Info@ etzs.de

Internet: \VW\>,'. mevl.eu (English with a link to the German homepage)

Printed in Germany <i>: K. Mey!: Electromagnetic environmental compatibility, Part 2 and 3 of this
book, Edition belonging to the seminar.
 -v -
- IV -

Page
Table of contents
Page 4.10 Water colloids as vortex balls .............................................................................. 71
51 4. 11 Transport phenomenon ........................................................................................ 73
Preface to the Lecture, 1 Edition 1996 .............................................................. III
Table of contents ................................................................................................ IV
5. Derivation and interpretation .......................................................................... 75
5.l Fundamental field equation ................................................................................. 77
Part I edition belonging to lecture "Electromagnetic environmental compatibility" 5.2 Mathematical interpretation ................................................................................. 79
5.3 Physical interpretation ..................................................................... ··· ....... ··· ······ · 81
5.4 Phenomenological interpretation ......................................................................... 83
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... I 5.5 Atomistic interpretation ....................................................................................... 85
1.1 Discussion about limits .......................................................................................... 3 5.6 Derivation of the Klein-Gordon equation ............................................................ 87
1.2 Wireless telephones ............................................................................................... 5 5.7 Derivation of the time dependent SchrOdinger equation ..................................... 89
1.3 Absorption of waves .............................................................................................. 7 5.8 Derivation of the time independent Schrodinger equation .................................. 91
1.4 Overlap effect ........................................................................................................ 9 5.9 . o f the sc hro••ct•mger equat'10n ........................................................ .. 93
Interpretation

2. Tasks ................................................................................................................... 1 I 6. Theory of objectivity ......................................................................................... 95

2.J Tasks of the electromagnetic environmental compatibility ................................. 11 6. 1 Proof .................................................................................................................... 95
2.2 Tasks of the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ............................................. 13 6.2 Law of conservation of energy ............................................................................ 97
2.3 Declaration of conformity ................................................................................... 15 6.3 Radius of the electron .................................. ........................................................ 99
2.4 EMC-techniques to measure the emission of interference .................................. 17 6.4 Maxwell 's field equations ................................................................................. 10 I
2.5 Electro smog ........................................................................................................ 19 6.5 Transformation equations .................................................................................. 103
2.6 EMC-techniques to measure the stability against interference ............................ 21 6.6 Field overlap ...................................................................................................... I 05
2.7 Tasks of the biological compatibility .................................................................. 23 6.7 Field dependent curvature of space ................................................................... 107
2.8 Natural fields ....................................................................................................... 25 6.8 Electromagnetic interaction ............................................................................... 109
2.9 Electricity of the air ............................................................................................. 27 6.9 Gravitation ......................................................................................................... 11 1
2. 10 Biological effects ................................................................................................. 29 6.10 Field dependent speed of light ........................................................................... 113

~;i~:~;'Z~~, ,i:,:•··••·••••·••••••••·····••·•·•····•••••···•.•·.··········••·•••••·••••••••••• ::;

2. 11 Artificia l fields ..................................................................................................... 33 6.11
2.12 Protection against artificial fields ........................................................................ 35 6.12
2. 13 Unsolved tasks ..................................................................................................... 37 6.13
6.14 Interpretation of the measured faster than light speed ....................................... 121
3. Appr oach ............................................................................................................ 39 6.15 Definition of the speed o r light .......................................................................... 123

~;~~~~~~1:~i~~b!.~~·t·i·~·i·~·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: !;~
3. 1 Principle of causality ........................................................................................... 41 6.16
3.2 Field-theoretical approach ................................................................................... 43 6.17
3.3 Duality ................................................................................................................. 45 6.18 Transformation table .......................................................................................... 129
3.4 Flow vortices ....................................................................................................... 47 6.19 Interpretation of the transformation table .......................................................... 131
3.5 Rankine vortex ..................................................................................................... 49 6.20 Particle decay ..................................................................................................... 133
3.6 Vortices and anti-vortices .................................................................................... 5 1

[§~~::f=~,: : : : : : : : : : : ::::::
7.
4. Properties ........................................................................................................... 53 7. 1
4. 1 Concentration effect ............................................................................................ 53 7.2
4.2 Duality of the vortex properties ........................................................................... 55 7.3
4.3
4.4
Derivation of the electron as an elementary vortex ............................................. 57
Quanta as field vortices ....................................................................................... 59
7.4 :•::::::::::::::•:)::::::::::::•::::::::m1
7.5
4.5 The photon ........................................................................................................... 61 7.6 Calculation of the vortex fields ......................................................................... 147
4.6 Pair creation ......................................................................................................... 63 7.7 Calculation of the proton ................................................................................... 149
4.7 Noise .................................................................................................................... 65 7.8 Strong interaction .............................................................................................. 151
4.8 Condenser losses .................................................................................................. 67 7.9 Magnetic moment of the proton ........................................................................ 151
4.9 Vortex lines and vortex streets ................... ......................................................... 69
 - VI - - VII -

Page Page
7.10 Structure of t11e neutron ..................................................................................... 153
7.11 Calculation of the neutron ................................................................................. 155 Part 2, edition belonging to the energy technical seminar ....................................... 219
7. 12 P-decay .............................................................................................................. 157
7. 13 "Weak interaction" ............................................................................................. 159
7.14 Tau particle ........................................................................................................ 161 10.0 Preface to the semiJrnr, part 2 ............................................................................ 220
7. 15 Pions .................................................................................................................. 163 10. Oscillating interaction ..........•.......................................................................... 221
7.16 Table of vortices of the Mesons ........................................................................ 165 10.1 Kepler's laws ..................................................................................................... 221
7. 17 Table ofvortices of the Baryons ........................................................................ 167 10.2 Unknown interaction ......................................................................................... 223
10.3 Harmony of the alternating current engineers ................................................... 225
8. Unified theory .................................................................................................. 169 10.4 F'our fundamental interactions ........................................................................... 227
8.1 Structure of the fi eld theory ............................................................................... 171 10.5 Resonating interaction ....................................................................................... 229
8.2 Unification of the interactions ........................................................................... 173
8.3 Temperature ....................................................................................................... 175 11. The growing globe ........................................................................................... 231
8.4 Heat .................................................................................................................... J77 11.1 Long-distance effect of the neutrinos ................................................................ 23 1
8.5 Sound ................................................................................................................. 179 11.2 Model of expansion ........................................................................................... 233
8.6 Basic principle o f cybernetics ............................................................................ 181 11.3 Ancient Egyptian legend of Genesis ................................................................. 235
8.7 Structure o f adaptive regulatory circuits ........................................................... 183 11.4 fnncr structure of the earth ................................................................................ 237
8.8 Information ........................................................................................................ 185 1 1.5 Earth's core as a converter of neutrinos ............................................................ 239
8.9 Philosophy of nature .. ......... ... ..... ....... .. ....... .... .. ........ ... ........ .. .. ....... ....... .. .. ... ... .. 187 11.6 Speed o r growth ................................................................................................. 24 1
11.7 Conservation of ang ular momentum ................................................................. 243
9. Usage ................................................................................................................. 189 11.8 Scl of diffi culties concerning the change of magnetization ............................... 245
9. 1 Longitudinal electromagnetic waves ................................................................. 19 1 11.9 T he weakly damped moon ................................................................................. 247
9.2 Medical technical usage ..................................................................................... 193 11.10 Calculation of celestial mechanics ..................................................................... 249
9.3 Flying objects .................................................................................................... J 95 11.11 The biblical age ................................................................................................. 251
9.4 Electro gravitation? ........................................................................................... 197
9.5 Free energy? ...................................................................................................... 199 12. New cosmology ................................................................................................. 253
9.6 Nerve conduction and action potential .............................................................. 20 J 12.1 Concerning the fonn ation of our solar system .................................................. 253
9.7 Wireless energy transmission technology ......................................................... 203 12.2 T he birth of the planets ...................................................................................... 255
9.8 M easuring and switch ing technique of Nikola Tesla ........................................ 205 12.3 The derivation of the T itius-Bode law ............................................................... 257
9.9 Energy technical usage ...................................................................................... 207 12.4 T he ho llow planet .............................................................................................. 259
9. 10 Environmental compatibility ............................................................................. 209 12.5 Concerning the formation of the universe ......................................................... 261
9. 11 Ecologically fa ir usage ...................................................................................... 2 11 12.6 Counter examples concerning the 2nd law of thermodynamics ........................ 263
9. 12 Claims concerning the environmental compatibility ......................................... 213 12.7 Entropy destroying potential vortices ................................................................ 265
9.13 E pilogue belonging to the lecture (part 1) ..................................................... 2 15
Abstract belongi ng to scalar waves, part l ........................................................ 218 13. Recording of space and time ........................................................................... 267
13.1 The measuring technical debacle ....................................................................... 269
13.2 The clock paradox ............................................................................................. 271
13.3 The Tamarack mines experiment ...................................................................... 273
13.4 F ie ld dependent linear measure ......................................................................... 275
13.5 Experiences from space travel ........................................................................... 277
13.6 Spherical aberration ........................................................................................... 279
13.7 Step by step understanding of the measuring technique .................................... 28 1
13.8 Discussion of the cosmological insights ............................................................ 283

14. T he way towards free energy ......................................................................... 285

14.1 The liberalization of the energy markets ........................................................... 285
 - VIII - - IX -

Page Page
14.2 The consequences of the liberalization .............................................................. 287 17.8 Materialization of neutrinos ............................................................................... 365
14.3 The chances of the wind energy ........................................................................ 289 17.9 Oscillation of size and luminescence ................................................................. 367
14.4 The chances of being self-s ufficient concerning energy ................................... 289 17.10 Phosphorescence and so no luminescence ........................................................... 369
14.5 The space energy technology ofnan1re ............................................................. 291 17.11 Discussion concerning the use of the weak interaction ..................................... 371
14.6 The gap in the energy balance of man ............................................................... 293
14.7 Carl Freiherr von Reichenbach ................ .......................................................... 293 18. Physical phenomena ........................................................................................ 373
14.8 Cold fu sion and Genesis .................................................................................... 295 18.1 Water as a catalytic converter for neutrinos ...................................................... 373
14.9 Photosynthesis ................................................................................................... 297 18.2 Background and zero point radiation ................................................................ 375
14.10 How nature materializes ..................................................................................... 299 18.3 The Casimir effect ............................................................................................. 377
14.1 1 Lightning ........................................................................................................... 301 18.4 Effects under high tension ................................................................................. 379
14.12 Ball-l ightning ..................................................................................................... 303 18.5 Flying discs ........................................................................................................ 38 1
14.13 Discussion concerning the neutrino conve rsion ................................................ 305 18.6 Propulsion wi th neutrinos .................................................................................. 383
18.7 Antigravitation or levitation .............................................................................. 385
15. Principle of funtioning of space energy ......................................................... 307 18.8 Discussion concerning the effect of closed field lines ....................................... 387
15.1 The course of the field lines .............................................................................. 307 18.9 Concerning the detem1ination of the stand of today's energy technique .......... 389
15.2 Gravitation ......................................................................................................... 309
15.3 Systematizing the interactions ........................................................................... 3 11 19. Own experiments ............................................................................................. 391
15.4 Magnetic force converter .......................... ......................................................... 3 13 19. 1 Concerning the rating of experimental physics ................................................. 391
15.5 The railgun ......................................................................................................... 315 19.2 The charge amplifier from the workshop of handicrafts ................................... 393
15.6 Unipolar induction .................................... ......................................................... 317 19.3 interpretation of the observations with the ch arge amplifier ............................. 395
15.7 Tendency to instability ...................................................................................... 3 19 19.4 High-tension experiments in the laboratory for performance electronics ......... 397
15.8 Unipolar field configuration .............................................................................. 321 19.5 Measurement of dielectr ic capacitor losses in the HF laboratory ...................... 399
15.9 T he Testatika ..................................................................................................... 323 19.6 Analysis o f the measured capacitor losses ......................................................... 401
15.10 The secret of the Testatika ................................................................................. 325 19.7 Mic rowave oven for testing in the laboratory of electrical engineering ............ 40 I
15.11 The key to free energy .............................. ......................................................... 327 19.8 Microwave heating by decay of vortices ........................................................... 403
19.9 The Tesla coil from the workshop of handicrafts .............................................. 405
16. Space energy technology (SET) ...................................................................... 329 19.10 Biological effectiveness of the Tesla coil .......................................................... 407
16. 1 The unipolar generator ...................................................................................... 329 19.1 1 Wrestling for measuring technical insight in the Transfer Centre ..................... 409
16.2 Derivation of Maxwell 's field equations ........................................................... 33 1 19.12 NeL1trinolysis, the alternative splitting of water ................................................. 4 11
16.3 SET-devices with rotating magnetic fields ........................................................ 333
16.4 Commentary concerning magnetic SET-devices ............................................... 335 20. C osmic experiments ......................................................................................... 413
16.5 RQM and the space quanta manipulator ............................................................ 337 20.I Millions of voluntary test subjects at I I August 1999 ...................................... 413
16.6 SET-devices w ith pulsed magnetic fields .......................................................... 339 20.2 Model of calculation for the cosmic experiment ............................................... 415
16.7 SET-devices with Mobius winding ................................................................... 341 20.3 Physical technical consequences ....................................................................... 41 7
16.8 Mobius converter ofSeike and Coler ................................................................ 343 20.4 13iolog ical consequences .................................................................................... 419
16.9 Tesla's fl at coil .................................................................................................. 345 20.5 Epilogue to 11 August 1999 .............................................................................. 42 1
16.10 The secret of the flat coil ................................................................................... 347 20.6 Dropping of the neutrino radiation .................................................................... 423
16. 11 Discussion concerning the technology of the neutrino collectors ..................... 349 20.7 Analysis and comparison of the occurrences ..................................................... 425
20.8 Radioactive decontamination with the help of a supernova .............................. 427
17. Technical use of the weak interaction ............................................................ 351 20.9 Free energy from the Orion constellation .......................................................... 429
17.I Radioactivity caused by neutrinos ..................................................................... 351 20. 10 Tnteraction of the neutrinos w ith the core of the earth ....................................... 431
17.2 Nikola Tesla, the discoverer of the neutrino radiation ...................................... 353 20.11 Changing of polarity and apocalypse ................................................................ 433
17.3 Trans mutation and reduction of radioactivity ................................................... 355 20. 12 Scalar wave gauges for the prediction of earthquakes ...................................... 435
17.4 The Patterson Power Cell .................................................................................. 357 20.13 Calculation of future occurrences ...................................................................... 437
17.5 Report concerning the cold fusion ..................................................................... 359 20.14 Epilogue belonging to the energy technical seminar (part 2) ...................... 439
17.6 Water-Fuel-Cell technology .............................................................................. 361 Abstract belonging to scalar waves, part 2 ........................................................ 442
17.7 Unconventional electrolysis .............................................................................. 363
 - XI -
-x -
Page
Page
24.3 Systems w ith negative feedback ........................................................................ 507
24.3. l The homeopathy ................................................................................................ 507
Part 3, edition belonging to the information technical seminar ............................... 443
24.3.2 The bioresonan ce ............................................................................................... 507
24.3.3 The frequency therapy ....................................................................................... 509
24.4 The Zapper .................................................................................... ..................... 511
21.0 Prefaces to the seminar, part 3 ........................................................................... 444
24.5 Discussion concerning the medicine of oscillation ........................................... 513
21. Derivation of the scalar wave ................•...........•...•..............•......................... 447
21. 1 Lord Kelvin in a delicate mission ...................................................................... 449 Contributions to the discussion concerning the information technical use 515
25.
21.2 Helmho ltzian ring-like vortices in the aether .................................................... 451 Window of the sensuous perception .................................................................. 515
25. 1
21.3 Taking apart of the wave equation .................................................................... 453 The sense organs (nose, eye, tongue) ................................................................ 5 17
25.2
21.4 Derivation of the scalar wave equation ............................................................. 455 The nerve conduction ........................................................................................ 519
25.3
21.5 Derivation of a plasma wave ............................................................................. 457 The brain, a scalar wave computer .................................................................... 52 1
25.4
21.6 M istakes of the HF technology .......................................................................... 459 Concerning signal engineering .......................................................................... 523
25.5
21.7 Coupling of the wave parts ................................................................................ 461 Stability against interference and repair mechanisms ....................................... 525
25.6
21.8 Set of difficulties of the near-field ..................................................................... 463 The microwave window ..................................................................................... 527
25.7
2 1.9 Transition to the far-fie ld ................................................................................... 465 Discussion concerning scalar wave medicine .................................................... 529
25.8
21.10 Scalar wave model ............................................................................................. 467
21.11 Double-frequent oscillation of size .................................................................... 469 Recapitula tion from the viewpoint of textbook physics ............................... 531
26.
2 1.1 2 Electric and magnetic scalar wave ..................................................................... 4 71 Common misinterpretation of the antenna losses .............................................. 531
26. 1
26.2 Wave damping by field vortices ........................................................................ 533
22. Properties of scalar waves ............................................................................... 473 Laplace versus Maxwell .................................................................................... 535
26.3
22. 1 Wave-particle compromise ................................................................................ 473 Error term in the wave equatio n ........................................................................ 537
26.4
22.2 Concerning the measurement of light ................................................................ 475 Interim result ..................................................................................................... 539
26.5
22.3 Comparison o f thc parts of Tesla and Hertz ...................................................... 477 Failure of the Maxwell theory ........................................................................... 54 1
26.6
22.4 Noise, a scalar wave phenomenon ..................................................................... 479 Concerning the evidence situation ..................................................................... 543
26.7
22.5 Neutrino radiation .............................................................................................. 481
22.6 Parallel instead of serial image transmission ..................................................... 483 Faraday versus Maxwell ................................................................................. 545
27.
22.7 Comparison of the properties ............................................................................ 485 Energy out of the field ....................................................................................... 545
27.1
27.2 Vortex and anti-vortex ....................................................................................... 547
23. Research of sca lar waves ................................................................................. 487 Vortices in the microcosm and macrocosm ....................................................... 549
27.3
23.1 Frequency diagram ............................................................................................ 487 Faraday's law and Maxwell 's fonnu lation ........................................................ 551
27.4
23.2 The reverse of the HF medal ............................................................................. 489 The discovery of Faraday .................................................................................. 553
27.5
23.3 Radiesthesia ....................................................................................................... 491 Different formu lation of the law of induction ................................................... 555
27.6
23.4 Prediction of earthquakes with the help of scalar waves ................................... 493 Contradicto1y opinions in textbooks .................................................................. 557
27.7
23.5 Searching water with the help of scalar waves .................................................. 495 The field-theoretical approach ........................................................................... 559
27.8
23.6 Receiving scalar waves with the Lecher antenna .............................................. 497 Derivation of Maxwell 's fiel d equations ........................................................... 559
27.9
23.7 Assignment according to wavelength ................................................................ 499
27. 10 Derivation of the potential vortices ................................................................... 563
27. 11 Derivation of the ,,fundamental field equation" ................................................ 565
24. Medicine of oscillation ···················································································- 50 t 27.12 The Maxwell field as a derived special case ..................................................... 567
24.J Mediation of information with the help of scalar waves ................................... 50 t
27. 13 Derivation of the wave equation ........................................................................ 569
24.2 Systems with positive feedback ......................................................................... 503
27. 14 The new field approach in synopsis .................................................................. 57 1

Jj ~;~1~· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • l!l
24.2.1
24.2.2 Objectivity versus relativity ........................................................................... 573
28.
24.2.3 The question concerning the aether ................................................................... 573
28.1
24.2.4 Vortices, an overlap of the overlap .................................................................... 575
28.2
24.2.5 Field overlap ...................................................................................................... 577
28.3
24.2.6 Meditation and self-therapy ............................................................................... 505
 - XII - 1

Page 1. Introduction
28.4 The derivation of the length contraction ........................................................... 579 Here the extremely controvers ially discussed question of the environmental compatibility
28.5 The dependence of the Lorentz contraction on the field ................................... 58 1 of electromagnetic fields will be persuaded. Limits should inform what is incompatible
28.6 Boscovich and the respiration of the Earth ........................................................ 583 and what is compatible. But there are as many limits as there arc commissions and
28.7 Derivation of the gravitation ................................... .......................................... 585 s pecialists. And besides that differ the results from each other for several powers of ten. In
28.8 From subjectivity to objectivity ......................................................................... 587 course of time the legitimate doubts become unmistakable and the representatives of
28.9 The obj ective standpoint .................................................................................... 589 science slowly get to feel the burden of proof.
For the sake of efficiency, the actual discussion concerning the theme of electro-smog is
29 Mathenrntical gleanings .................................................................................. 591 analysed and the necessity to involve an until now unn oticed fi eld phenomenon in the
29.I General and special theory of relativ ity ............................................................. 591 discussion about limits is derived: It concerns vortices of the electric fi eld. T hese potential
29.2 Transformation table .......................................................................................... 593 vortices, as they are called , have the corresponding properties to show biological e ffects
29.3 Discussion concern ing the root of Lorentz ........................................................ 595 even at the lowest field strengths. In any case it is not possible to exclude that at present
29.4 Mathematica l derivation of the neutTino ........................................................... 597 the wrong physical phenomena are measured and made responsible.
29.5 Universal constants and constants of nature ...................................................... 599
29.6 The fundamenta l number e ............................................................................... 60 I A parable should bring clarity.
29.7 The pentacle ............................. .......................................................................... 603 Lets imagi ne that the to us well-known and over our sense of touch understandable
29.8 T he vortex, which is ro lling up .......................................................................... 605 physical phenomenon of the temperature is unknown lo us, neither measurable nor
29.9 The Golden Prop011ion ...................................................................................... 607 p erceptible. Our weather station only ex ists of a barometer that could show us the air
pressure and deliver us ind ications if good or bad weather is to be feared.
30. Scalar wave technology in antiquity .............................................................. 609 We ready rea lize that there exists a connection between the air pressure and our health and
30. l Thesis ................................................................................................................. 609 make the to us well-known phenomenon responsible. When the pointer points to good
30.2 Prerequisites ...................................................................................................... 61 1 weather we can go out lightly dressed. With bad weather we should take a coat, so we
30.3 Approach ........................................................................................................... 6 13 know from experience.
30.4 Circumstantial evidence .................................................................................... 615 Now we imagine the realistic situation that in w inter we have a weather situation of high
30.5 Rad io technical concepts ................................................................................... 6 17 pressure but it's stone-cold outside. The weather station will display h igh temperatures
30.6 Wireless teleg raphy ........................................................................................ .. 619 w ith the result that some people wi ll wa lk around with short-sleeved and open shirt, on ly
30.7 AM temple teclmology ...................................................................................... 62 l to lie in bed with a cold in the evening . Of course the air pressure was to blame! Log ically
30.8 Modulation of acoustic s ignals .......................................................................... 623 the "pressure sens itive", as they are called mocking, demand the limits for the a llowed
30.9 Broadband FM broadcasting technology ........................................................... 625 pressure to be reduced so far that no consequences for health are to be feared.
Concerning tl1e theme of allowed limits, science is asked and science proceeds in a
30.10 Epilogue ............................................................................................................. 627 systematic way: the pressure is investigated in the laboratory, isolated from all other
Contacting address and information .................................................................. 634 parameters and so it is discovered that man catches no cold even at a substantially higher
air pressure, so there is no reason to alter tl1e limits.
Table of formula symbols ................................................................................ 635 Actually we would expect these at any time reproducible results to have a calm ing effect
References ......................................................................................................... 636 on the minds of the participants of the discussion and on the population. lnstead the
A: Publ~cat~ons concerning the theory of objectivity (primary literature) ............. 637 pressure sensitives time and again cite new knowledge that won't fit in the scheme. So is
B: Publications about the theory of objectivity (secondary literature) ................... 641 for instance stated that draught causes the same health problems althoug h this pseudo
C: Literature concerning physics in general ........................................................... 643 effect has nothing at all to do with the air pressure. So owing to incomprehensibility and
D: Literature concerning geophysics, geology, geography and astronomy ............ 644 emotions the discussion about limits becomes a farce.
E: Literature concerning the EMC and biological compatibility ......................... . 644 The fact that sensitive people react to effects of air electricity and possibly get ill without
F: Literature concerning Tesla and criticism of textbook physics ......................... 644 proof that some today measurable physical quantities are responsible should make us
G: Literature concerning free energy ..................................................................... 645 think. It is little calming watch ing our scientists poking at the dense fog whereas at the
H: Literature concerning med icine, biology and chemistry .................................... 646 same time among the runners of the new telecommunication networks there spreads
J: Literature concerning history and more peripheral subjects ............................. 646 something like a gold-digger mood.
To introduce a new technology is not difficult, but lo abolish it for reasons of the
Appendix .......................................................................................................... 647
electromagnetic environmental compat ibil ity is alm ost impossible !
 2 Discussion about limits Introduction 3

[V/m]
1.1 Discussion about limits
105
104
1
Whoever follows the public discussions concerning electro smog always sees tvvo arguing
103 parties, whose standpoints lie so far apart that they inevitably talk at cross purposes and
there can be found no consensus.
102

10
On ont: side the "affected" find together who maintain to have found the electromagnetic
radiation as the damaging cause for their problems. They are to be taken serious, even
when only their personal sensitivity serves as means of measurement and proof and a more
or less distinct sensitivity against electromagnetic phenomena. This group occasionally
10· 1
finds support of homeopaths who can base on reproducible laboratory results that lit as
10·2 few into the view of life of science as the empirical statements of affected and possibly
hurt people.
10·3 On the other side stand the representatives of the energy-supply companies and the runners
10·4 of radio networks who argue with the needs of our modem industrial society and give
"limits" prescribed to them by scientists. These, for their part, proceed according to strictly
static ELF scientific methods. Their presented results are reproducible and there's no doubt about
static ELF LF HF them.
0 Hz (1 Hz - 0 Hz (1 Hz - (1 kHz- (1 MHz- The limits after all are fixed far below those that are recommended from a scientific
100 Hz) 100 Hz) 10 kHz) 10 MHz) viewpoint. Nevertheless both groups are separated from consensus by powers of ten.
magnetic field electric field alternating elec- When we want to know how deep the ditch is we want to bridge, we should take a look at
(Gauss= 10-4 T] [V/m] tromagn etic field the determined li mits (Fig. 1.1).

The limits stem from the IRPA (International Radiation Protection Association) an organ
Fig. 1.1: Discussion about limits of the World Health Organization that in tum has appointed the INlRC (International Non

•
~
Limits for professional exposition (electronics engineers) and
Limits for non-professional exposition (population in general)
according to the Recommendation of IRPA/INIRC <ii>.
Ionizing Radiation Committee). These now state to have used all available scientific
research results as basis for the g iven guidelines.
Moreover a safety range was worked into them. So the limits were fixed at substantially
lower levels to guarantee that no health damage arises. In th is way first the limits were
determined for the people who for reasons of profession are exposed to electromagnetic
D Limits according to VDE 0848 / 1989 fields.
D Limits according to VDE 0 848 / 1992 For the population in general the limits for the so called non-professional exposition were
reduced further to one half till one ft flh for reasons of caution and care. In Fig. I. I these
lin1its are registered. Thereby is distinguished between magnetic fields and electric fields
© experimen tally determined threshold values of reactions of that appear stationary or at extremely low frequencies (ELF describes frequencies between
biological systems <i>:
I Hz and 100 Hz). Moreover limits for low-frequency (1 - 10 kHz) and high-frequency (1-
1 Increase of the activity of movement of birds 10 MHz) alternating electromagnetic fields are given.
2 deflection of divining-rods The graph should serve as a rough orientation and show us the proportion of scale. As
3 influence on the time of reaction of men further information some thresholds of measured reactions of biological systems are
4 conditional reflexes of fish without e lectrical organs registered (after Konig<i>). Because a logaritlunic scale was chosen to fit all the values on
one graph it becomes clear that between the first reactions and the recommended limits
5 conditional reflexes of fish with electrical organs
there lie up to live powers often. The ditch seems to be insurmountable.
6 conditional muscular reflexes of men

taken from:
<i>: H. L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (Wetterfuhligk.), 5. Aull., Bild 1 11, S. 123
Verlag Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7
<ii>: Habiger u.a., EMV, Verlag Technik, Berlin 1992, S. 152
 4 Wireless telephones In troduction 5

1.2 Wireless telephones

Measuring technical surveys with regard to the influence of brain currents by digital radio
signals by the university hospita l in L ubeck have startled handy manufacturers and users
equally <i>_ Although in this case measurement errors could be detected, the ,,bugaboo on
the wall" remains that we are sitting unsuspecting in a restaurant and a neighbour draws
his handy out of his pocket to make a digital telephone call. Thereby synclu·onizing the
brain currents within a radius of 100 meters on the broadcasting signal and occupying our
brain useless with technical signals. The derivation will show that from the start this can' t
happen to all v isitors, because as a prerequisite conditions of resonance must be fulfilled.
But would there be an affected, he or she for sure would have considerable problems,
because informations that are not picked up over the sense organs can neither be classified
timely nor as regards content.
An atlected whose brain has picked up technical signals not even is able to register by
itself that it was fed with incorrect informations. It would be reasonable when the visitors
of the restaurant would defend themselves and put the radio operator on the doorstep. The
number of restaurants where apart from cats and dogs also handy' s have to stay outside is
increasing. How should we keep out of the way of electromagnetic fields? Should we walk
around permanently with a steel helmet or even better in a knight' s annour and even go to
bed with them? It would be worse than in the dark middle ages.

Summarizi ng: it should be guaranteed that the operation of electro technical apparatus
causes neither health damage nor unintentional influence or irritation. A systematic and
scientific procedure should investigate in the laboratory all relevant physical phenomena
individually for their interaction. Electro physics bases on two phenomena in connexion
with electro-smog: on the one hand the radiation and on the other hand the thermal effect,
but at a close look both factors prove to be of only little importance!
In rad iation measurements the intensity of the electromagnetic wave at a certain place is
determined. In laboratory experiments the field strength is increased so long till biological
reactions are observed. Thennal limits are determined in a similar way. As said, the values
lie about powers of ten above those that possibly bother you when you hold a handy to
your ear. It is true that the microwave radiation penetrates into your head but we also
know that it marches out again on the other side and th is visit in your head happens with
the speed of light.
Exactly like this are guest in your body constantly your local radio station, your local
television station the satellites with hundreds of programs and anyway the whole radio
technical world even when you d id not invite them.
For an electromagnetic wave to become receivable, the field strength must lie clearly
above the common noise signal and this can only be achieved by a pennanent overlap, by
standing waves, like in a cavity tuned to a specific frequency or an antenna. As long as
Fig. 1.2: Set of problems of environmental com pa tibility by people don't let themselves grow antennas on their heads they hardly have to fear direct
biological effects of electromagnetic waves.
m eans of t h e example of the h andheld wir eles s That leaves as the second phenomenon the thermal effect. With a handy held lo your
telephones (handy). cheek there comes into being a local fever in your head. But that is not at all unusual or
un11atural for the human body. Something like that happens to a far greater degree when
you take a hot foot bath or let yourself be irradiated at one side from the sun at a tourist
grill.
<i>: L.v.Klitzing: Neurophysiologische Einflu sse durch elektromagnetische F elder
wiihrend u n d nach der Exposition, Med. Universitat zu Lubeck
 6 Absorp tion of waves Intrnduction 7

1.3 Absorption of waves

Power of waves:
T he with the theme dealing physicians logically have to put up with criticism that they
irradiated s tored radiated work only with two phenomena that not at all can be involved authoritative in the causes
fo r biological effects. A third factor can be cons idered, a field phenomenon until now
(absorbed) stayed unnoticed by science: the vortex of the electric field, the so called potential vortex.
A vortex is lo be considered as an oscillation around a fixed point. TIU"ough that a
permanent overlap is caused, like what happens at an antenna only that the vortex is not
bound to the dimension of an antenna. The potential vortex is contracting and in this way
reaches extremely high energy densities at very little spatial measurement, densities that
~p -------<~Pa
lie far above those that field strength measurements are pretending to us (A 1ri>.

When again you take the handy at hand with which you ,,blow" the pulsed microwaves
into your head. Don't worry, because with the speed o f light and without provable damage
almost everything comes out again on the other side, but only almost everything. A little
local fever: ~s = f (~P) damping of the wave has taken place and your head has absorbed this part of the irradiated
wave (fig. 1.3). Who claims this is already the themial factor actually should realize that
there exists no corresponding term in the wave equation. Here there are found merely two
a bsorbed power: ~p = Pe-Pa dual vortex phenomena as a possible damping term: the eddy current and the potential
vortex. An eddy current damping is ruled out because of the bad conductivity of the head.
effectiven ess: = Pa/Pe
But this favours his dual anti-vortex, the potential vortex [Al r>.
ri
Seen physically the following is taking place in your head: the absorbed waves roll
themselves up to vortices and through that beco1m: lm:alizt:d and overlap themselves
permanently (Fig. I .4b). In the course of time the vortices decay and produce the well-
known eddy losses that lead to the measurable increase in temperature. When reactions or
biological effects arise, simply and solely the vortex can be considered as the poss ible
Fig. 1.3: Damping of waves and ability to absorb of a body cause. T hereby play two points an important role: the number of the generated vort ices
(our head) if we are making a phone call with a and their lifetime that is determined by the time of decay.
handy.
Tn anticipation of the mathematical calculation of the potential vortices it is pointed out
here that these are favoured not only by a low conductivity, but also by a high
dielectricity. Because water has an unusual high dielectricity (Er = 80) and our head
consists predominantly of water doubts in dealing with handy's are reasonable.

a contribution to the theme dielectric losses Also the relaxation time constant representative for the lifetime can be calculated [A2rii>_
We must proceed from tl1e assumption that both the number of the vortices and their
• capacitor lifetime, that is all the at a fixed point in time in our head existing and effective vortices,
can be a cause and therefore have to be con sidered and investigated scientifically.
• high-frequency welding
• microwave oven

<i> : K. Mey!: Potential~bel Band 1 [Al] (only in German),

INDEL Verlag, V1lhngen-Schwenningen 1990, ISBN 3-9802 542-1 -6
<ii>: K. Meyl: Potentialwirbel Band 2 [A2] (out of pr int),
INDEL Verlag, Villingen-Schwenningen 1992, ISBN 3-9802 542-2-4
 8 Overlap effect Introduction 9

1.4 Overlap effect

The graph at the left (Fig. 1.4) should clarify once more that only the in space localized
a ) standin g wave and permanently overlapping field appearances can be considered as a cause for biological
...............,. ....,.... .........
,
.... effects. This can concern an over an antenna standing wave (a) or a vortex (b) which is to
be taken as localized by nature.
magnetic
wave ( A.1, f1 ) \ It would be allowed to in general speak only of a vortex because the standing wave can by
all means be understood as a special case of the vortex. The essential difference is that the
vortex is not bound to the size of a fixed antenna and can contract itself at any time to
achieve in this way a substantial higher energy density. As a result this than will lead to an
increased biological effectiveness.
It should be pointed at a further omission. l n the discussion about limits, without
exception, the absolute field strength of the broadcasting signal is valued and not the type
of modulation. The last mentioned should actually not at all play a role according to the
amplifier prevailing scientific opinion.
Totally different is the case with a vortex that acts damping. Such a vortex shows near it's
for f1
centre a considerable smaller wavelength than more to the outside and through that it has a
big frequency bandwidth [ASt;» It is to be expected that in the extremely broadband
pulsed signals of the digital networks the creation of vortices (or eddies) will be favoured
considerably stronger than in amplitude- or frequency-modulated signals (AM/FMJC-
b ) localized vor tex = nmse network). In connexion with analog modulated radio- or handy-signals until now there
never has been reported of any synchronization of the brain currents with cell-phone-
. .. .. . . . . . . . . .

/q > A.2
. M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......,

., signals from a comparison of the EEG with the broadcasting signal.

electro- '· Interestingly the for EMC-measurements usual stepped broadband antennas have exactly
magnetic
wave (A.1, f1)
f1 < fo
(A.· f = c) \ the construction that certainly would be favourable to the measuring technical registration
of vortex phenomena (Fig. l .4c).
With the dipole antennas of different lengths for different wavelengths there still are
Vortex centre measured waves and not vortices but these measuring techniques is certainly
accommodating to the until now unnoticed and stayed undiscovered vortex phenomenon.
(/c2, fo) So there are some good reasons that the vortex is a dominating influential factor for EMC-
problems.
c) b r oadb an d a nten na for EMC-measurements By means of the example of the handheld wireless telephones can be studied and discussed
with which set of problems the very young discipline of science of the environmental
compatibil ity has to fight in the fut ure. And in which ways there can be found approaches
-- towards a solution of the problem. When the comfortable and trodden out ways of
textbook physics do not lead to the goal than we will have to force our own way through
the jungle of science.
At first we'll have to obtain a short overview of the actual level of research and
knowledge. From the criticism to this we than can derive the tasks of the electromagnetic
environmental compatibility and in particular the unsolved tasks.

~---------- A. 1

Fig. 1.4: Measurement of localized waves and vortices <i>: K. Meyl: Wirbel des elektrischen Feldes, eine neue Storquelle?
EMC Journal 1/95, 6. J, S. 56-59.
 10 Tasks of the electromagnetic environmental compatibility Tasks 11

EC
environmental compatibility 2. Tasks
I
is the ability of a biological/technical system <i>,
2.1 Tasks of the electromagnetic environmental compatibility
I
• to fulfil a certain function (task of operation) The en viromnental compatibility (EC) forms the generalization that includes both the
• under given conditions of u sage electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and the biological compatibility (BC). Besides the
(aspect of compatibility: irradiated interference ra diation) technical and functional goals of an undisturbed functional course it also pursues ethical
• during its life I time of use (aspect of r eliability) and moral goals.
Technology should benefit to humanity and at the same time be in accordance with nature.
s tressing its environment and other systems/objects This goal will not be reached when this technology directly or indirectly is endangering
which exist in it by electromagnetic interferences humanity.
(aspect of compatibility: emitted interference radiation) A direct attack on the health of people poses for instance the military usage of technical
• endangering such systems/ objects (protection of health apparatus or the negligent usage, by pretended ignorance and unsuspicion.
and safety at work) Ts a technology posing a danger to the environment so humanity endangers itself indirectly
• or even threatening them (case of damage). with this teclmology. After all are human beings a product of their environment. We
always should reckon on the environmental sins taking revenge on us sooner or later.

EMC ~~~~1--~~~-Bc
In fig. 2.1 a formal definition is given that in particular concerns the claims for an
(electromagnetic compatibility) (biological compatibility) undisturbed functional course: it concerns the compatibility aspects of unallowed emitted
and irradiated interference radiations, the reliability and quality safety with which a
function and task is fulfilled and finally the questions of the protection of health and the
safety at work.
artificial natural
sources of sources of Moreover fig. 2. 1 provides an overview and the structure of the 2nd chapter. First we' ll
treat the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) that first of all deals with the influence of
interference arti ficial but also natural interference sources on techn ica l apparatus.
After that we'll throw a glance at the appearing fields in nature. The biological
compatibility (BC) deals with the influence on biological systems.
technical device biological systems An especially sensitive area of the envirorm1ental compatibility (EC) than describes the
with a cross- link hi nted influence of artificial interference sources on biological systems
that is popularly described as ,,electro smog".

Regulations of called EMEC know how of The numerous aspects of the environmental compatibility for instance in the areas of
the German Post thirties: radio druids chemistry and biology that certainly arc important, but do not fall in the area of
Office since operator disease magic electromagnetism, can't be treated in the here marked framework.
1992 : today: E-Smog, esoteric
EMC-law<ii> HF-, SW-therapy m edicine
from 1996: diathermy, etc. biology
EU-regulation
Fig. 2.1: Overview concerning environmental compatibility

<i>: E. Habiger: EMV-ubergreifende Aspekte zu benachbarten Problernfeldern

Elektrie 48 (1994), Heft 5/6, Seite 163-161 '
<ii>: EMVG: Gcsetz uber die elektromagnetische Vertraglichkeit von Geraten
Bundesgesetzbla tt Teil I vom 9 .11. 1992, S. 1864 '
 13
Tasks
12 Task s of the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

2.2 Tasks of the electromagnetic compatibility (EM C)

First of all the EMC (electromagnetic compatibility) is concerned with the function of
technical apparatus. Corresponding ly rational and dry sounds the official definition:
"electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) describes the ability of an e lectrical setting-up ( i.e.
of a construction element, of a construction group, of an apparatus or of an installation) to
function in an electromagnetic enviromuent without stressing this environment by
electromagnetic effects in an unallowed fashion".
100 10'
Actually it concerns an old need for protection that sho uld be as old as the usage of electro
9l technical apparatus. But in the begiru1ing no one cared about it. The spark gaps with w hich
... Heinrich Hertz 1888 in Karlsruhe has carried out the first radio technical experiments

t:: - ......
~
. 79
>:::1
~
... were genuine ,,polluters", that would have been detectible at several hundreds of
kilometres distance with modern receivers. For these installations that he had assembled in
the lecture room with his students, today he would hardly get a pennission of operation
69,S >:::1 and the since 1996 required declaration of confonnity he would get not at all.
'-' 70 ' I'
66,0
co 2 c
"'C
• Grenzwer t klasse A Cl
1925, as in Germany the number of radio listeners had exceeded the limit of one million,
.~ 60 57,S 103 5 for the first time a need for protection appears in the certificate of approval for radio
Qi 54.0 c receivers: "The public te legraphs and telephone installations must not be disturbed by the
Cl
QI I II 5 ~
a. radio receiver".
g so Gren z w ertkl as se B
..."' Later on every backside of the good old steam radios there was found the following hint
Cl
c
:l
48,0 2 :s (translated): "This apparatus meets the interference radiation regulations of the German
c
;;; 40 10
2 "'
.:.:.
§
Post Office". So the manufacturers were urged to measure the emission of their apparatus
a. LL. and in particular to screen the HF-oscillators in the superhet-receivers.
..."'
,0
-:;; 30 S ince the fifties, in the VDE-institute EMC-examinations in the present day sense are
.:.:. taken. The main point of the measurements and the by the VDE recommended lim its,
c 2
:l
LL. however is about interferences bound to a circuit. On the supply lines of the network the
20 I o'
prevailing conditions arc reproducible so that standards can be put through (Fig. 2.2).
s 10· 1 2 s 10° 5 2 101 2 102
Fre q uen z i n M Hz -
For measurements of interference radiation maybe the t ime was not ripe enough or the
necessity was not big enough. The usual arg umentation was: what we can' t measure
reproducibly, can not be forbidden and certainly not be put under punishment. Therefore
merely recommendations were issued or impositions weak as wax were made like: "the
interference fie ld strength ... must be so small that an undisturbed reception is guaranteed
as soon as the minimum field strength for utilization exists at the place where the antenna
is mounted"' i>_
Fig. 2 .2: Classes of limits accordin g to VDE 087 1
(since 1- 1-96: VDE 0875)<i> In conunon parlance that means something like: "as long as no one bleats, everything is
allowed". Within a connected industrial area there even existed an officially legitimized
fools freedom. Merely at the fence of the industrial area lim its had to be fulfi lled.

Specially for the line-frequency of the screen one has decided to build a loophole in the
law so that one didn't have to throw the TV sets, that so successfu lly had conquered the
living rooms, out of the window. Of course the flickering screens did interfere exactly as
before but this EMC-interference now was officially approved.
<i >: Anton Kohling: Grundlagen der Funkentstorung in d er Bundesrep u blik
Deutschland, etz Bd. 108 (1987), Heft 10 .
 14 Declaration of conformity Tasks 15

2.3 Declaration of conformity

Tn the EMC times seem to have gone as the standardizers had to fit in with the insuffi-
ciencies of technology. Meanwhile the conditions have turned up. We owe this circum-
stance first of all the EMC-law of 1992 that doesn't name any limits but it states the
EMC-Law political intention to demand from techn ical apparatus and installations an appropriate
stability against interference and at the same time limit the sent out interference.
As a consequence of this law the measurement facilities and measurement processes had
specifications: to be standardized to gel reproducible measurement results that are not influenced by the
electromagnetic environment. That goes so fa r that even the floor covering of a
(basic-, generic- measurement hall is dictated because the conductivity of the fl oor infl uences the degree of
business, ... indus try
product-standards): reflexion. Normally the examinee is situated on a revolving plate that is turned around for

stability against
interference:

against emission
" " 360° during the measurement of the radio interference field strength. Is it however not
possible to turn the cxaminee than the antenna has lo be led around it, thereby again
increasing the dimensions of the measurement hall. The distance to the antenna should be
up to I 0 meters. Moreover it must be possible to move the ante1ma up till a height of 4
meters lo register the influence of the refl exions on the floor.
Moreover there is to plan a reflexion free zone around the measurement track (in elliptical
form) that depends on the reachable damping of reflexions of the used absorber. Used arc
of interference: DIN EN 50081-1 DIN EN 50081-2 pyramids of foam material soaked with carbon and increasing ly tiles of ferrite or
shieldings of wallpaper.
Taken all together for a measurement hall doing j ustice to standards there result
considerable measurements of for instance 18 m length x I 0 m width x 7 m height.
Let's again come to talk about the EMC-law with which only the intention but not the way
test procedure: is fixed. To form the claims catalogue in a way that is fu lfillable in general, some concrete
stability against prescriptions, the so called standards, have to be worked out. This task was transferred to
the European Committee for electro technical standard ization CENELEC, which has
interference: DIN EN 61000-4 established the workgroup TC 110 to at first work out some standards:
and (IEC 1000-4, resp. IEC 801) The basic standards deal independent of product with general questions of the EMC, of
the testing process and of the measurement environment.
against emission DIN EN 550 .. The generic standards likewise deal independent of product with the so called
of interference: DIN EN 60555 fundamental technical standards for apparatus in their dependence of the respective
electromagnetic environment (protected computer room or medical room, environment of
the house, office or industry).
The product standards concern the EMC-standards referring to products (7 product
fami lies I approx. 50 products).
document: In Fig. 2.3 the arduous way through the jungle of paragraphs for a technical apparatus is
EU- declaration of conformity outlined. Correspond ing to the requirements of use, first the relating ES-standards for the
apparatus have to be detenn ined and than have to be measured according to own test
standards based on the fundamental technical standards. When the allowed limits for
stability against interference and for sending out interferences are not exceeded, the EC-
declaration of conformity is handed out. Since 1. 1.96 that declaration is needed when
apparatus are commercialized or - stated more exactly - "put in circulation" and operated.
When still further EC-guidelines are met in the end the CE-hallmark is awarded. Since
Fig. 2.3: The way to EU conformity I. 1.96 only with this hallmark the access to the common market of the EC is possible.
Violations can be punished with fines and if need be with imprisonment. But there are
great national differences in the EC. The Federal Repu blic of Germany with fines of up to
50,000 Euro counts as expensive for criminals.
 16 EMC-techniques to measure the emission of interference Tasks 17

2.4 EMC-techniques to measure the emission of interferen ce

Simulation of network for the measurement of the interference Actually we already can be glad that it came to an europe-wide agreement for the
voltages Usu and Us12. regulation of the EMC-set of problems. But the question if we can be satisfied w ith what
we have reached is still outstanding. A ll too often the lowest common denominator of the
measurable and checkable was sought and not so much the technical possible was taken
into consideration.

The main emphasis is p ut on the measurement of the em1ss1on of interferences.

T raditionally the interferences bound to a circuit are registered in a frequency range up
to 30 MHz. The corresponding wavelengths thereby can c01Tespond with the length of the
supply lines and form standing interference waves. Primarily the spectrum of the
simulation of network
iuterference currents is measured e.g. over a HF-current conve1ter. T hese currents
produce a voltage drop over the interna l resistance of the feedi ng network. Because the
properties of the networks can vary very strong, a standardized end-resistor is required fo r
the measurement of the interference voltage. For this purpose an imitation of the network
is switched between the network and the examinee. This imitation in add ition has the task
to keep away the interference signals that come from the supply ing network with the help
of filter-e lements (Fig. 2.4).
The measurement of the interference radiation, the field-bound interference emission,
lakes p lace between 30 M.Hz and I GHz. For that a free field or an absorber-hall with
little or no reflexions is requ ired. The standardized distances of measurement are 3, l 0 and
' 30 meters. The electric field strength is determ ined w ith d ipole broadband antennas, the
low-pass output of inter- '' magnetic field strength with frame antennas. lt must be possible to both vmy the receiving
' test object
ference voltage antenna between horizontal and vertical polarization and to adjust the receiving ante!Ula in
the height and the position to the test object.
impedance Zn of the simulation of networks for
industry n etworks in th e range of 0.15 to 30 MHz
1 n 5 ~1H
01--~l~~c::::::Jr~~~~~-., ....~-<t-~O
~-~~~~--lc:::::::Jr~~~~--J

50!1

Fig. 2 .4: Simulation of network for the measurement

of interference voltages. <i>

<i>: acc. to Ernst Habiger: EMV, Huthig Buch Verlag Heidelber g ( 1992 )
ISBN 3-7785-2092-X '
 18 Electro Smog Tasks 19

2.5 E lectro-Smog

Typical measurement set up to measure the emission of There is almost no end to the possibilities of variation and one needs already a lot of
interferences bound to a conductor <i> overview and experience to determine the field strength maximum. Nevertheless we have
to ask ourselves if in this way really all emissions of interference are understandable, that
A: shielded link conductor popularly are described as ,,electro smog".
B: bundle of conductors folded like a meander Smog is the combination of the terms Smoke and Fog. It therefore describes a pressure on
C: connection to the reference mass the environment with fog like smoke. When for instance in the case of smog alann all
ME: receiver of interference signal interference sources are switched off, which means all kilns are brought to a stop and all
NNB: Simulation of network automobiles are stopped, than the fog like smoke therefore st ill is not vanished from the
PO: test object air. It just distributes itself and dissolves only very slowly.

The transfer of the smog idea on the electromagnetic interference radiation is bound to fail
because, when the test object is switched off no emission of interference at all is detectable
----- --·- ····· - - --------===--=---- with the usual measurement means. Nevertheless the rainbow-press is tryi ng to enumerate
almost all electromagnetic fie ld phenomena under the tem1 ,,electro smog" without
reference mass with
consideration of the fact that this term is not at all a collection term.
a large surface From the sight of an expert one can on ly speak of smog when something like smog
remains and stays active fu rther after the switching off of an electro technical apparatus. It
B C should be a phenomenon that is not understandable by the standardized measurements of
interference radiation. Such a phenomenon would be e.g. the vortex of the electric field.
However vortices are virtually not measurable in a direct way because they have the
unpleasant property to whirl about arotmd the measurement probe. But they will be
detectable by their eddy losses and in the case of the electric field vortex appear as noise.
Until now the standardizer however haven't planned to investigate the influence of an
apparatus on the noise in the environment. Here we still grope in the dark.
T At least the vortex shows a storing property that would j ustify the use of the idea ,,smog".
> 80 cm
j_ We'll have to investigate the phenomenon.

Fig. 2.5: Measurement set up to measu re the emission of

interferences bound to a condu ctor. <i>

<i>: Ernst Habiger: EMV, Huthig Buch Verlag Heidelberg (1992),

ISBN 3-7785-2092 -X
 20 EMC-techniques to measure the stability against interference Tasks 21

2.6 EMC-techniques to measure the stability against interference

The question is: what kind and what intensity of an electromagnetic interference can an
apparatus cope with without limiting it regarding its technical function.
For that test generators are used and with their help interference signals are produced in
the test obj ect. Fig. 2.6 shows the possibilities o f a symmetrical, of an unsymmetrical and
of an asymmetrical production of interference voltage signals in the power supply lines of
an examinee. Over and above that the testing possibilities and testing methods are
filter input network test object
numerous. In principle the following processes are used:
1. The sim ulation and production of inte rfe rence factors typical for the network like
L harmonic waves on network voltages, overlapping signal voltages, changes of network
50 µH voltage, decrease of network voltage, network interruptions, network unsymmetries and
network frequency changes.
2. The production of both energy-poorer and energy-richer interference impulses like they
PE can form in energy-networks by switching acts or by the effect of lightning (burst).
3. The simulation of the course of events when static electricity discharges.
0,1 µF
4. Low-frequency magnetic field s like those that can form by network frequency operating
50 µH and loading currents or by short-circuit a nd lightning currents in the fom1 of a pulse.
N 5. T he stability against interference against the innuence of an electromagnetic field also
called radio interference firmness. F or this purpose high-frequency generators and
broadband antennas are used to expose the examinee to electromagnetic fields in a
input: frequency range between 10 kHz and 18 GHz. At the moment tests are only performed
between 27 and 500 MHz. The modulation of the carrier wave should be possible to be
symmetrical unsymmetrical asymmetrical able to imitate the interferences by radio technology as realistic as possible. Thereby the
fie ld strength values can by all means reach up to several 100 V/m.
test generator
In accordance with expectation the result of this irradiation with an outs ide field is that
every conduction path and every wire can act as an antenna and therefore can produce
high-frequency currents and meas ura ble potentials. Building parts of the analog techno-
logy as a consequence battle with problems of drift whereas w ith digital logic parts and
computer parts the danger exists that switching states change unintentionally. Let us
remember again the overlap effect of fig. l.4. The electromagnetic wave itself marches
with the s peed of light through the examinec. When a small part of the wave finds an
object that it can use as an antenna than the localized overlap comes into play. This than as
a cause is responsible for the effective and measurable antenna currents. Until here the text
books help us to explain the problems that happen and to remove them logically.
However time and again cases are reported where textbook physics can't help us any
further. Spectacular cases even came to court like e.g. the ABS (Antilock Braking System)
of a truck that had failed due to E MC-interference radiation. As a consequence the brakes
Fig. 2.6: Picking up of interference voltages in network lines. <i> had fa iled. When after that the local radiation pollution is measured no anomaly at all can
be d iscovered. The measurable field strength is not higher as is usual in the whole area.
Maybe you also have made the experience that often the causes can't be found when your
computer suddenly "crashes" out of the blue.
Here the mentioned vortex of the electric field is capable to deliver plausible explanations
because it is not bound to the geometry of an antenna and in addition is highly active
without being detectable with the usual EMC measurement methods of the interference
radiation measurement!
<i >: Ernst Habiger: EMV, Huthig Buch Verlag Heidelberg (1992),
ISBN 3-7785-2092-X
 22 Tasks of the biological compatibility Task s 23

2.7 Tasks of the biological compatibility

The second leg of the enviro1U11ental compatibility (EC) forms the biolog ical compatibility
(BC) besides the electromagnetic environmental compatibility. Whereas the interests of
the EMC are looked after by electrotechnical engineers and electrophysicists, with the BC
also doctors, biologists and architects arc addressed.
[ V/ m j Moreover this leg is already very old and already existed long before artificial interference
105 sources could be created by mankind. The interaction between the arising interference
sources in nature and the biological systems in general and specially men always
interested the doctors, the priests, the druids and geomants, that not seldom looked after
several functions in personal union equally. Unfortunately they as a rule have kept their
knowledge and capabilities as secret knowledge, didn't make any recordings and merely
initiated and trained their respective successors. Through that a great deal got lost and
today non-medical practitioners, homeopaths and esoterics trouble themselves to take up
to the far-reaching buried knowledge.
10 Because this concerns pure knowledge by experience, often the with the topic occupied
persons themselves are not capable to say anything about the physical backgrounds and
causes. One concentrates entirely on the under certain c ircumstances reachable results and
on ly in rare cases on reproducable effects. In some areas the scientific assigrunent already
has succeeded, have parascientific phenomena managed their admission in the so called
"exact sciences", but in most experience disciplines the assignment is still due. There still
® is a lot to do here.

In the time as there not yet were operated any artificial interference sources on our planet,
the senses of man naturally were a whole lot sharper for his electromagnetic environment
as today. Today, where there scarcely is a place on earth where we are not irradiated by
stat.
0 Hz
ELF
(1-lOOHz)
stat.
0 Hz
ELF LF I HF
(1- lOOHz) (1 -lOkHz) (1 - lOMHz)
ten-cstrial transmitters, by satellites or by the netfrequency that is measurable everywhere.
In the bluntness of our senses perhaps the hybris of modem man is founded, with which he
wants to rise himself above esotericism, geomancy and other sciences of experience and
thereby dispute the electric and magnetic fields their biological effectiveness.
magnetic field electric field alternating electro-
[Gauss =lQ-4 T) [V/m J magnetic field The fie lds of natural origin form an electromagnetic environment for men, that they have
adapted to and that they probably need for a life in accordance with nature. The evolution
has taken care for a corresponding adaptation.
Fig. 2.7:
(electric, magnetic and
electromagnetic fields)
D
Intensities of natural electromagnetic fields ln fig. 2.7 in addition to the limits from fig. 1.1 the intensities of natural electromagnetic
fie lds are registered<i>_They lie clearly lower as the recommended limits but exactly in the
area wherein the first reactions of living beings are observable.

When we ask us how much electromagnetism is good for us and how much hanns us so
the obvious answer is: exactly as much radiation as nature dictates in the fluctuations
In addition to fig. 1.1, page 2, between day and night, between the months, years and in the end between the cycles of
magnetic field in Gauss (= 10-4 T), sunspots of 11 years. Here the guide value is found that man and nature have adapted
electric field in V/ m . themselves to. In fig. 2.7 the corresponding area between the natural minimum and
maximum values is given.

<i>: A.S. Presman: Electromagnetic Fields and Life.

Plenum Press, New York - London, 1970
 24 Natural fields Tasks 25

2.8 Natural fields

O ur electromagnetic environment has something to offer:

Irradiation strengths of the field radiation in the biosphere and From the magnetic north pole to the magnetic south pole of the earth run the field lines of
how the optical windows are situated in the atmosphere<i>. the earth's magnetic field that we are exposed to. With a compass we use the vector
character of the magnetic fie ld to fix our position. The induction averaged over time is
approx. 50 µT. But it is overlapped by short-time fluctuations caused by geomagnetic
storms in the ionosphere.
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
:-:·:· :::: ·:·:· ·:·:· ....
These storms again are caused by the eddy cu1Tents and the currents of charged particles
10·16

10
.,. kosmische
Ullrastrahlung
1 XE
lI
u:
:::::: .::::::: :-:·: ;::::: ;:::: ::::::
::::::
:::::::
;:;:: :::: :::::: ::::: .:::::::
:::::;: :;:;: ::;::: :;:: :;::::
that come from the sun. At the same time these eddy currents in the ionosphere together
with the earth's magnetic field form a protective shield with a excellent screening effect
for us in.habitants of earth.
10·12 ::::: :::::: ::::: ::::: :::::: In several layers like for instance the ozone and Heaviside layers a filtering and damping
1::: ::::;: .:::::::
:;::::

:::: ;::::: ::::: :::::::

10·13 Watl/m 2 r until the complete suppression of the very broad cosmic spectrum is caused. This
10· 10 ::::::: ::::=:: :;:;: :::::: :;:;: :;:;:;: 0 extraterrestrial spectrum of radiation doesn't leave a single frequency out and has a lethal
ROnlgen- ~
1::: ::::::: :;:::: :::: ::::: ::::: :=::::: intensi ty for us.
0·8 strahlung "'
.5
1::: :=:::: :::::: :::: :::::: ::::: :::::::
c:
0·E UV-STA,. Licht• :::::: Fenster I -10· 3 Wattlm' 1 eV
"'0
c: Only for a little window in the frequency spectrum, radiation can pass almost undamped,
.5 lnfrarol- 0 as can be seen in fig. 2.8: the light with the spectrum of the colors. For this nature has
1:::: :::::: :=:::: s::;
o·• slrshlung ::::: :::::: ::::;: ::::: =:::;: :::=::: { ::f 10·2
c.. donated man a sense organ so that man can protect himself against too high dose values.
., UKW
1 mm 300
GHz !? :::::: :::::: :::::::
::::;:
:;:::: :::::::
:·:·:·
:::::::i "'
'O

"'
·;;,
Aller all, who will look voluntarily into the sun? We only get into trouble when our sense
organ doesn't function any more (for instance in the fringe range of the visible spectrum,
iii the UV-range).
m- Hoch-
--- 1m 300
MHz Fenster II -10· 9 Wattlm 2 t-i
c:
UJ
lreQuenz- KW
02 --- For other frequencies of electromagnetic radiation man nei ther has a sense organ but that
slrahlung ~"!'!
1 km 300 ;;: :=::=:: ? }: ? :;> doesn't mean that he is not influenced by these. Here, as in the UV-range he only
o• LW kHz :::: ;::: ::::::: :::::: :=::::: =:;::::
:::;:: :;:;:: ::;:;:: :::::: :::::: :;:::::
1 ind irectly notices that he has got too high a dose when he has to d iscover some influences
VLF
06 Langsl - - - - 1o3 km 300 Hz } :x ::::::: ::::::: :::::: ::::::: 1
on his well-being and his health. Without the help of neutral measurement apparatus he
wPlte n·
himself by no means is in a position to make a co1rncction between an excessive
ELF 0 20 40 60 BO 100 ',, exposition to radiation and his health problems.
'
!' s1rahlung
statisch ULJ'10s km 0.3 Hz
Exlink1i0if(Absorpt1on in der Atm osphilre)
When natural field strengths should be used as a measure for teclmical limits, so there
should be paid attention to the fact that nature doesn't know intense continuous
irradiation. The va lues are subject to powerful fluctuations that leave men and nature the
chance to regenerate.
Fig. 2.8: Absorption dependent on frequency in the atmosphere The television stations not even think it is necessary to reduce their broadcasting power
after the end of broadcasts and further sprinkle the sleeping population with test signals,
with senseless pictures of going by underground or nonstop program advertisements.
People need the intermissions. That again shows how good nature means it with us.

<i>: t9:1<en from: H.L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (WetterfUhligk.), 5 . Aufl.,

Bild 8, Se1te 14, Verl. Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164 -058-7
 26 Electricity of the air Tasks 27

2.9 Electricity of the air

Vim in the
case of 1 kHz
The electrostatic field strength of the earth lies between 50 and 500 V /m. That is a whole
bandwidth
lot considering that voltages off 60 Volts can be lethal for man. But a living person
10
9.0 distorts the terrestrial E-field for reason of his own field and his electric conductivity, so
8.0 that there exists no danger for him as long as he doesn't grow into the sky.
7.0
.2! 6.0 Maybe the dinosaurs had to become extinct because they were to big and for instance the
·a; 5.0
l5 I E-field near the ground had risen with a jump by a meteorite that brought a high charge
..
'O
c
(I)
4.0
/
I
I expected average value of
main discharge and
from the cosmos. That would explain w hy the smaller living beings could survive the
N
3.0 I predischarge combined natural disaster.

-
J:
""
·a; /
/
I
,,
I A lso the thumlerstorm electricity can become life-threatening. Burns, heart and brain
J:l 2.0
/
/ ' '-!If failures are the most common consequences. After all the probablility to be struck by
4i /
'
o; 1.5
~
/ "
Average from 9 main
discharges observed at a
mg
....~~""- lightning is four times higher as to have s ix right ones in the lottery.
Over the lightning channel of approx. I meter in diameter charges between 10 and 200 C
Ci
> 1.0
distance of 30 to 50 km
/ "'· are transported what results in current strengths of 2000 up to 200,000 A. T he main
0.90 discharge lasts between 10 and 50 µsec. With the preceding and all the following
0.80
0.70 discharges it lasts over a second.
0.60 Field strengths on the scale of 4,000 V/m are typical but in a distance of 5 km these wear
0.50 off to 8 V/m. The frequency spectrum of a lightning reaches 4 powers of ten into the range
OAO Spectrum of frequency of the radio waves. In fig. 2.9 is shown the field strength measured in a d istance of 1.6 km
predischargc from the place oforigin<i.ii> .
0.30
The origin of lightni11gs is still an unsolved problem after the well-known models (Wilson)
0.20 are not in a position to explain the reason for the origin of the potential difference of more
than 100 million Volts required for the ionization of the air. Also the lightnings that struck
0.15
in the direction of the ionosphere still are mysterious.
We'll have to come back to this<iii>_
0.10 ;-~-~---;t---;--1;---;t-:!-T'±--+::---:+:---:+--,1::--L-1-+-4-..__J,
1,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20 30 40 50 70 100
Frequenz[kHz) -

Fig. 2.9: Spectrum of frequency of one lightning, measured

field s trength at a distance of 1.6 km from the place
of origin. See Watt and Maxwell:<i,ii>

<i>: H.L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (WetterfUhligkeit), 5. Aufl., Bild 38, Seite 27,
Verlag Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7, according to <ii>.
<ii>: A. D. Watt and E. L. Maxwell: Characterisic of Atmospheric Noise from 1 to
from: 100 Kc/s. Symposium on the Propagation of VLF Waves,
<i>: H.L Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (WetterfU.hligk.), 5.Aufl., Bild 38, Seite 27, Boulder, Col., Paper 35, Jan.1957.
Ver!. Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7, see <ii>. <iii>: see Part 1, chapter 5.4 and part 2, chapter 14.11.
 28 Biological effect s Tasks 29

2.10 Biological effects

The in fig. 2.1 indicated connection between the EMC and the BC, by some authors
inofficially described as EMC-environment (EMCE), describes the effect of artificial
Acceleration fields on biological systems. This concerns the sensitive range of tasks that is discussed
Rate [mm/hj extremely controversially in the public. The problem thereby is that the artific ially
produced field strength s lie above the natural field strengths for several scales.
2.0
In the thirties first reports about troubles were provided by navy radio operators that
complained about headache, dizzyness, concentration failure and indisposition. Besides
I ~'\
I these negative reports concerning the so called "radio operator disease" at the same time
I medical usages concerning high-frequency therapy were tested. In the beginning this
1.5 I
"th II
d iather my called healing method still was a short wave irradiation. Today it is extended
WI
into the microwave range and uses the thermal effect of electromagnetic rays. T he
I
I increased temperature of the tissue causes an increased loca l blood fl ow. This supports
I healing processes, loosens cramped muscles and can help in case of rheumatic fever.
1.0 I The advantage of the HF-irradiation compared to contact heat by a hot-water bottle or by
I
I infrared rays is the higher penetration depth. Herein short waves are superior to
I microwaves. But microwaves can be better focussed on a certain part of the body.
I
I l s the temperature further increased, so the tissue is damaged. This is used for the
I treatment of cancer and is called hyper thermy. Because cancer cells as a rule are flowed
0,5 I
I with blood worse than healthy cells, they are more sensitive to heat and therefore are faster
I
I destroyed than healthy cells at a correspondingly increased temperature. In this way for
,I instance in the USA cattle with a so called cancer eye are treated. For that the spot
suffering from cancer is irradiated with 2MHz-waves for 30 seconds with a handheld
0 apparatus of l 0 Watts broadcasti ng power. The rate of succes is given to be 90%!
50 100 150 time ; [h) The method of hyperthermy has not yet been able to establish in the area of the medicine
for humans. Also at our college corresponding research work is carried out in co-operation
with the radio logical cli nic of the university ofFreiburg (Germanyt;>.

The thermal effects of high-frequency fields arc therefore well-known and subject of
scientific research. On the other hand and in spite of numerous publications, non-thermal
effects even today are denied by some scientists as non-existen(ii>_ Here only a few
Fig. 2.lOA: Effect of a static magnetic field of 100 kA/m (0, 12 counter-examples will be listed.
Tesla ) on the root (I) and on the plant (II) of barley
seeds. Fig. 2.10 A shows the effect of a static magnetic lield of 0. 12 Tesla on the root (1) and on
the plant (Tl) of barley seeds. The readable effect is an acceleration of the growth of the
plants in the m agnetic field: dotted line
treated seeds (dotted line) compared to the plants for checking (drawn linetiii>_
plants for checking: drawn line
according to Novitskii<iij>

<i>: H. Schulz, W. Oppitz: Lokale Hyperthermie durch hochfrequente

Wirbelstriime, Medizin Technik 1, 1987 .
<ii>: G. Nimtz: Mikrowellen, Einfuhrung in Theorie und Anwendung. 2. Auil., BI-
Wissenschaftsverlag 1990, ISBN 3-411-03203-0
<ill>: Novitskii, Yu.I.: Effects of a magnetic field on the dry seeds of some cereals.
<iii>: Novitskii, Yu.I.: Effects of a magnetic field on the dry seeds of some cereals.
Proceedings of Conference on the Effect of Magnetic Fields on Biological
Objects, Moscow, p. 52, 1966. Proceedings of Conference on the Effect of Magnetic Fields on Biological
Objects, Moscow, p. 52, 1966; taken from: H.L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt,
T~en from: H.L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (WetterfUhligkeit), 5. Aull.,
fig.72, p . 73, Verlag Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7
Bild 72, S. 73, Verlag Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7
 30 Biological effects Tasks 31

A static field naturally produces no induction and hence no heating will arise. ln the case
of alternating fields the thermal effect in experiments is excluded by working with
extremly low stimulations. The example after fig. 2. 10 B shows the measured increase in
the production (K) ofcolicin by colibacteria at only 0.01 mW/cm2 microwave power<i>_

In add ition the example provides the interesting in formation that obviously only a certain
a b frequency and its hannonic waves increase the production, other frequencies on the other
hand remain inactive. Because only minimal field strengths are used it more likely
concerns an information-technical as an energetic eJTect (curve a). This statement is
4
supported by the observation that an increase of the intensity not at all necessarily as a
consequence also increases the production (curve b). What the colibakteria need is
obviously neither energy nor heat but only a certain frequency that stimulates the colicin
production or the growth.

Should it really be confirmed that biological effects of electric and magnetic fields can be
produced by certain frequencies and can't happen by an energy transition so the
discussions about limits must seem ample meaning less.

Maybe the one or the other in thought already draws a connection to the acceleration, the
accelerated growth of kids, which is observed world-wide and stronger in cities than in the
count1y. lt started for approx. 100 years simultaneous with the electrification of the homes
6,50 6,53 6,56 6,59 0,001 0,01 0,1 1,0 in the towns. In Asia the acceleration and also the electrification have started later.
Other growth stimulating effects like radio waves, X-ray examinations, atomic tests and
wavelength [mm ] - - intensity !mW /cm 2]-- provable also the nourishment with vitamin B6 happened only until much later and at the
most could support the actual effect.

But how should a proof be offered when anyway the field strength not at all can have a
d ecisive influence on the gro·wth of man after the statement of fig. 2. JO B? Which
information is authorative? Where is the responsible frequency window? Does the
information actually manifest as frequency? l s the authorativc influential factor also in this
Fig. 2.10 B: Measured increase in the production (Kl of colicin case not at all noticed and measured?
by colibacteria as a microwave effect
A lot of pressing questions are still outstanding. But in any case the numerous influential
factors detected in experiments do not at all let themse lves reduce to a sole factor, for
a) as a function of the wavelength, instance the nourislunent. for a family doctor it may be comfortable to be able to give an
b) as a function of the intensity of the microwaves, easy explanation: ,,Cause is the nourishment!" With such a reductionism on the other hand
the actual cause stays in the dark and the asked questions in this way won't let themselves
according to Keilmann<i>, be answered.

taken from:
<i > : H. L. Konig: Unsichtbare Umwelt (WetterfUhligkeit), 5 . Aufl., Bild 106, S .
111. Verlag Moos & Partner Munchen, ISBN 3-89164-058-7
 32 Artificial fields Tasks 33

2.11 Artificial fields

The scepticism of people feeling close to nature is especially directed against artificial
fields that man can't see nor hear nor smell. Objects of doubt are fi rst of all the
installations for the creation, distribution and conversion of electric energy.

An essential role plays the fact how close the supplying and the draining conductors are to
each other, so that the respective fields can compensate each other. The worst solution one
can think of is realized at the ele.c trified railway. Here tl1e rails and the earth are used as
the draining conductor for the current while there exists an ample large distance to the
supplying conductor. A compensation is almost impossible thus causing gigantic
interference fields that are detectable even at a distance of I 0 kilometers. The increased
putting on of railway engines feeded by rectified current is likely to aggravate the set of
problems because the non-sinusoidal absorption of cun-ent is strongly afflicted with
harmonic waves.
With high tension transmission lines (fig. 2.1 1) the interference fie ld strength is reduced
when the three cables are suspended with only little distance between them. But even the
selected phase order can play a role. Of course the optimal compensation effect is
guaranteed with cables in the earth. But these are expensive and technically not realizable
for such high voltage levels.

In the eighties also the computer screens got in the headlines. The termina ls are furnished
with a cathode ray tube and have a very broad radiation spectrum that already starts at 0
Hz. Here already static maximum values of64 kV/mare measured<;>!

Frequency range Measured maximum 30 cm in front of

values Emax resp. Hmax the screen

static field (0 Hz) 64kV/m

50 Hz, 60Hz 10 V/m and

0,2 - 1 Alm

SHz-lkHz 1800 V/m and 10 V/m and

4A/m 0,6 Alm
Fig. 2. 1 1: profile of the SO-Hz-field on the ground
50 Hz - 0,5 MHz 1 Alm
at 380k V / l kA in each circuit. <i>
a) electric field, 15 kHz - 220 kHz 50 V/mand 15 V/m and
b) magnetic field . 1,1 Alm 0,17 Alm

3 MHz - 300 MHz < 0,2 V/m

taken from:
Fig. 2. 11: Electromagnetic fields from screens<i>
<i>: E. Habiger u. a.: Elektromagnetische Vertraglichkeit, fig. 7 .3, page 147 and
Fig. 7 .1, page 146, 2 nd Ed., 1992. Berlin, Munchen: Verlag Technik.
 Tasks 35
34 Protection against artificial fields

2.12 Protection against artificial fields

system used frequency measured Artificial fields more or less always occur in the neighbourhood of electric apparatus and
about value installations. Especially problematic are those that work with the free radiation of
electromagnetic fields, that is all the radio broadcasting stations, handheld and radar
radio broadcasting station 600 kHz 2 ... 17 V/ m transmitters.
Herewith it is important that not needed parts of the antennas are shielded, that antennas
(MW20kW) with little close by fie ld pollution are used and that the stand should be situated at least 3
km remote from inhabited areas. For instance at radar installations damping values of I0
radio broadcasting station 15 MHz 1...25 V / m dB and more can be obtained o nly by using a corresponding tree growth.
(SW 100 kW) This obviously concerns a damping of the waves in a dielectric manner. We'll have to
come back to this because textbook physics does not know a corresponding damping term
SOS-transmitter 410 kHz 1...3 V/m in the wave equation.
on a ship (100 W) T he radiation leaking out in case of the high-frequency welding of plastic foils and of the
microwave oven should be minimized.
Epitaxiedevice 4 5 0 kHz 37 .. .400 V/m ln the case of induction ovens or of motors an active shielding often causes problems so
(induction oven) that for simple domestic appliances like a hand mixer and especially for the electric hair-
dryer non proportionally high field strength values are measured. Fig. 2.12 informs about
HF-welting press 27,12 MHz 70 ... 85 V/m it.
Protective measures for the operator are hardly possible. To protect uninvolved people nol
(welding of plastic foils) only the apparan1s but also the rooms and eventually whole parts of buildings had to be
shielded and grounded.
radar on a ship 9,3 GHz 1. .. 30 µW /cm 2
(TRN 311) Sometimes also fairly simple possibilities are helpful like e.g. the usage of a remote
control. By clearing away the cable salat at the workplace and at the sleeping place
induction loops can be removed. Alarm-clocks operated by batteries should have
radar of an airplane 9,2 GHz 450 ... preference over those operated by the network. Mattresses with metal in them and spring-
2800 µW /cm 2 beds which clearly act as an antenna should be avoided. In extreme cases even so called
"current-free switches" and shielded network lines are recommended (fi g. 2. 13).
domestic appliances measured in a distance of 30 cm:
ln the area of the network supply lines a choking coil can help decrease the spreading of
hand mixer high-frequency interference radiation. It is especially important that all the conducting
50 Hz 50V/m
metallic objects like e .g. water pipes, heatings, steel racks, machines, switching racks,
refrigerator 50 Hz 60V/m steel armaments and metallic windows should be grounded properly, because otherwise
extremly high static charges could result instead of a shielding. Construction biologists
recommend to when possible do without metals when building houses and furnishing,
what of course is only realizable with limitation .
Fig. 2.12: the electric field strength resp. Power density
ln any case numerous measures are known that to a lesser extent find their legitimation in
in our en viron ment. <i>
classical physics, but more likely in precaution. As long as we do not know which
phenomenon causes the electrosmog and we don't have a measuring-instrument at our
disposal, precaution is really the only thing we can do irrespective of the effectiveness of
the measures and of the arising costs.

taken from:
<i>: E . Habiger u. a. : Elektromagnetische Vertriiglichkeit, Fig. 7.2, page 146,
2. Ed., 1992, Berlin, Munchen: Verlag Technik, ISBN 3-341-00993-0
 36 Unsolved ta sks Tasks 37

2.13 Unsolved tasks

The report concerning the actual state of research could be continued at will. But the
transmission line expositions should suffice, to understand what are the tasks of the electromagnetic
environmental compatibility (fig. 2. 1) and which questions still have to be supplied with a
used voltages: solution. One can get deeper into every of the addressed points and then d iscover that
10/30/110/220/380kV some questions can be expressed sharper and maybe conceivable answers can be found,
but at the same time and unavoidable the number of new questions increases faster.
Transformer
Let us again take up the example of the handheld wireless telephones (chapter 1.2). At
least it now is clear to us that the usage of the built-in microwave antenna of a handy is
problematic. In the interior of an automobile it never should be used. If, however, one uses
Neutral earthing the antenna installed on the outside on the sheet metal then the damping and screening
( N = PE) ! effect of the sheet metal chassis is advantageous at least for the handy user.
Li underground cable
With that of course the central question is not answered. The question of what the cause is
L2 3 x 400 v for the interfering and at worst health endangering effect of the HF-radiation. Field
L3 to the consumer loads freedom we can' t fin d anywhere on th is world. Possibly we even need the fields. But then
N the question is how much is necessary, how much is healthy and how much makes us il l.
main/use
recommendation: The gap of explanation especially gets clear in the case of the static or of the low-
reactor with current compensation frequency magnetic field: away from technical interference sources normally fields on the
scale of 10 nT are measurable. Construction biologists say that 20 nT, so twice that value,
should not be exceeded at the sleeping place and maybe 50 nT at the desk. These values
Standard(!): grounding of the
however are determ ined purely empirical.
neutral conductor
PE When a person is examined in a nuclear magnetic resonance tomograph that person is
Li to the installation exposed to a field that lies between 0.2 and 1.5 Tesla, that is a value 7 till 8 powers of ten
N of the house higher than before mentioned without this leading to the death of that person. Entirely on
fuse (bedroom) the contrary this method is regarded as especially caring and safe compared to the X-ray
examination.
power supply
( i. e. 12 V DC) Here again the legitimation of the thesis put forward is entirely comfirmed. The thesis that
the well-known physically measurable and controllable phenomena can not be considered
as a cause and that possibly a until now undiscovered field phenomenon should be called
to account.
measurement ofcurrent
Should such a phenomenon exist it should be derived, calculated and proved. We must go
with amplifier
to endless troubles and try everything. The actual difficulties wherein the electromagnetic
(glow lamp)
environmental compatibility is stuck are a challenge.
consumer load
(bedroom)

Fig. 2 .13: About the circuitry and the problems involved

with a "current-free switches" installation
38 Approach Approach 39

3. Approach

In the question, if there exists a still unknown phenomenon that influences the
electromagnetic environmental compatibility, we must fall back far until upon the roots of
fundamental physical our physical understanding. Here we find a fundamental principle that until today is not
principle doubted and that is regarded as elementary: the principle of causality. Every result of a
measurement, every interpretation is checked fo r causality and only after passing this
(God) examination it is accepted and published.
This principle of cause and effect has established, not only in physics but also in many
other disciplines of science. Is an effect observed, so there immediately is asked for the
cause. This principle encounters us in daily life<i>_
When all observable and measurable effects ever can be assigned to a cause without force
and without exceptional regulations then the logical result is a pyramid of causality. On
top a fundamental physical principle is found, that is regarded as given by nature or as
given by god and that with its properties is responsible as the cause for different effects.
effects
These effects again appear as the cause for new effects and so on (Fig. 3.0).
=cau ses Sometime we have removed us so far from the top of the pyramid that a direct reference to
the describable effects can't be made anymore, so the impression could arise that it
effects + effects concerns an isolated and independent discipline. We should take care not to think in such a
= causes + causes monocausal way, because both delimitation and avoidance of interdisciplinary working
methods will inevitably steer us into a dead end.
effects + effects + effects This pyramid of causality stands for the vision of a "unified theoty", like it is demanded
= causes + causes + causes and sought-after by numerous research scientists. But as long as it is not found, we 'll have
to do with unsolved problems of causality. About this any munber of examples can be
effects + effects + effects + effects given.
= causes + causes + causes + causes A physical principle based on the principle of causality is the vortex. This the eddy current
demonstrates us clearly. The cause for its origin is an alternating field. According to
nothing than effects (orderless chaos) Faraday's law of induction this induces a voltage that in a conducting medium results in a
cun-ent according to Ohm's law. Around this current according to Ampere's law an
alternating field forms, that points perpendicular to the current and overlaps the original
alternating field. This induced field first of all is an effect that overlaps the cause and itself
becomes the cause. The effect that follows from that futther overlaps and forms a new
cause etc. In this way vortices form.
Fig. 3.0: pyramid of causality
Vortices quasi represent the principle of CtlUS(l/ity.

<i>: When for instance a woman complains: "Doctor, my left knee hurts" (effect).
vortices are a consequence of the principle of causality The doctor diagnoses the cause: "Yes, that comes with age!" With that
causality is established. "But doctor", says the woman, "my right knee is
exactly as old as my left knee!" And already the doctor has a new problem of
causality.
 40 Principle of causality Approach 41

3.1 Principle of causality

Our physical view of life strictly obeys the rules of causality, the principle of cause and
Principle of Causality: effect. But there are numerous cases, where causality at first could not be fulfilled
anymore. Herc alternate solutions had to be found to not endanger this very successful
principle. A few examples should clarify this:
I. Technically it is impossible to produce a magnetic monopole. When a north pole is
produced then the accompanying south pole is also formed. In the same way only the
positive and negative pole can be assembled as the so called dipole. l n the microcosm
cause effect however we find monopoles. E lectrons are such particles. To restore causality we must

+-
quantum physical grant the microcosm its own laws that are not valid in the macrocosm. But this
a pproach: quanta monocausal hypothesis contradicts the observation that the microcosm represents an
fields image of the macrocosm and vice versa. Doubts if this assertion is allowed are

field-theoretical approach: fields T I

quanta
reasonable.
2. Like charges repel each other and that the more the smaller the distance gets. In an
atomic nucleus positively like charged protons are together at the smallest possible
room without any repuls ion happening. Arithmetically seen all atomic nuclei would
have to explosively fly to pieces. But because th is doesn't happen, shortly a new and
supposedly fundamental interaction, the strong interaction, was introduced to save
causality. Ncve11heless this interaction now holds the like particles in a not explained
violations of the principle of causality: manner together. Causality could be obtained only by the introduction of a new
fund amenta l phenomenon.
3. When causality should ho ld as the supreme principle, it should be demanded with
1. monopoles exist pnonty for the fundamental phenomena of physics. Instead, in quantwn
electrodynamics the particle is attributed the same physical reality as the field. With the
2. starting point for the strong interaction wave-particle duality Heisenberg has given out the corresponding formula of
comprom ise. This slaps the face of the principle of cause and effect.

3. fields and quanta are a cause at the same time Causality on principle allows only two approaches for a solution: the q11"11tum physic"/
"pproach , which holds the quanta as the cause for the fields, and the jield-tlzeoretic"l
11pproac/z , wherein only the fields act as the cause. For both approaches there are good
4. hypothetical particles (gluons, quarks, etc.) arguments. The field theorists cite that fields can exist also in the vacuum, so that there
ex ist fields without particles but never particles without fields. Against that the quantum
physicists hold that somewhere, even when quite far away, there exist pa11icles and that
5 . transmission of information with speeds faster than the measurable fie lds merely are their action at a distance.
light Both approaches first arouse the impression to be fully equal. lJ1 the course of the
• with photons (University of Berkeley) discoveries in the area of quantum physics, the corresponding approach has been able to
establish. But it demands that all phenomena have to be understood as a consequence of
• with microwaves (University of Cologne) particles. So should gravitons make gravitation possible, should g/uons hold everything
• with laser beams (Technical Univ. of Vienna) together and the quarks form the basic building parts. Meanwh ile there is only worked
with hypotheses. Out of poverty quantum physics meanwhile has said goodbye to strict
causality, after the number of the violations of causality has risen that much and in every
6. transmission of energy with speeds faster than light respect there is a lack of models of explanation. It seems as if the end is reached, as if the
• with scalar waves (Nicola Tesla) quantum physical approach to a large extend is exhausted.

Fig. 3 .1: Causality or the principle of cause and effect

 42 Field-theoretical approach Approach 43

3.2 Field-theoretical approach

Field-theoretical approach:
The field-theoretical approach is the very much older one. Until the last tum of the century
the world in this respect still was in order. Max Planck, by the discovery of quanta, has
3rd Maxwell equation 4 1h Maxwell equation plunged physics into a crisis.
Albert E instein, who, apart from his lightquanta hypothesis, in his soul actually was a field
I Div B = 0 I (3.3) IDiv D = Pel (3.4) theorist, writes: ,,Is it feasible that a field theory allows us to understand the atomistic and
quantum structure of reality?". This question by almost all is answered with No. But I
With the relations of material: believe that at present nobody knows anything reliable about i(i>".

By the way the "No" can be justified by the fact that the field description after Maxwell is
IB = µ. H I (3.5) D = E · E (3.6) by no means able to the formation of structure so that it is not possible for quanta to
appear as a consequence. The field-theoretical approach could, obstructed by Maxwell's
µ·Div H 0 (3.3*} field theory, not further be pursued and to this until today nothing has changed.
E ·Div E = P el (3.4*)
Nevertheless it would be an omission to not at least have tried this approach and have it
examined for its efficiency. Maybe the above mentioned problems of causality let
H: source free E: non-vertical themselves be solved much more elegantly. For this however the Maxwell theory must be
vortex field source field reworked to a pure field theory. With the well-known formulation it offends against the
claim of causality, since it is field theory and quantum theory at the same time. To
Maxwell himself the quanta were still unknown, but today we know that the fourth
Maxwell equation is a quantum equation:
New field-theoretical approach,: I Div D 0 (3.7)
div D = Pei . (3.4)
thus: Div H = 0 (3.3**) and 'Div E 0 (3.7*} After this the electric field is a source field whereby the individual charge carriers, like
e.g. electrons, act as sources to form in their sum the space charge density P ei· The other
Hand E: source free vortex fields! three Maxwell equations are pure wave equations. In this way the third equation identifies
the magnetic field as source free:
div B = 0 . (3.3)
Einstein:
,-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ This for Pauli probably was the reason to call, ,,the electric elementary quantum e· a
"Is it conceivable, that a field theory permits us to stranger in Maxwell-Lorentz' electrodynamics"<ii>_
understand the atomistic and quantum structure of
reality? This question by almost all is answered with Let's return to the principle of causality according to which in the field-theoretical
approach the fields should act as a cause and not the particles. In a corresponding field
No. But I believe that at the moment nobody knows
description quanta logically have not lost anything. It is only consistent to likewise
anything reliable about it"<i>. demand freedom of sources of the electric field:
Pauli: ,-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
div D = 0 (3.7)
"The electric elementary quantum e is a stranger in
When the electric field is not a source field, then what is it? The magnetic field is a vortex
Maxwell-Lorentz' electrodynamics"<ii>.
field. Hence it would be obvious to also conceive the electric field as a vortex field.
Numerous reasons speak for it:
Fig. 3.2: The field-theoretical approach l. A non-vortical gradient field, like it is formed by charge carriers, merely represents a
special case of the general vortex field. Only by the generation of quanta a source field
can form as a special case.
<i>: A. Einstein: GrundzUge der Relativitii.tstheorie, S 162, Anhang II; 5. Aull., 2. The electromagnetic wave teaches us the duality between the E- and the H-field that
Vieweg, Braunschweig 1974. are directed perpendicular to each other and are in a fixed relation to each other. If one
<ii>: W. Pauli: Aufsii.tze und Vortrii.ge uber Physik und Erkenntnistheorie. Vieweg, of them is a vo11ex field then also the dual field must be a vortex field.
Braunschweig 1961, entnommen aus:
H. G. Kussner: Grundlagen einer einheitlichen Theorie der physikalischen
Teilchen und Felder. Musterschmidt-Verlag Gottingen 1976, S. 161.
 44 Duality Approach 45

3.3 Duality
Duality:
Duality is a fundamental physical principle. Opposite, but one another complementing
b b phenomena can be assigned to each other in pairs, like e.g. (see fig. 8.8):
fH ds = I (3.1 *) f Eds = - U (3.2*)
a a Y in (female) Yang (male)

I
Circulation along the closed path ds:
south pole
e
north pole
©
R (Q] resistance R-1 [ff1] conductance
I u [V] voltage I (A] current
Ampere's acc. to E (Vim) electr.field strength H [Alm] magnet. field strength
law (3.1) Maxwell: (3.2) ~: (3.8) Q (As] charge $ [Vs] magnetic flux
D [As/m 2] electr.displacement B [Vs/m2] magnetic induction
cf) H ds Iein cf:> Eds = 0 cf Eds - Uein Eo [As/Vm] electr.field-constant - - µo [Vs/Am] magnet.field-constant
3 3
Pel [As/m ] electr.charge density - - Pmagn[Vs/m ] magnet.charge density
induction law Ampere's law
3rc1 Maxwell eq. potential vortex eddy current
4th Maxwell eq. ~:
(vortex of the electric field) (vortex of the magnetic field)

I Div B = 0 I (3.3) IDiv D = Pel I (3 .4) 1::=D=iv=D==o='I (3.7) First of all we find the dual ity confirmed in the case of the electromagnetic wave
spreading in a homogeneous medium. Here the fi eld pointers of E and H are directed
perpendicu lar to each other and are in a fixed relation to each other. B ut if the wave is
With the relations of material: damped in the presence of matter, for instance by eddy currents, then by basing on
Maxwell 's field theory the duality will vanish.
A good example for perfect duality provides the integral of a field strength vector along
B = µ ·H (3.5) D E . E (3.6) the path from a to b:
b a
JH ds = J (3.1 *) and JEds = U (3.2*)
Fig. 3 .3: The dual field description a b
But if the integration takes place along a closed path then the circulation yields:

f H ds = I eing (3.1) and f Eds = 0 . (3.2)

Dual approach according to Jackson<i> or Lehner <ii>; According to Ampere's law (3. I) the magnetic field can thus form enclosed currents and
spatially spreading eddy currents. The electric field on the other hand should be
Div B = Pmagn because of the 4 th Maxwell equation: Div D = Pel (3.4) irrolational (3.2).
Pmagn = magnetic monopoles should exist, Let's take the case that the electromagnetic wave is damped by eddy currents and the
magnetic field in this way becomes a vortex field. The electric fi eld itself that, as said, is
otherwise dual extension (3. 8) not allowed! in a fixed relation and perpendicular to the vortex field H , will show all the vortex-typical
properties. Hence nothing would be more obvious as to also grant the electric field a
Caution: closed loop conclusion! fo1mation of vortices:
Maxwell theory proves the correctness of the Maxwell theory.
Result: search for magnetic monopoles u nsu ccessful. f Eds = - U cing . (3.8)
Critics of this dual approach, like for instance Jackson<i> or Lehner<ii>, point out that with
reference to the fourth Maxwell equation the electric field should be understood as a
<i>: J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd Ed. , John Wiley, New York source field:
1975, s. 251 - 253 '
div D = Pel . (3.4)
<ii>: G. Lehner, Elektromagnetische Feldtheorie, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidel-
berg 1990, S. 35 - 36 und S . 533 ff.
 46 Flow vortices Approach 47

v (velocity ) For a complete duality from the existence of electric monopo les, individual in the space
charge density p.1 contained charge carriers, the claim for 111ag11etic monopoles is derived.
In spite of intensive search such north or south pole particles however until now could not
be found. Herein from the sight of criticism is seen a confirmation for the assumption that
Maxwell's field theory is self-contained and hence in principle may not be extended. The
critics have a problem of causalitv: They postulate source fields that at the same time
should be vortex fields. But if one asks how one should imagine such a field that is scalar
and at the same time vectorial, then it looks as if no one has ever made any thoughts about
it.
R (rad iu s ) The from causality derived solution of the problem of lacking duality requires to extend
the Maxwell theory in one point, by introducing the potential vortex of the electric field
here and at the same time make a cut in another place:

j div D =0 J (3 .7)

With this formulation, the assumption of a freedom of sources in principle, the complete
duality already is reached: Now neither magnetic no r electric monopoles exist (Fig. 3.3)!
Fig. 3 .4a : Velocity d is tribu tion v(R) for a vortex with rigid- At first we have to accept the loss of the electron hoping that the calculation in the end
body rotation works out; the "exchange" vortices against part icles, by which the quanta can be banned
from the fi eld tl1eory, suggests that the elementary particles themselves are nothing else as
spherical vortices that have found to an own physical reality.

v (velocity)
3.4 F low vortices

In fluid engineering convincing and strong indications for the correctness of the chosen
approach can be found. It benefits us that hydrodynamic vortices are visible or can be the
inj ection of smoke, e.g. in a wind-tunnel.
Already Leonardo da Vinci had observed at liquids that there exist two dual basic types
ofp/cme vortices: "Among the vortices one is slower at the centre than at the sides, another
is faster at the centre than at the sides."
A vortex of the first type, also called "vortex with rigid-body rotation", is fanned for
instance by a liquid in a centrifuge that due to its inertia of mass is pressed to the edge
because there the largest velocity exists. In an analogous way the electromagnetic vortex
in electrically conductive material shows the well-known "skin effect" (Fig. 3.4a).
To explain the other vortex Newton describes the experiment where a rod is dipped into a
liquid as viscous as possible and then is turned. In this potential vortex the velocity of the
particle increases the closer to the rod it is (Fig. 3.4b).
T he duality of both vortex phenomena becomes obvious when we make ourselves clear
that in the experiment with the centrifuge the more liquid presses to the edge the less
viscous the medium is. And that on the other hand the potential vortex forms the stronger
Fig. 3.4b: Velocity distribution v (R) in a pot en tial vortex
the more viscous the medium is. As conclusion we read in text books that the viscosity of
(see Lugt <i>). the liquid decides whether a vortex with rigid-body rotation or a potential vortex is
formed.

<i> Lu gt, Hans J .: Vortex flow in n atu re and technology. Krieger p u blishing
company, Florida 1995; page 30 and 3 1, ISBN 0-89464-916-7
 48 Rankine vortex Approach 49

3.5 Rankine vortex

When we, in a third experiment, immerse the centrifuge filled with water into a tough
medium and let the centrifuge rotate, then inside the centrifuge a vortex with rigid-body
rotation form s and outside the centrifuge a potential vortex forms (Fig. 3.5).
v (velocity)
It is obvious that one vortex always causes the other vortex with the opposite properties
and so the existence of one causes that of the other. So in the first case, that of the vortex
with rigid-body rotation, outside the centrifuge potential vortices will form in the
surrounding air, whereas in the second case, that of the potential vortices, the turning rod
itself can be interpreted as a special case of a vortex with rigid-body rotation.
Hence in all conceivable experiments the condition always is f11lfilled that in the centre of
the vortex the same slale of "peace", thal we can fix as "zero", prevails as in infinity.

When we take a tornado as an example, thus a whirlwind. fn the "eye of the cyclone"
there's no wind at all. But when I go away from this spot, then I'm blown to the outside. I
can really feel the vortex with rigid-body rotation in the inside. If, however, I am standing
on the outside, then the potential vortex tries to pull me into the vortex. This potential
vortex is responsible for the strucn1re and in the end also for the size o f the tornado.

At the radius of the vo11ex, the place with the largest speed of the wind, an equilibrium
prevails. The vortex wi th rigid-body rotation and the potent ial vortex at this point are
equally powerful. Their power again is determined by the viscosity, which thereby fixes
the radius of the vortex.

Therefore meteorologists pursue with interest whether a tornado forms over land or over
water. Over the ocean for instance it sucks itself full with water. In lhat way the potential
vortex increases in power, the radius of the vortex gets smaller and the energy density
Fig. 3 .5: increases dangerously.
Combination of a vortex with rigid-b ody rotation and
a p otentia l vortex (Lugt <i>). If the knowledge from hydrodynamics is transferred to the area of electromagnetism, then
the role of the viscosity is taken over by the electric conductivity. The well-known current
eddy occurs in the conductor, whereas its counterpart, the postulated potential vortex,
forms in the bad-conducting medium, wilh preference in the dielectric. The duality of both
vortices is expressed by the fact !hat the electric conductivity of the medium decides
whether current eddies or potential vortices can form and how fast they decay, i.e. converl
their energy info heal.

<i> Lugt, Hans J. : Vortex flow in n ature and technology. Krieger publishing
company, Florida 1995; ISBN 0-89464-916-7
 50 Vortex and anti-vortex Approach 51

3.6 Vortex and a nti-vortex

Fig. 3.5 shows that vortex and dual anti-vortex mutually cause each other. In high tension
transmission lines we find a striking example for the combination of current eddy and
potential vortex. Within the conductor current eddies are formed. Thus the current density
increases towards the surface of the conductor (skin effect). Outside of the conductor, in
the air, the alternating fields find a very bad conducting medium. If one follows the text
book opinion, then the field outside the conductor should be an irrotational gradient field.
But this statement causes unsolvable problems.

When vorrices occur inside the conductor, then for reasons of a detachment of the vortices
without jumps at the interface to the dielectric, also the fields in the air surrounding the
conductor must have the form and the properties of vortices. Nothing would be more
obvious as to also mathematically describe and interpret these so-called gradient fields as
vortex fields. When looking exact this argument even is mandatory.

... '" ... -.'·, ~ ·· "~Jt.• I < The as laws of field refraction known boundary conditions<ii> in addition demand
steadiness at the interface of the conductor to the dielectric and don't leave us any other
.. r
"
}
-<.*.. choice. If there is a vortex field on one side, then also the field on the other side is a vortex
...• i ( field, otherwise we offend against the law! Here an obvious failure of the M<L'\:well theory

../
..
\
\
!/
I '
I ~
·tr
is present.
Outside the conductor, in the air, where the alternating fields fi nd a very bad conducting
., /' ~ medium the potential vortex not only exists theoretical; it even shows itself. Dependent
""·)
/

·~
among others on the frequency and the composition of the surface of the conductor, the
,..,. t:
- '""... ' '\ potential vortices fonn around the conductor. When the thereby induced potentials exceed

/ ••'
the initial voltage, then impact ion isation takes place and the well-known corona
~-..._ '' discharge is produced. Everyone of us can hear this as crackling and see the sparkling skin
#
,,,, ; . ' ~ with which high tension transmission lines cover themselves.
__ ~
' ..... , /
~
Tn accordance with the text books also a gradient field increases towards the surface of the
~fJb-
--~
- -"" conductor, but an even shining would be expected and not a crackling. Without potential
vortices the observable structure of the corona would remain an unsolved phenomenon of
physics (Fig. 3.6).

But even without knowing the structure-shaping property of the potential vortices, that in
Fig. 3.6: Kirlian photograph of leaves<i> addition acts supporting and that we'll have to derive, it can be observed well that
structured corona discharges especially roughness on the surface of the conductor stimulate the formation of vortices
and can produce vortices. If one is looking for a reason why with large frequency the very
short impulses of discharge always emerge from roughness<;;;» then very probable
potential vortices are responsible for it. By means of a Kirl.ian photograph it can be
shown that the corona consists of structured separate discharges (Fig. 3.6).

With this the approach is motivated, formu lated and given reasons for. The expositions
<i>: (produced by students of electronics in the laboratory for power electronics
can't replace a proof, but they should stand a critical examination. Mathematical and
of the Author, University of Applied Sciences Furtwangen 1991)
physical evidence will be furnished later.
<ii>: Kiipfmiiller, Karl: Einfiihrung in die theoretische E lektrotechnik
Springer-Verlag Berlin, 12. Auflage 1988, page 453 '
<iii >: Kiipfmiiller, Karl: Einfiihrung in die theoretische E lektrotechnik
Springer-Verlag Berlin, 12. Auflage 1988, page 208 '
 52 Concentration effect Properties 53

4. Properties

4.1 Concentr ation effect

It can be assumi::d Lhal until now there does not yet exist a technical application for the
here presented potential vortex theory unless the phenomenon was used by chance and
un consciously. About this the transmission of optical light signals over fibre optic cab le
can be given as a typical examp le.
Compared to a transmission of energy impulses over a copper cable fibre optic cables
show a considerable better degree of effectiveness. The derived potential vortex theory
provides a conclusive explanation for this phenomenon and therefore is put here to
copper cable fibre optic cable discussion: If we cut through a fibre optic cable and look at the d istribution of a light
impulse over the cross-section, then we observe a concentration in the centre of the
conductor (fig. 4.1 ).
UI (curren t density) (intensity) I
Here the duality between the vortices of the magnetic and of the electric field comes to
light. Whereas the current eddies in a copper conductor cause the "skin effect" as is well-
known, potentia l vortices show a "concentration effect" and align themselves with the
vortex centre. T he measurable an d in fig. 4. 1 shown distribution of the light intensity in a
fibre optic cable may confi m1 this phenomenon, the orientation of the poten tial vortex on
the vortex centre.

For instance the ca lculation of the resistance of a copper cable provides as an imp01tant
R (radius) R (radius) result an apparent decrease of the resistance directed towards the conductor surface. There
the associated better conductivity as a consequence causes an increased current density. In
distribution distribution the reversed direction, towards the centre o f the conductor, consequently a decrease of the
of the current density inten sity of light effective conductivity would be present, and this result is independent of the used material.
(eddy current) (poten tial vortex) According to the rules of duality this is a condition for the formation of potential vortices.
As already said the conductivity is responsible for it, if the expanding eddy current with its
skin effect or the contracting potential vortex with its concentration effect is predominant.

Usual fibre optic materials possess not only a small conductivity, but in addition a high
dielectricity. This additionally favours the fonnation of vortices of the electric field. lf one
Fig. 4.1: The distribution in principle of the intensity of light consciously or unconsciously supports the potential vortices, then there is a possibility that
within a fibre optic cable<i> compared to the the life of the fib re optic cable is negatively influenced because of the concentration effect.
distribution of the current d ensity in a copper cable Of course it can not be excluded that other effects, like e.g. reflections or the modes of the
light are involved in the concentration effect. But it should be guaranteed that this actually
concerns causal phenomena and doesn't concern only alternative exp lanations out of
ignorance of the active vortex phenomenon.

The formal mathematical reason for the concentration effect provides the reverse sign in
Faraday's law of induction compared to Ampere's law (see also equation 3. 1 and equation
<i> Mey!, Konst~tin: Potentialwirbel, Band 1: Diskussionsbeitriige zur natur- 3.8 in fig. 3.3).
wissenschaitlic?en Deutung und zur p hysikalisch-technischen Nutzung,
~as1erend_ auf emer mathematischen Berechnung neu entdeckter hydro-
t1sc_h er Wirbel, INDEL GmbH , Verlagsabteilung,
V1llmgen-Schwenningen 1990, ISBN 3-9802-542-1-6
 54 Duality of the vortex properties Properties 55

4.2 Duality of the vortex properties

magnetic The rules of duality dictate for the vortex of the electric and of the magnetic field the
electric
field strength following characteristics:
field strength
H E I. Whereas currents and eddy currents demand a good conductivity, potentials and
potential vortices can only form with bad conductivity, thus in a dielectric and best in
eddy potential the vaClllllll.
current vortex
N 2. Eddy currents run apart, strive towards infinity and thus show the well-known "skin
+ effecl" with a spatially limited arrangement of the conductor. According to the rules of
duality the potential vortex will stri ve towards the vortex centre and in this way will
I u show a "concent"'tion effect".

3. Another property of vortices is shown in fig. 4.2.

On the left side a plane eddy current is indicated. Since the discovery of Ampere's law
it is well-known to us that such a circular current (I) forms a magnetic dipole standing
perpendicular to the vortex plane.
s On the right hand side the dual phenomenon is sketched. Here charges are piled up
circularly to a planar potential vortex (U). Thereby an electric dipole form s, standing
perpendicular to the vortex plane. This relation directly follows from the equations of
magnetic electric the field-theoretica l approach.
dipole Whereas circular currents and current eddies produce magnetic dipoles, the postulated
dipole potential vortices will form electric dipoles.

With these three interesting properties some key questions of quantum physics, that until
now have stayed a mystery to science (fig. 4.4), can be answered conclusively and without
vortex of the vortex of the compulsion e.g.:
conductor non-conductor
I. Wily are there 110 magnetically charged particles?
The better the conductivity ofa medium is, the higher as a consequence the number of free
charge carriers is, the more strongly eddy currents are formed. The answer to question I is
ideal case: inferred from the opposite case:
superconductor vacuum In the ideal vacuum no charge carriers at all are present, ivhy no currents, no current
eddies and consequently no magnelic poles can exist.
With this well-known fact the first question already is answered. The question why in the
microcosm there can not exist magnetically charged elementary particles, why the search
material properties which act amplifying: for magnetic monopoles doesn' t make any sense. Let's ask further:
permeability dielectricity
II. Why are there only electrically charged particles?
Let us for that consider the dual conditions. The worse !he conduclivily ofa medium is, the
more the potential vortex will be favoured !hat because of !his property also can be
,,skin effect" understood as the vortex ofthe die/eclric.
,,concentrations In the mentioned extreme case of the ideal vacuum, no electric conductivity is present for
effect" reason of the missing charge carriers. But this circumstance favours the potential vortex
and that, according to fig. 4.2, forms electric poles and with this also the second question
would be answered clearly.
fl can be traced back to !he bo11nda1y condilions ofthe microcosm Iha/ ivilhout exceplion
Fig. 4.2: The acting as a dipole of eleclrically charged parlicles are entitled 10 exist; a realization derived from the field-
current eddies and potential vortices theoretical approach, that covers all experiences.
 56 electron as an elementary vortex Properties 57

4.3 Derivation of the electron as an elementary vortex

~
' ~
T he next key question necessarily has to be brought to a conclusive answer to save the
principle of causality, so that we no longer have to postulate an own physics with its own
~ laws for the microcosm:

/ \
~ '>. ,. _ + Ill. Wlty do these p"rtic/es show as monopoles?
__... c. E
More concrete the question has to read:
~.~ Where is the positive pole in a negatively charged electron, if it should be an electric
\ I dipole?
/ I
T he only possible answer is:
In the centre ofthe particle!
> "--- - - ------· ~
Thus in the centre of the electron its positive pole is hidden and in the centre of the

'
the positron e+
positron its negative pole is hidden. But we only observe these particles from the outside
and for reason of the field conditions of the electron we measure a negative charge and for
its antipartic le, the positron, a positive charge. If in each case we wanted to measure the
e lectric fie lds included in the inside, we had to destroy the particle. Then a proof would
not be possible anymore.

Here also a persistent mistake is eliminated by the for a long time known axiom that
monopoles can not t::xist at all ifont:: cousidt::rs continuity. By means of technical-physical
experiments this axiom is sufficiently secured.
The quantum physical approach is standing on uncertain ground if it is postulated that
other laws of nature should apply to particle physics, if a second approach, the field-
theorctical approach, is conceivable that does not know these problems.
I
The discussed concentration effect gives the potential vortex a structure shaping property.
I \.
__ .......,..___ E With that also the fourth key question can be answered:

\
// I
'
'" . I
I V. Why do the particles have the form ofspheres?

/ -+ / '\ The potential vortex is favoured in the particle-free vacuum of the microcosm because of
the missing conductivity. In connection with the concentration effect the following
conclusion can be drawn:
The extremely mighty potential vortex exerts a high pressure on the microcosm and on
each particle.
the elektron e- With that also the fourth key question, why stable elementary particles are spherical, can
be answered by the potential vortex theory:
Only the sphere is able to withstand a high outside pressure.
Fig. 4.3: Elementary particles as configurations of potential
vortices All other forms, like e.g. dipoles formed like a rod or a club would be instable in the
presence of the extremely concentrating potential vortex. They would be immediately
destroyed by the pressure ofthe potential vortex.
 58 quanta as field vortices Properties 59

4.4 Quanta as field vortices

I. Why in our environment normally no
The field-theoretical approach demands removing the electron from the fie ld equations
magnetically charged particles do exist? ( eq. 3.7) and at the same time introducing the potential vortex of the electric field. With
(the vacuum has no conductivity) this vortex phenomenon there now is a possibility that the electromagnetic wave
spontaneously rolls up to a vortex in case it is disturbed from the outside. The vortex
particle that is formed in such a way owes its physical reality on the one hand the
concentration effect of the potential vortex, that compresses this particle to the dimension
II. Why are there only electrically charged of a tiny sphere and on the other hand its localization for reason of the oscillation around
particles? a fixed point.
(in the vacuum only potential vortices can exist) The spherical elementary particles are being compressed to inconceivably small
dimensions. Therefore they are capable to bind a comparatively high energy in their
inside. This is confirmed by the mass-energy relation E = mc2 • ( 4. 1)

III. Why do these particles show as monopoles? The fact that the energy is dependent on the speed of light can be judged to be a clear
indication that quanta actually are nothing but osci/lati11g electromagnetic packages,
(the other pole is locked up in th e inside of th e vortex vortical oscillations of empty space.
oscillation) The next question reads:

V. Why is the elementary q1umt11111 stable?

The worse the conductivity is, the more the potential vortex will be favo ured, the more
IV. Why do the particles have the form of spheres? strongly the concentration effect wil I form, the smaller the spherical phenomena will get -
the larger the authoritative relaxation time will be, i.e. the slower the decay of vortices
(for reason of the outside pressu re by the concentration and with that the more srable the vortex phenomenon will be.
effect) In the microcosm, that comes the ideal case of a particle-free vacuum very close, the
spherical vortices because ofthe missing conductivity have an absolute stability.

,V. Why is the elementary quantum stable? VI. Why does for every particle ofmatter exist 1111 antiparticle?
Since every vortex can also oscillate
(without conductivity no decay of vortices takes place) in the opposite direction, there always exist two forms offormation of spherical vortices
with equal rights, one of them is assigned to the world of matter and the other to the world
of anti-matter.

VI. Why does for every particle of matter exist an antiparticle? VII. Why (Ire particles a11d a11tipartic/es i11compatible?
For reason of the co11trary swirl direction they are incompatible to each other. They have
(there are two swirl directions with equal rights) the tendency to destroy each other mutually, like two trains that want in the opposite
direction on a single-tracked distance.

The quantum physical approach does not have an answer to these key questions. Until now
VII. Why are particles and antiparticles incom- scientists have merely thought about to what the observable contraction in the microcosm
patible? and the macrocosm can be traced back. Because the approach was not able to furnish an
answer, without further ado some new matter was introduced: the gluon.~. These binding
(contrary swirl directions) partic les should be able to exert the necessary pressure. But until now no one has been
able to observe or detect this fabulous matter. Nobody knows its structure and its
composition. Despite missing evidence it is stated that this matter is mass less and at the
Fig. 4.4: Key questions of quantum physics same time lumped; it is invisible because it can't interact with any other matter, not even
with the supposed building parts of the atomic nuclei, the quarks. B ut at the same time
there should be exerted a pressure on the quarks, for which reason quarks again should be
able to interact with gluons.
 60 th e photon properties 61

4.5 The photon

The ability to form structures as a consequence of the concentration effect gives the
potential vortex a number of highly interesting properties. To derive these properties we
can make work easier when we fall back upon the observations and experiences of f!oJV
dvnamics.
Here the vortex ring takes a special place. Its vortex centre is not closed, for which reason
it is not stationary and propagates in space with a constant speed. It can be observed that
the velocity of propagation increases w ith the ring d iameter becoming smaller. By mean s
of the vortex rings, that skilful smokers can produce with pointed lips, these properties can
be made visible.
Now if two vortex rings run into each other with the same axis and d irection of rotation
then both oscillate around each other, by one vortex attracting the other vortex, thereby
accelerating and thus contracting it. T he second vortex then sl ips thro ugh the core open ing
and gets again s lower and larger. Now the first vortex accelerates and plays the same game
(fig. 4 .5).

IL would be obvious for the vortex of the electric fie ld to have a corresponding property.
The electron e- and with the opposite swi rl di rection the positron e~ will form such a
potential vortex corresponding to the derivation. Two electrons, as like charged particles,
would repel each other and surely will be out of the question for such a configuration. An
electron and a positron however will attract each other and because of their
incompatibility they will mutually destroy unless they open their vortex centres to form a
vortex ring. Now the e- shows its positively charged centre that shows the same sw irl
direction as the e+ seen from the outside. T herefore the vortices don't hurt each other,
when the pos itron slips through rhe opened vortex cenrre of the electron and vice versa.
This osci llating electron-positron pair has strange properties: seen from the outside one
moment it is negatively charged and the next moment it is positively charged. Therefore
over time on the average 110 cll"rge will be measurable and 110 electromagnetic i11ter-
actio11 will take place.
One moment the particle is matter and the next moment it is anti-matter. Hence 110 lll(ISS at
all can be attributed to the particle. Interactions primari ly takes place between both dual
vortices. We can predict, the particle has neither mass nor charge. The environment
merely sees a fast oscillating particle that only with in every half cycle is capable of an
interaction.
The centre of the oscillating particle is open, for which reason it is not stationary
anymore. Instead it propagates in z-direction w ith the swirl velocity, which is the speed of
lig ht, in this way preventing a rotation around the x- or y- axis (fig. 4.6). ln this way a
Fig. 4 .5: Two coaxial oscilla ting vortex rings (Lugt<i>). p o/arizability is present.
The only possible and, as we will see, necessarily taking place rotation around the z-axis
g ives tbe particle a spin of the magnitude of a quantum of angular momentum. After all
the rotation for e- and e+ is of the same magnitude with a spin of each time Yi · It. T here
should be paid attention to the fact that for the case of an opposite sense of direction of the
respective rotation around the common z-axis the spin on the average will be zero.
In addition the particle is characterized by an outstanding property: a periodicallv taking
place oscillation with anv frequencv. but that frequency has to be constant.
We now only have to take a table of pa11icles to hand. Actually we will find a corre-
sponding particle that has all these properties: they-quanta, also called photon.

<i> Lugt, Hans J .: Vortex flow in n ature and technology. Krieger publishing
company, Florida 1995; page 42, ISBN 0-89464-916-7
 62 pair creation properties 63

4.6 Pair creation

)-~
Proof for the correctness of the model concept provides the decay of the photon in an
electron and a positron in the presence of a strong field, as for instance in an atomic
nucleus. This observable decay is called pair creation or Bethe-Heitler process<i>:
y - e-+e+ . (4.2)
y In this process the elementary vortices for a short time get back their localization and are
therefore detectable. Otherwise the electron and positron have the form of a sphere, the
photon however rather has the fonn of two oscillating discs.
The photon doesn't participate in the electromagnetic interaction, because the electric field
lines run from one disc to the other (from+ to -). The field lines are not open as they are
fore- ore+ (fig. 4.3). To open up the field lines an energy is necessary that corresponds to
the sum of the two formed partic les. But from this it by no means follows that this amount
of energy will be re leased in the reversed imd much better known process, where matter
and anti-matter annihilate under emission of y-quanta. At the end of the derivation the
vortex model will provide us the desired answers on questions of the energy of photons.
Here first of all only the properties will be concerned.
Experiments, in which light shows (IS "P"rticle, are the photoelectric effect, the Compton
effect and a lot more. According to the by Maxwell developed classical theory of light
however is light (Ill e/ectrom"g11etic W(IVe that is not quantized in any way, neither as
sphere nor as d isc. the wave nature oflight as well has a physical reality and is secured by
experiment. This is witnessed by the interference patterns of overlapping coherent light
beams.
A concept in which light could exist at the same place and the same time both as wave and
as corpuscle could never be brought into accord with the principle of causality. Fonnulas
of compromise, like the 1111cert"i11ty principle of Heisenberg that refers to the point of
view of the observer, can't change anything about this dilenuna. T he dual nature of/ight,
that in this context is glad ly spoken of, rather consists of the fact that dependent on the
Fig. 4 .6: The photon as oscillating electron-positron pair local field conditions, any time an d spontaneously the wave can roll up to a vortex.
As an example of a violation of the principle of causality it has been indicated under point
3 (fig. 3.1) that both fie lds and quanta at the same time should be the cause of something.
This concept was formulated by Maxwell and written down in modern quantum electro-
dynamics by Dirac but in the field-theoretical approach we have dropped this concept
because it violates all rules of causality in an elementary manner. Therefore it only is
consistent, if we hold the view that the light is either wave or particle but never is both at
The decay of the y - quanta (photon)<i> the same time.
( = pair creation = Bethe-Heitler-process 1934 ): In the spontaneous transition of the wave to the particle all the impo11ant properties are
conserved: the prop"g"tion with tile speed of light, the characteristic frequency of tile
y (4.2)
oscil/(ltio11 and the mentioned polttriz(lbi/ity.
The process of rolling up possibly takes place already in the laboratory, in a bubble
chamber and at the latest in our eyes. To receive the electromagnetic wave, we had to have
antennas. We actually see the photons. It therefore would be obvious if our cells to see
only could perceive vo1tices, in this case photons. We don't possess a sense organ for
fields and waves.

<i> Nachtmann, Otto: Phanomene und Konzepte der Elementarteilchenphysik

Vieweg, Braunschweig 1986, S. 135, ISBN 3-528-08926-1 '
 64 noise properties 65

4.7 Noise

loss energy [Ws] If, according to the fielcl-theoretical approach, there exist electric fie ld vortices then they
log { P/ M} will not only form the elementary particles in the vacuum, but will also macroscopically
form and have an effect in larger dimensions.

b Asswning a wave that rolls up to a plane vortex it would be obvious if polarization and
velocity of propagation are conserved in the process. But how does it stand about the
frequency?
The wave now will walk round a stationary point, the vortex centre. The propagation with
b = eddy current losses the speed of light c will remain existent as the swirl velocity. For a plane circular vortex,
where the path for a revolution on the outside is very much longer than near the vortex
centre, there arises a longer wave length and as a consequence a lower frequency on the
outside as more to the inside. With this property the vortex proves to be a changer of

,, frequency: the vortex transforms the frequency of the causing wave in an evenly
spectrum, that starts at low frequencies and stretches to very high frequencies (fig. 1.4).
,a=power density losses Exactly this property we observe in "white noise". The consistent conclusion would be
' =capacitor losses that this concerns the vortex of the electric fie ld. Anyone can, without big expenses,
convince himself or herself of the localization, of the property to change the frequency and
, , hf of the circumstance that vortices can be very easily influenced, that they avoid or again
whirl about a p lace of disturbance, for instance an antenna. For that one only needs to tune
, a radio receiver to a weak and noisy station and move oneself or some objects around, then
kTL--....~."':. - - - - - - - 'I one is able to directly study the influences from the manipulation of the receiving signal.
log {f} But already the fact that the using and measurability of signals is limited by noise makes
clear, which attention the potential vortex should be given.

fs 2f~ = kT/ h frequency [Hz] Within a limited frequency range the power of the Nyquist or resistance noise is
independent of frequency (fig. 4.7). This should be clarified particularly by the term
"white noise" analogous to white light, where all visible spectral ranges independent of
frequency have the same energy density.

But this relation doesn't hold for high frequenc ies of any magnitude. Here another noise-
etfect appears, that is said to have its cause in the quantum structure of energy<i>_
Fig. 4.7: Untouched by possible interpretations an increasing power of the noise is measured, that
The power density shown against frequency for noise
more and more turns into a being proportional to frequency (fig. 4.7, curve a).
(a) according to Kupfmuller<i>,
Interestingly th is curve shows a remarkable duality to the power curve of eddy currents,
as well as for dielectric losses of a capacitor (also a l likewise shown against the frequency, that for instance can be measured at eddy current
and for eddy current losses (b l according to Meyl<ii> couplings<ii> (fig. 4.7, cu1ve b). This circumstance suggests a dual relation of the potential
(b in visible duality to a l. vortex of the electric field in bad conducting media on the one hand and the eddy current
in conductive materials on the other hand <iii>.

<i> Kupfmilller_, Karl: Einfi.ihrung in die theoretische Elektrotechnik, Springer-

Verlag Berlin, 12. Auflage 1988, ISBN 3-540-18403-1
<iii>: Mey!, Konstantin: Wirbel des elektrischen Feldes,
<ii> Mey!, Konstantin: Dreidirnensionale nichtlineare Berechnung von
EMC Journal 1/95, 6 . J, ISSN 0945-3857, S. 56 - 59.
Wirbelstromkupplungen, Dissertation Universitat Stuttgart 1984
 66 capacitor losses properties 67

4.8 Capacitor losses

metallized film of polypropylen

~
Next the dielectric losses in a capacitor fed with an alternating voltage are measured and
glass plate likewise put on against the frequency. At first the course is independent of the frequency,
but towards higher frequencies it increases and shows the same characteristic course of the
curve as the before mentioned power of the noise (fig. 4.7, curve a).

v/77777777777777777777~ This excellent agreement suggests the assumption that the dielectric losses are nothing but
eddy losses.
I glass plate I These vortex phenomena, caused by time-varying fields, are not only found in ferro-
magnetic and conductive materials, but equally as dual phenomena in dielectrics and non-
conductors.

As examples of practical applications the induction welding or the microwave oven can be
mentioned. The process can be described in other words as follows: in both examples the
cause is posed by high-frequency alternating fields that are irradiated into a dielectric as an
a ) measurement set up according to Yializis and oth ers<i> electromagnetic wave, there roll up lo potential vortices and eventually decay in the vortex
centre. The desired and used thennal effect arises during this diffusion process.

The striving in the direction of the vortex centre gives the potential vortex of the electric
field a structure sltapillg p roperty. As a consequence of this 11co11centrt1tion effect"
c ircular vortex structures are to be expected, comparable to the visible vortices in flow
dynamics (e.g. tornados and whirlwinds). At the same time the dual anti-vortex arises, the
diverging eddy current. It takes, as is well-known, the given structun.: uf !ht: wnductor, so
in the technical literatw·e one correspondingly talks of a "skin effect".
Now if conductor and non-conductor meet as they do in a capacitor, then at the boundary
area visible strucnires will fonn. Circles would be expected, if the eddy current in the
inside and striving to the outside is equally powerful as the potential vortex that comes
from the outside and concentrates.

Actually such circular structures are observed on the aluminium of high tension
capacitors, when they were in operation for a longer period of time. The formation of
these circles, the cause of which unti l now is considered to be unsolved, is already
b) after 40 hours c) after 52 hours experimentally investigated and discussed on an international level by scientists (fig.
4.8ti.ii>_

These circular vortex structures can be seen as a visible proof'iii> for the existence of
Fig. 4.8: Measurement set up {a) and photo of vortex structure potential vortices of the electric field.
in a m et allized polypropylen layer capacitor
(at 450 V / 60 Hz/ lOOOC)
Observation of the formation of a vortex (b) and (c).
(110 fold magnification), according to Yializis et al. <i>
<ii>: D. F. Taylor, On the Mechanism of Aluminium Corrosion in Metallized Film
Capacitors, IEEE Transactions on El-19,Au gust 1984,No.4,pp.288-293.
<i>: A. Yializis, S. W. Cichanowski, D. G. Shaw: Electrode Corrosion in Metallized <iii>: Mey!, Konstantin: Wirbel des elektrischen Feldes,
Polypropylene Capacitors, Proceedings of IEEE, International Symposium on EMC Journal 1/95, 6 .J, ISSN 0945-3857, S. 56-59.
Electrical Insulation, Bosten, Mass., June 1980;
68 vortex lines and vortex streets properties 69

4.9 Vortex Unes and vortex streets

I
Tt can be assumed that the vortex of the electric field is relevant with regard to the
I electromagnetic environmental compatibility. This then holds not only for microcosmic
I and microscopic vortices, but also for macroscopic and larger dimensions. The individual
vortices can join together to balls and lines. For the study of this process it is useful to
again fall back upon experiences of flow dynamics.

The co-operati on of individual point vortices has been investigated thoroughly in flow
dynamics. Without any outside manipulation an individual vortex rotates on the spot.
That changes in the case of two neighbouring vortices. Now it depends on their mutual
strength and sense of rotation. If they have the opposite sense of rotation and equal
strength then their centres of rotation move straight forward in the same direction. If
however the d irection of rotation is the same then both vortices rotate around each other
I (fig. 4.9).

~1~--
In I his way a multitude of point vortices is capable, to form in the first case whole vortex
streets and in the second case spherical vortex balls. In principle a vortex string can also
consist of a multitude of potential vortices pointing in the same direction; but it has the
tendency to roll up to a vortex ball in case it is disturbed from the outside, as can be shown
very c lear by means of computer simulations<i>_
B2
As a starting-point for a discussion the thesis can be put forward that also electric field
vortices, in nature usually consisting of a multitude of individual point vortices, appear as
Fig. 4 .9: Motion of two point vortices. (Lugt<i>) vortex strings and vortex balls.
A. with opposite direction of rotation
Perhaps historians see in this property an answer to the question, how it was possible for
B. with the same direction of rotation the Romans to build streets straight as a die in the wi lderness. Their land surveyors, the
1. for equal vortex strength Augures, had at their disposal neither laser, nor any other su itable gauges. Their most
2. for unequal vortex strength important tool \Vas the Lituus, the crook, that at its upper end was rolled up like a vortex in
the sense of a flat coil shaped like a spiral.
Example from practice for case Al: The question poses what this strange object was used for. Perhaps the roman land
vortex pair behind an airplane surveyors tracked down any vortex lines with this crook and then used them to orientate
themselves?
History still holds a lot of secrets, but for now only this indication is given. The following
seminar will give enough opportunities for speculations and discussions<ii>.

<i>: Lugt, Hans J.: Vortex flow in nature and technology. Krieger publishing
company, Florida 1995; p.38, fig. 3.25, 3.26 and 3.27, ISBN 0-89464-916-7
<ii>: K. Meyl: Elektromagnetische Umweltvertraglichkeit Teil 2 und 3 Seminar-
umdrucke, INDEL Verlag VS; see part 2 and 3 of this book.
 70 water colloids as vortex balls properties 71

eeee 4.10 Water colloids as vortex baUs

We have to rea lize that in the biosphere we are staying in a relatively ideal dielectric. The
two "capacitor plates" are being formed by the ionosphere and the earth. The potential
vortex will, as said, be favoured by a bad conductivity and by a high dielectricity. Conse-

(
quently it will dominate and take effect in the biosphere. In which way it takes effect is the
central theme of the electromagnetic environmental compatibility.
Life in this world consists predominantly of water and water has a very high dielectricity!
With tlrnt the effectiveness and the long life of the potential vortex increases. The human
head for instance contains 70% and plants contain over 90% water! But it does not
simply concern H 20, but structured water in a colloidal form. These water colloids could
be v01tex balls because they consist of a large number of water molecules in a spherical
arrangement. They form independent and insoluble particles with a negative electric
charge (fig. 4.1 1).
Water is not equal water thanks to this structure. One can buy healing water and
corresponding sources are well-known and famous. Many an effect can be explained by
means of a chemical analysis but not everything.
The highest age in this world is reached by the inhabitants of Hunza, in the mountains of
northern India at the footh ill of the Hi ndu Kush, at an altitude of2500 meters. They drink

- some muddy glacial water that is strongly colloidal. Hence it would be obvious that plants
and also we ourselves need such water for our physique. Processes are known with which
the advantageous vortex balls, say colloids, are produced artificially by mechanic or
chemical trcatmcn(i>, Levitated water, as it is called and as it is for sale nowadays, is said
to be more healthy. Unfortunately people predominantly work empiric in th is area,

- because science occupies itself with this topic only little or not at all.
Another problem is the fact that the colloids again fall apart quickly. The like negative
charge favours this process. The liquid crystals have to be stabilized from the outside. In
the case of the Hunza-water the colloids are surrounded by a vegetable layer of fatty acid
and are protected in this way <ii>_ It possibly is very obliging to nature, if the water colloids
also in biological systems are stabilized in that way.
Everyone of us knows that fresh spring water tastes much better than stale, bottled water,
even if the chemical analysis turns out of be absolutely identical. For this fact classical
science is not able to give a cause - a further problem of causality. In any case should
potential vortices with their structure shaping property be considered as a cause for the
fonnation of water colloids. It surely causes no difliculties at all to interpret the colloids as

- -
vortex balls.

Fig. 4. 10: The rolling up of a vortex chain to a vor tex ball

for the smallest disturbance
(case Bl in fig. 4.9) (Rosenhead <i>).
<i> V. Schauberger: Die En tdeckung der Levitationskraft, Implosion 1995
Nr. 112 und:
N. Harthun: Naturgema.£.e Technik - Wege ffu die Forschung nach
<i>: L. Rosenhead: Formation of vortices from a surface of discontinuity. Proc. Vik.tor Schauberger, Verlag Delta Design, Berlin 1996.
Roy. Soc. A 134, 1931, 170. taken from:
<ii> Flanagan: Elexier der Jugendlichkeit, Waldthausen Verlag Ritterhude 1992,
Lugt, Hans J.: Vortex flow in nature and technology. Krieger publishing orig.: Elixir of Ageless
company, Florida 1995; page 39, figure 3.29, ISBN 0-89464-916-7
 72 phenomenon of transport properties 73

4.11 Phenomenon of transport

The vortex principle is self-similar. This means that the propetties of an individual vottex
a lso for the collection of numerous vottices again appear and can be observed in a similar
manner. That's why a vortex ball behaves entirely similar as an individual isolated vortex.
The same concentration effect, that keeps the vortex together, shows its effect for the
vortex ball and keeps it together also.
Something corresponding holds for a basic property of potential vortices, being of a
completely different nature. lt is the property to bind matter in the vortex and carry it
away with the vortex. Well-known are the vortex rings that skilful cigarette smokers can
blow in the air. Of course also non-smokers can produce these air eddies with their mouth
but these remain invisible. Solely by the property of the vortex ring to bind the smoke it
H20: the a n gle of the bond between 2 H molecules= 104,5° becomes visible to the human eye.
angle of the bond in excited state = 109,5° If our potential vortex transports something then it rather should be a dielectric material,
so preferably water. Therefore if in the environmental air we are surrounded by potential
vortices that we can detect for instance as noise, then they are capable with their
''phe110111eno11 of transport", to p ick up water and to keep it in the vortex. In this way the
atmospheric humidity is explicable as the ability of the air particles to bind comparatively
heavy water molecules. If the vo11ex falls apat1 then it inevitably releases the water
+ particles and it rains. This is merely a charming alternative for the classical representation
w ithout claim to completeness.
A lready the Romans have made use of this phenomenon to find water and sources. About
this Vitruv<i> (from 23 BC) in his 8th book about architecture writes: "Before sunrise one
electron orbital diagram of energy (excited H 2 0) = tetraeder has to lie down on the earth at the p laces, where to search fo r water, ... and one has to look
most stable liqu id crystal = 8 tetraeder = star of octaeder at the area ... Then one has to dig at the place where there appears curling and in the air
rising moist steam. Because this characteristic cat1 not occur at a place where there is no
unprotected colloid water" . The at a certain time of day and in certain seasons occasional in meadows and corn
artificially protected fields observable streaks or circular mostly moist places with differing vegetation, have to
colloid (soap molecule) be judged as an infallible sign for the existence of this phenomenon.

"'
d
This phenomenon of transport again appears for the discussed water colloids. The
involved water molecules form a spherical object with a negative charge. They tum their
negatively charged s ide to the outside and point w ith the positively charged end in the
direction of the middle of the sphere. T here, no longer discernible from the outside, a
negatively charged ion Catl be, that is stuck, that no longer can escape and that gives the
whole colloid a characteristic property. In this way nature knows various water colloids
that constitute plants and animals. But starting at a temperature of 4 1°C the liquid crystals
fall apart. This not by chance is the temperature at which a person dies.
Colloid protected by albuminoids or fatty acids Already 10 millivolts per liquid crystal suffice for the electrically induced death.
(in living systems) The to a colloid identical structure we find in the structure of the atoms. Here the atomic
nucleus is held in the inside of a vortex-like cloud of electrons, the atomic hull. We'll hit
the phenomenon of transport a last time, when we derive the elementary particles. For the
photon is already discernible the tendency of an elementary vortex, to take another vortex
in its inside. Merely because the electron and positron are evenly matched a stable
configuration is prevented for the photon.

Fig. 4. 1 1: Water molecules and water colloids

<i> Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus: Ten Books about architecture, WBG 1987
 74 vektoranalysis Derivation and interpretation 75

In chapter vortex calculation used differential operations: 5. Derivation and interpretation

field pointer (vector= bold): Vortices cause big problems to every measuring technician. They have the unpleasant
property to whirl around the sensor even if it is as small as possible. Vortices avoid the
A = ex · Ax + ey · Ay + ez · Az smallest disturbance and then can hardly be detected reproducibly.

Gradient of the scalar function of position V: From the well-known eddy cun-ent we know of this problematic. Instead ofthe vortex, we
are forced to measure and analyse any effects that arise from the vortex. These can be
grad v = ex . 8V I ox + ey . oV I oy + ez . oVI 'Oz (Rl) measurements of the eddy losses or effects back on the stimulating field. But only
provided that the effect actually occurs.
Divergence of the vector A: The prerequisite for an increase in temperature by eddy losses is that the vortex falls apart.
In an ideal medium it unfortunately will not do us this pleasure.
div A = oAx/8x + oAy/oy + oAz/oz (R2)
As vortex of the dielectric the potential vortex will find fairly ideal conditions in air or in
water. How should a vortex be detected, if it does not produce any effect? The classical
Curl (vortex density) of the vector A: measuring technique is here at its wits' end.
curl A ex · (oAz/8y - oAy/oz) +
From the duality to the well-known eddy current and by means of observation in the pre-
+ ey · (8Ax/8z - 8Az/8x) + vious chapters numerous properties of the potential vortex have been derived. But these
+ ez . (oAy I 8x - oAx/ oy) (R3) are not all the properties. The mathematical calculation of the electric vortex field, that we
want to turn to now, will reveal still further meaningful and highly interesting properties.
Laplace operator ~:
The observation is important, but it can't replace an exact calculation. A strictly mathe-
~A o2 A/8x2 + 82A/8y2 + 82A/8z2 (R4) matical derived result has occasionally more expressiveness than a whole book full of
explanations. It will be a big help to derive and to discuss the field equation that all
considerations are based on.
arithmetic rules:
We facilitate the mathematical work by vector analysis. Therefore it is useful that we
~A grad div A - curl curl A (R5) choose the differential form (equation 5.1 and 5.4) instead of the integral form (equations
div rot A 0 3. 1 and 3.2 resp. 3.8).
(R6)

AxB - Bx A (R7)

div (A x B) B curl A - A curl B (RS)

curl (Ax B) (B grad)A - (A grad)B + A div B - B div A (R9)

Ax (BxC) B·(A·C) - C·(A·B) (RJO)

*important equations are given in a box

*new equations are underlined twice.

Fig. 5.0: Collection of formulas for vector analysis

 76 fundamental field equation Derivation and interpretation 77

1. ArnQere's law: 5.1 Fundamental field equation

curl H j + 8D /8t (5.1) We'll start from Ampere's law wh ich provides a value for the current density at any point
with H = H(r,t) of space and this value corresponds to the vortex density of the magnetic field strength
and Ohm's law: j cr · E (5.2) curl H = j + OD/8t (5.1)
dielectric displacement: D £. E We'll use Ohm's law: j =cr· E , (5.2)
(3.6)
relaxation time: the dielectric displacement: D = E. E (3.6)
"Cl £/ cr (5.3)
and the relaxation time: • 1 = e/cr , (5.3)

I curl H £ · (E/-c1 + 8E /8t) I (5.1 *)

that indicates how fast the current eddies decay. So far we can fall back upon well-known
relations.
The result is: I
curl H = E . (Eh1 + o E/ot) I(5 . 1*)

2 . Faraday's law of induction (extended according to duality rules) T he new electric field v ortices demand the introduction of a corresponding t ime constant
that should describe the decay of the potential vortices, as an extension. T he extended
• 2,
- curl E = B/-c2 + 8B/8t (5.4)
Faraday law of induction now provides a potential density, that at any point of space
with E = E(r,t) corresponds to the vortex density of the electric fi eld strength:
and the flux density : B = µ ·H (3.5)
- curl E = Bh 2 + oB/ot (5.4)

- curl E = µ · (H/ -c2 + 8H /8t) j (5.4*) with the flux density B = µ· H . (3.5)

~l
The result fulfi ls the required
- curl curl E = µ · (1/-c2) ·curl H + µ · 8(curl H) /8t (5.5) dua lity to equation 5.1 *: I - curl E = . (Wt2 + oW ot) (5.4*)

lfwc again apply the curl to equation 5.4*

insert equation 5.1 *:
- curl curl E = µ £ ·(E/-c1-c2 + (1 /-c2) · 8E /8t + - curl curl E = µ · (l /• 2) ·curl H + µ · o(curl H)/ ot (5.5)
+ (1 /-c1) · 8E /8t + 82E /8t2) (5.5*) and insert equation 5.1 *,we obtain :

- curl curl E ilE - grad div E = ilE , (RS)

if: div E = 0 (3.7*) which according to the ru les of vector analysis can still be further s imp lified:
a bbreviation: - curl curl E = 6E - grad div E , where we should remember that the divergence has to
µ· £ 1/c2 (5.6) vanish (div E = 0, fig. 3.2, equation 3.7*), should the corresponding field vortex be
inserted.
3. funda mental field equation: Furthermore the following well-known abbreviation can be inserted: µ · e = l /c2 (5.6)
With that the relation with the speed of light c simplifies to the sought-for field equation:

(5.7)

T his equation describes the spatial (a) and temporal (b, c, d) distribution of a field vector.
(5.7) It describes the electromagnetic wave (a, b) with the influences that act damping. As
dampin g terms the well-known eddy current (c) and in addition the newly introduced
potential vortex (d) appear.
Fig. 5 .1 : Derivation of the fundamental field equat ion.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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were doubtless, from whatever reason, both true to the cause of a
sacerdotal church. But it dare not look into the law of liberty, or
{288} conceive the operation of God except in a system of
prescribed institutions, about which no questions are to be asked,
and in the maintenance of which cruelty becomes mercy and
falsehood truth. Through the policy of the fifteen years which
preceded the Long Parliament, a policy sometimes outrageous,
sometimes trivial, the same purpose runs. The promulgation of the
Book of Sports, the torturing of writers against plays and
ceremonies, the persecution of calvinism, the suppression of the
lectureships by which the more wealthy puritans sought to maintain
a preaching ministry uncontrolled by the bishops, all tend to divert
the human spirit from the consciousness of its right and privilege to
acquiescence in what is given to it from without. Whether this
diversion were effected in the interest of court or sacerdotalism,
whether the head of the sacerdotal system were the old pope or ‘my
lord of Canterbury,’ ‘lineally descended from St. Peter in a fair and
constant manner of succession,’ mattered little. The result, but for
puritan resistance, must have been that freedom should yield in
England, as it had yielded in Spain and South Germany, and was
soon to yield in France, to a despotism under priestly direction,
which again could end only in the ruin of civil life, or in its recovery
by the process which relegates religion to women and devotees.

The body of protestant resistance, however, had no organic unity

but that of a common antagonism. Already there was in existence a
sect, not yet directly opposed to presbyterianism, but created by the
demand for a more free spiritual movement than that system
allowed of. The men commonly reckoned as the authors of
independency or congregationalism, an influence which more than
any other has ennobled the plebeian elements of English life, bore
the fitting names of Brown and Robinson. That the brownists were a
well-known sect as early as 1600 is shown by the healthy hatred of
Sir Andrew Aguecheek, who ‘would as lief be a brownist as a
politician.’ It was in 1582, when the puritans were discussing the
propriety of temporary conformity, that Brown wrote his treatise on
‘Reformation, without tarrying for any,’ and by way of not tarrying for
any in his own case, took to preaching nonconformity up and down
the country. After seeing the inside of thirty-two prisons as the
reward of his zeal, he betook himself to Holland, carrying a
congregation with him. This he afterwards left, and it does not seem
{289} certain whether the subsequent brownist congregations were
directly affiliated to it. Certain views of church polity, however, were
current among them, which formed the principles of independency in
later years. The chief of those were the doctrine of the absolute
autonomy of the individual congregation, and the rejection of a
special order of priests or presbyters. Each congregation was to elect
or depose its own officers, the officer who should preach and
administer the sacraments among the rest. When tho number of
communicants in a congregation became too large to meet in any
one place, a new one was to be formed, but no congregation or sum
of congregations was to have any control in regard to doctrine or
discipline over another.

Such a system of church government may not in itself be of more

interest than others. As giving room for a liberty of prophecy which
the rule of bishops or a presbytery denies, its importance was
immense. This appears already in Robinson’s disavowal of the
pretension to theological finality. Robinson, driven from England by
episcopal persecution, had formed a congregation at Leyden. Here,
in regard at least to the reformed churches of the continent, he gave
up the strict separatist doctrine of the original brownists, ‘holding
communion with these churches as far as possible.’ In 1620 the
younger part of his congregation transferred itself to America, where
it founded the colony of New Plymouth. His well-known exhortation
to them at parting breathes a higher spirit of christian freedom than
anything that had been heard since christianity fixed itself in creeds
and churches.

‘If God reveal anything to you by any other instrument of his,

be as ready to receive it as ever you were to receive any truth by
my ministry; for I am verily persuaded the Lord has more truth
yet to break forth out of his holy word. For my part, I cannot
sufficiently bewail the condition of the reformed churches, who
are come to a period in religion, and will go at present no farther
than the instruments of their reformation. The lutherans cannot
be drawn to go beyond what Luther saw; whatever part of his will
God has revealed to Calvin, they will rather die than embrace it;
and the calvinists, you see, stick fast where they were left by that
great man of God, who yet saw not all things. This is a misery
much to be lamented, for though they were burning and shining
lights in their time, yet they penetrated {290} not into the whole
counsel of God, but were they now living, would be as willing to
embrace farther light as that which they first received. I beseech
you remember, it is an article of your church covenant, that you
be ready to receive whatever truth shall be made known to you
from the written word of God. Remember that … for it is not
possible the christian world should come so lately out of such
thick anti-christian darkness, and that perfection of knowledge
should break forth at once.’ [1]

[1] [Neal, Puritans, i. p. 477, Ed. 1837.]

 It is as giving freer scope than any other form of church to this
conviction, that God’s spirit is not bound, that independency has its
historical interest.

During the period of Laud’s persecution the difference between

the presbyterian and independent order of ideas could not come
prominently to view. The court and sacerdotal party would recognise
no distinction but a greater or less violence of opposition to the
ceremonies enforced by the High Commission, and to the
arminianism and Sunday sport, which were the great means, one
inward, the other outward, of evaporating the consciousness of
spiritual privilege and strength. The so-called puritans were mostly
of presbyterian sympathies, but their ministers, though under
frequent suspensions, adhered to their benefices. They were
obliged, indeed, by statute to use no other than the established
liturgy, but no statute then existed, like that passed after the
Restoration, requiring absolute agreement of opinion with everything
contained in the liturgy. The attitude of temporary conformity under
protest might therefore be a legitimate one for a puritan minister; at
any rate it was the one commonly held. A certain number, however,
insisting like the original Brown on a nonconformity that would tarry
for no man, formed separate congregations, and these were known
as Brownists. Their only chance, however, under Laud, was either to
keep in absolute hiding or withdraw to Holland or New England. If
there were many of them in England at the meeting of the Long
Parliament, their presence was due to an order in council of 1634, a
strange instance of the blindness of persecution, which prohibited
emigration to New England without royal licence.

In the Long Parliament, at the time of its meeting, the only

recognised representative of independency was young Sir Harry
Vane. He was not, indeed, properly of the {291} independent or any
other sect. Baxter, who hated him as a despiser of ordinances, gives
him a sect to himself; but he represented that current of thought
which flowed through independence, but could not be contained by
it. His ideas are worth studying, for they are the best expression of
the spirit which struggled into brief and imperfect realisation during
the commonwealth. In his extant treatises, entitled a ‘Retired Man’s
Meditations’ and a ‘Healing Question,’ and in extracts from other
writings preserved by his contemporary biographer Sikes, we find,
under a most involved phraseology and an allegorising interpretation
of scripture, a strange intensity of intellectual aspiration, which, if his
secondary gifts had been those of a poet instead of a politician,
might have made him the rival of Milton. The account of him by
Baxter, who, with all his saintliness, was never able to rise above the
clerical point of view, may be taken to express the result, rather than
the spirit, of his doctrines.

‘His unhappiness lay in this, that his doctrines were so cloudily

formed and expressed, that few could understand them, and
therefore he had but few true disciples. Mr. Sterry is thought to be
of his mind, but he hath not opened himself in writing, and was
so famous for obscurity in preaching (being, said Sir Benjamin
Rudyard, too high for this world and too low for the other) that he
thereby proved almost barren also, and vanity and sterility were
never more happily conjoined’ (a clerical pun). ‘This obscurity was
by some imputed to his not understanding himself; but by others
to design, because he could speak plainly when he listed. The two
courses in which he had most success, and spake most plainly,
were his earnest plea for universal liberty of conscience, and
against the magistrate’s intermeddling with religion, and his
teaching his followers to revile the ministry, calling them
 blackcoats, priests, and other names which then savoured of
reproach.’ [1]

[1] [Reliquiae Baxterianae, p. 76.]

His zeal for liberty of conscience and disrespect for ministers were
early called into play by his experience as governor of
Massachusetts. The eldest son of one of the most successful
courtiers of the time, he had, when a boy, shown a soul that would
not fit his position.

‘About the fourteenth or fifteenth year of my age,’ he said of

himself on the scaffold, ‘God was pleased to lay the foundation or
groundwork of repentance {292} in me … revealing his Son in
me, that … I might, even whilst here in the body, be made
partaker of eternal life.’

In this temper he was sent to Oxford, where he would not take

the oath of supremacy, and was consequently unable to matriculate.
He then spent some time at Geneva. On his return, his
nonconformity gave such offence to the people about court, that the
powers of Laud were applied in a special conference for the purpose,
to bring him to a better mind. The final result is best stated in the
words of a court clergyman: [1]

‘Mr. Comptroller Vane’s eldest son hath left his father, his
mother, his country, and that fortune which his father would have
left him here, and is, for conscience’ sake, gone to New England,
there to lead the rest of his life, being but twenty years of age.
He had abstained two years from taking the sacrament in
England, because he could get no one to administer it to him
standing. He was bred up at Leyden; and I hear that Sir Nathaniel
 Rich and Mr. Pym have done him much hurt in their persuasions
this way.’

Already on the voyage he found that he had not left bigotry

behind him. He had, according to Clarendon, ‘an unusual aspect,
which made men think there was somewhat in him of extraordinary.’
He seems to have had long hair, a lustrous countenance, and the
expression of a man looking not with, but through, his eyes. ‘His
temper was a strong composition of choler and melancholy.’ These
‘circumstances of his person’ and his honourable birth, ‘rendered his
fellow-passengers jealous of him, but he that they thought at first
sight to have too little of Christ for their company, did soon after
appear to have too much for them.’ [2] It appeared notably enough
in the matter of Anne Hutchinson, with whom he had to deal as
governor of Massachusetts, having been chosen to that office soon
after his arrival, while still only twenty-three. This brought him into
direct relation to the spirit which the clergy called sectarian, and of
which he became the mouthpiece and vindicator under the
commonwealth. Let us consider what that spirit was. I have already
ventured to describe faith in the higher lutheran sense as the
absorption of all merely finite and relative virtues, as such, in the
consciousness of union with the infinite God. From this principle, as
extravagances, if we like, but necessary {293} extravagances, are
derived the fanatic sects of the seventeenth century, antinomians,
familists, seekers, quakers. We live perhaps an age too late for
understanding them. The ‘set gray life’ of our interested and
calculating world shuts us out from the time when the consciousness
of spiritual freedom was first awakened and the bible first placed in
the people’s hands. Here was promised a union with, a realisation of,
God; immediate, conscious, without stint, barrier, or limitation. Here,
on the other hand, were spirits thirsting for such intercourse. Who
should say them nay? Who could wonder if they drank so deep of
the divine fulness offered them, that the fixed bounds of law and
morality seemed to be effaced, and the manifestation of God, which
absorbs duty in fruition, to be already complete? The dream of the
sectary was the counterpart in minds where feeling ruled instead of
thought, of the philosophic vision which views the moving world ‘sub
quadam specie aeterni.’ It was the anticipation in moments of
ecstasy and assurance of that which must be to us the ever-
retreating end of God’s work in the world. Its mischief lay in its
attempt to construct a religious life, which is nothing without
external realisation, on an inward and momentary intuition. It is
needless to investigate the history of Mrs. Hutchinson’s antinomian
heresy, which bears the normal type. It expressed the consciousness
of the communication of God to the individual soul apart from
outward act or sign. Its formula was that sanctification, i.e. a holy
life, was no evidence of justification; and this again was said to lead
to a heresy as to the nature and operation of the Holy Ghost.
Practically, perhaps, it was the result of reaction from the rule of
outward austerity under which she lived. It must have escaped
persecution, had she not employed it (in this, again, anticipating the
sectaries of the commonwealth) as a weapon of offence against the
puritan ministers. It was the custom in the colony to hold weekly
exercises, in which lay people expounded and enforced the sermons
heard on Sunday. Mrs. Hutchinson was allowed to hold such an
exercise for women, and unhappily soon turned exposition into
hostile criticism. This roused the fury of the more rigid professors,
who demanded her death as a heretic. Vane protected her, and in
consequence, though supported by the Boston people, was
superseded by Winthrop in the annual election of governor. This led,
soon afterwards, to his return {294} to England; not, however,
before Roger Williams had, through Vane’s influence with the
Indians, obtained a settlement at Rhode Island, and there, for the
first time in Christian history, founded a political society on the basis
of perfect freedom of opinion. In Rhode Island Mrs. Hutchinson
found shelter, but was pursued by the clergy with hideous stories of
her witchcraft and commune with the devil. These Baxter with
malignant credulity was not ashamed to accept, and to ascribe her
cruel murder by the Indians to the judgment of heaven.

[1] [Strafford’s Letters, i. p. 463.]

[2] [The life and Death of Sir Henry Vane, by George Sikes, p. 8,
Ed. 1662.]

I dwell at some length on this story, because it exhibits in little the

forces whose strife, tempered but not governed by the practical
genius and stern purpose of Cromwell, formed the tragedy of the
commonwealth. Here we find the puritan enthusiasm by a necessary
process, when freed from worldly restraints, issuing in the sectarian
enthusiasm, and then weaning and casting out the child that it has
borne. We see the rent which such schism makes in a society
founded not on adjustment of interests but on unity of opinion, and
may judge how fatal this breach must be when the society so
founded, like the republic in England, is but the sudden creation of a
minority, and exists, not in a new country with boundless room
where the cast-off child may find shelter, but in the presence of
ancient interests, which it ignores but can neither suppress nor
withdraw from, and in the midst of an old and haughty people,
proud in arms, whom it claims to rule but does not represent. In
detachment from both parties stands the clear spirit of Vane, strong
in a principle which can give its due to both alike, yet weak from its
very refusal to obscure its clearness by compromise with either. This
principle, which became the better genius of independence in its
conflict with presbyterianism, I will endeavour to state as Vane
himself conceived it.

The work of creation in time, he held, which did but reflect the
process by which the Father begets the eternal Son, involved two
elements, the purely spiritual or angelic, represented by heaven or
the light, on the one hand, and the material and animal on the other,
represented by the earth. Man, as made of dust in the image of God,
includes both, and his history was a gradual progress upward from a
state which would be merely that of the animals but for the fatal gift
of rational will, to a life of pure spirituality, which he {295}
represented as angelic, a life which should consist in ‘the exercise of
senses merely spiritual and inward, exceeding high, intuitive and
comprehensive.’ This process of spiritual sublimation, treating the
spirit under the figure of light or of a ‘consuming fire,’ he described
as the consuming and dissolving of all objects of outward sense, and
a destruction of the earthly tabernacle, while that which is from
heaven is being gradually put on. In the conscience of man, the
process had three principal stages, called by Vane the natural, legal,
and evangelical conscience. The natural conscience was the light of
those who, having not the law, were by nature a law unto
themselves. It was the source of ordinary right and obligation. ‘The
original impressions of just laws are in man’s nature and very
constitution of being.’ These impressions were at once the source
and the limit of the authority of the magistrate. The legal conscience
was the source of the ordinances and dogmas of the christian. It
belongs to the champions of the covenant of grace as much as to
their adversaries. It represents the stage in which the christian clings
to rule, letter, and privilege. It too had its value, but fell short of the
evangelical conscience, of the stage in which the human spirit,
perfectly conformed to Christ’s death and resurrection, crucified to
outward desire and ordinance, holds intercourse ‘high, intuitive and
comprehensive’ with the divine.

Doctrine of this kind is familiar enough to the student of

theosophic and cosmogonic speculation. Whether Vane in his foreign
travels had fallen in with the writings of Jacob Boehme we cannot
say, but the family likeness is strong. The interest of the doctrine for
us lies in its application to practical statesmanship by the keenest
politician of a time when politicians were keen and strong. That it
should have been so applied has been a sore stumbling-block to two
classes of men not unfrequently found in alliance, sensational
philosophers, and theologians who find the way of salvation in
scripture construed as an act of parliament. The man above
ordinances, as Vane was called by his contemporaries, [1] was
naturally not a favourite with men whom he would have reckoned in
bondage to the legal conscience. Baxter’s opinion of him has been
already quoted. To the lawyers, calling themselves theologians, of
the next century he was even less intelligible. Burnet had ‘sometimes
taken pains to see if I could find out his meaning in his words, yet I
could never reach it. And since many others {296} have said the
same, it may be reasonable to believe that he hid somewhat that
was a necessary key to the rest.’ [2] Clarendon had been more
modest; when he had read some of his writings and ‘found nothing
in them of his usual clearness and ratiocination in his discourse, in
which he used much to excel the best of the company he kept’ (the
company, we must remember, that called Milton friend), ‘and that in
a crowd of very easy words the sense was too hard to find out, I
was of opinion that the subject of it was of so delicate a nature that
it required another kind of preparation of mind, and perhaps another
kind of diet, than men are ordinarily supplied with.’ [3] Hume was
superior to such a supposition; ‘This man, so celebrated for his
parliamentary talents, and for his capacity in business, has left some
writings behind him. They treat all of them of religious subjects and
are absolutely unintelligible. No traces of eloquence, even of
common sense, appear in them.’ In this language is noticeable a
certain resentment common to men of the world and practical
philosophers, that a man whom they deem a fool in his philosophy
should not be a fool altogether. From his derided theosophy,
however, Vane had derived certain practical principles, now of
recognised value, which no statesman before him had dreamt of,
and which were not less potent when based on religious ideas
struggling for articulate utterance, than when stated by the masters
of an elegant vocabulary from which God and spirit were excluded.

[1] [Amended from “cotemporary”. Tr.]

[2] [Burnet, Own Time, p. 108, Ed. 1838.]

[3] [Clarendon on ‘Creasy’s answer to Stillingfleet,’ as quoted in

the Biographia Britannica (art. ‘Vane.’)]
LECTURE II.

In Vane first appears the doctrine of natural right and government

by consent, which, however open to criticism in the crude form of
popular statement, has yet been the moving principle of the modern
reconstruction of Europe. It was the result of his recognition of the
‘rule of Christ in the natural conscience’ in the elemental reason, in
virtue of which man is properly a law to himself. From the same idea
followed the principle of universal toleration, the exclusion of the
magistrate’s power alike from the maintenance and restraint of any
kind of opinion. This principle did not {297} with Vane and the
independents rest, as in modern times, on the slippery foundation of
a supposed indifference of all religious beliefs, but on the conviction
of the sacredness of the reason, however deluded, in every man,
which may be constrained by nothing less divine than itself.

‘The rule of magistracy’ says Vane, ‘is not to intrude itself into
the office and proper concerns of Christ’s inward government and
rule in the conscience, but it is to content itself with the outward
man, and to intermeddle with the concerns thereof in reference to
the converse which man ought to have with man, upon the
grounds of natural justice and right in things appertaining to this
life.’ [1]
 [1] [‘A Retired Man’s Meditations,’ (quoted by Forster, Eminent
British Statesmen, iv. p. 84).]

Nor would he allow the re-establishment under the name of

christian discipline, of that constraint of the conscience which he
refused to the magistrate. Such discipline, he would hold, as he held
the sabbath, to be rather a ‘magistratical institution’ in imitation of
what was ‘ceremonious and temporary’ among the Jews, ‘than that
which hath any clear appointment in the gospel.’ [1] Christ’s spirit
was not bound. A system of truth and discipline had not been
written down once for all in the scriptures, but rather was to be
gradually elicited from the scriptures by the gradual manifestation in
the believer of the spirit which spoke also in them. A ‘waiting,’
seeking attitude, unbound by rule whether ecclesiastical or secular,
was that which became a spiritual church. The application of this
waiting spirit to practical life is to be found in the policy of Cromwell.

[1] [Sikes, quoted by Forster, ib. p. 81, note.]

It would be unfair to ascribe the theory of Vane in its speculative

fulness to the independents as a body. It seems, however, to be but
the development of the view on which Mr. Robinson had dwelt in his
last words to the settlers of New Plymouth; and, so far as it could be
represented by a sect, it was represented by the independents. It
came before the world, in full outward panoply, in the army of
Cromwell. The history of its inevitable conflict with the spirit of
presbyterianism on the one hand and the wisdom of the world on
the other, of its aberrations and perplexities, of its brief triumph and
final flight into the wilderness, is the history of the rise and fall of
the English commonwealth. I have yet {298} to speak, however, of
the representation of the wisdom of the world in the Long
Parliament.

Before the outbreak of the war, as I have explained, Vane was the
only man in the house of commons whose opinions were recognised
as definitely opposed both to episcopacy and presbyterianism. In the
lords his only recognised follower was lord Brook, known to the
readers of Sir Walter Scott as the ‘fanatic Brook,’ really an eminent
scholar and man of letters, who was shot in storming the close at
Lichfield in the first year of the war, leaving as a legacy to the
parliament a plea for freedom of speech and conscience. The
majority of the parliament, however, had no special love for the
presbyterian discipline and theology. Their favour to it was merely
negative. They dreaded arminianism, as notoriously at that time the
great weapon in the hands of the jesuits; they objected to the high
episcopacy as sacerdotal, and as maintaining a jurisdiction
incompatible with civil liberty. In 1641 a modified episcopacy on
Usher’s plan was a possible solution of the difficulty. Each shire was
to have a presbytery of twelve members, with a bishop as president
who, ‘with assistance of some of the presbytery,’ was to ordain,
degrade, and excommunicate. Though the pressure of strife with the
king prevented anything being done to carry out this resolution, it
probably represented the views even of the more advanced
parliamentary leaders; but only, however, as afterwards appeared,
on the supposition that the presbyters with their bishop should be
strictly under civil control. The worldly wisdom of the Long
Parliament was, in the party language of the times, essentially
erastian.

As the presbyterian claims mounted higher, this became more

apparent. The calling of the assembly of divines, and the adoption of
the covenant, might seem to give presbyterianism a sufficiently
broad charter of privilege; yet both these steps were taken by
parliament with restrictions which showed its temper. The ordinance
which called the assembly gave it power ‘until further order should
be taken by parliament to confer of such matters concerning the
liturgy, discipline, and government of the church of England, or the
vindicating of the doctrine of the same from false aspersions and
misconstructions, as shall be proposed by both or either house of
parliament, and no other.’ [1] It concludes by providing {299} that
‘this ordinance shall not give them, nor shall they in this assembly
assume to exercise, any jurisdiction, power, or authority
ecclesiastical whatsoever, or any other power than is herein
particularly expressed.’ This document has nothing revolutionary
about it. It is the natural utterance of what Brook pronounced to
have been an ‘episcopal and erastian parliament of conformists.’ This
parliament, however, had soon under military necessity to raise a
spirit which no episcopacy or erastianism could lay. The divines came
to Westminster, according to Brook, all conformists, with the
exception of eight or nine independents. They came, that is, from
the cooling atmosphere of benefices, and had not yet begun to
discuss the liturgy or object to a modified episcopacy. If they came
conformists, however, they did not long remain so. Contact with
each other, and the applause of London congregations, essentially
presbyterian in their sympathies, bred a warmer temper. The
introduction of the Scotch commissioners, and the adoption of the
covenant, gave spirit and strength to their disciplinarian humour, and
in a few months, men who had come to the assembly anxious only
for some restraint on episcopal tyranny, were clamouring for the
establishment of presbyterianism as jure divino.

[1] [Rushworth, June 12. 1643.]

 I have spoken of the adoption of the covenant in England as
matter of military necessity. It was the condition of alliance between
parliament and the Scotch; without this alliance the year 1644 would
in all probability have been fatal to the parliamentary cause.
Supposing the Scotch army to have simply held aloof, the royal party
would have been so triumphant in the north as to enable the king to
advance with irresistible force on Lichfield. Till the parliament had
secured it, however, it could not be trusted to stand aloof; it might
at any time have been gained for the king by his consenting, as he
did too late in 1648, to the covenant. The English negotiators, of
whom Vane was the chief, had hoped to secure the alliance by a
merely civil league, and when the Scotch insisted on the adoption of
the religious covenant, they still succeeded in having the document
entitled ‘league and covenant’ instead of ‘covenant’ alone. In later
years, as we shall see, they always insisted on interpreting it as a
league in virtue of which each kingdom was to help the other in the
establishment of what religion it chose, not as binding either to any
particular form. {300} The desirableness of such interpretation is
more obvious than its correctness. By the first and second clauses,
as they originally stood, the covenanters bound themselves to ‘the
preservation of the reformed religion in Scotland,’ and ‘the
reformation of religion in England and Ireland, in doctrine, worship,
discipline and government’; also to the ‘extirpation of prelacy.’ After
the words ‘reformation etc.’ Vane procured the insertion of the
qualification ‘according to the word of God,’ in order to avoid
committal to any particular form. To ease the conscience of those
who favoured Usher’s form of episcopacy, prelacy was interpreted to
mean ‘church government by archbishops, bishops, their chancellors
and commissaries, deans, chapters, archdeacons, and all other
ecclesiastical officers depending on that hierarchy.’ This modified
covenant was taken by the parliament and the assembly at
Westminster, and enjoined on every one over the age of eighteen.
Practically it was by no means universally imposed even on the
clergy; in Baxter’s neighbourhood none took it. Still, its operation
was to eject from their livings some two thousand clergymen, whose
places were mostly filled by presbyterians. A shifty and exacting
alliance was thus dearly purchased at the cost of at once spreading
loose over the country an uncontrolled element of disaffection to the
parliament, and giving vent to a spirit of ecclesiastical arrogance
which would soon demand to rule alone. This spirit was not long in
showing itself. The Scotch army entered England at the beginning of
1644, and throughout that year the kirk, either by petition or
through the commons in England, was pressing for a presbyterian
settlement of church government in England. At last the assembly,
still under special permission from parliament, was allowed to
proceed to the discussion of this question. The first step was to
propose a vote in the assembly that presbyterian government was
jure divino. The only opponents of this decree were the small band
of independents headed by Goodwin, the lay assessors Selden and
Whitelock representing the erastian majority in parliament, whose
only clerical supporter seems to have been Lightfoot the Hebraist.
Selden, a layman of vast ecclesiastical lore, had a way of touching
the sorest points of clerical feeling. In 1618 he had written his great
work disproving the divine origin of tithes, and had been brought, in
consequence, before the {301} High Commission court. There, with
the ordinary suppleness of the erastian conscience, he signed the
following recantation: [1]

‘My good lords, I most humbly acknowledge my error in

publishing the history of tithes, and especially in that I have at all
(by shewing any interpretation of scripture, or by meddling with
 councils, canons, fathers, or by what else soever occurs in it)
offered any occasion of argument against any right of
maintenance jure divino of the ministers of the gospel;
beseeching your lordships to receive this ingenuous and humble
acknowledgment, together with the unfeigned protestation of my
grief, that I have so incurred his majesty’s and your lordships’
displeasure.’

[1] [Neal, Puritans, i. p. 471.]

The consciousness of debasement does not strengthen one’s

affection for those who have been the occasion of it, and perhaps
Selden’s remembrance of his usage by the ‘old priest’ may not have
quickened his friendship for the ‘new presbyter.’ ‘In the debates of
the divines,’ says Whitelock, ‘Mr. Selden spoke admirably and
confuted divers of them in their own learning. Sometimes when they
had cited a text of scripture to prove their assertion, he would tell
them, “Perhaps in your little pocket bibles with gilt leaves (which
they would often pull out and read) the translation may be thus, but
the Greek or the Hebrew signifies thus and thus,” and so would
totally silence them.’ [1] Whitelock himself opposed much grave law-
logic to the claims of the divines, which he quotes at length in his
memoirs, but his most satisfactory argument, to modern ears, is the
simple one, ‘If this presbyterian government be not jure divino, no
opinion of any council can make it to be what it is not; and if it be
jure divino, it continues so still, although you do not declare it to be
so.’ [2] The divines, however, thought otherwise. Presbyterianism
was duly voted jure divino, and parliament in 1645 was applied to to
enforce the jus divinum under pains and penalties. That the
presbyterian jus was divinum parliament could never be induced to
decide. It was very near doing so on one occasion, when the divines
had contrived to bring the question on in a packed house, but by the
skill of sergeant Glyn and Whitelock in talking against time the
danger was averted. At length, however, under pressure from the
Scots and city of London, it established a presbyterian régime. This
régime, {302} never carried out save in London and Lancashire, was
the same in kind as that existing in Scotland, except that the ‘kirk
session’ was called a parochial presbytery, and the combination of
parochial presbyteries not a presbytery as in Scotland, but a ‘classis.’
This was referred to in Milton’s lines,

‘To ride us with a classic hierarchy

Taught ye by mere A.S. and Rutherford.’ [3]

It was established, however, with such erastian limitations that

while it excluded the independents, it gave no satisfaction to the
Scots. The independent principle was violated on two points; both by
the subjection of the independent congregation to the ‘classis,’ and
by the method of ordination adopted which recognised the presbyter
as of a distinct order, to be set apart by other presbyters, instead of
as a simple officer appointed by a single congregation. The
thoroughgoing presbyterians were alienated by the refusal to the
church of the absolute power of the keys. The offences for which the
presbyteries were allowed to suspend from the sacrament or
excommunicate were distinctly enumerated, and an ultimate appeal,
in all ecclesiastical cases, was given to the parliament. The whole
system, moreover, was declared for the present merely provisional.
The restrictions at once raised an outcry among the Scots and the
presbyterians of the city, and the assembly itself was bold enough to
vote a condemnation of the clause giving a final appeal to
parliament. A seasonable threat of a praemunire, however, from the
commons, laid the rising dust in the assembly; but the mounting
spirit of the new forcers of conscience was shown in the opposition
made to the petition which the independents offered to parliament,
that their congregations might have the right of ordination within
themselves, and that they might not be brought under the power of
the ‘presbyterian classes.’ It would be tedious to follow the war of
committees, sermons, pamphlets, which this request, modest in
itself, and more modest in form, excited. The assembly, the city, the
Scotch parliament, urged the maintenance of an absolute uniformity.
No plea of conscience was to be listened to. To admit one was to
admit all. The independent claim was schismatic, and, as such,
excluded by the covenant. In the words of a pamphlet of the time;
‘to let men serve God {303} according to conscience is to cast out
one devil that seven worse may enter.’ The new synod of the city
clergy, meeting at Sion House, petitioned the assembly to oppose
with all their might ‘the great Diana of the independents,’ and not to
suffer their new establishment ‘to be strangled in the birth by a
lawless toleration.’ The language of the Scotch parliament,
addressed through their president to the two houses at Westminster,
was specially high and irritating. ‘It is expected,’ says the president,
‘that the honourable houses will add the civil sanction to what the
assembly have advised. I am commanded by the parliament of this
kingdom to demand it, and in their name do demand it.’ The temper
in which this demand was made, was shown by a declaration against
‘liberty of conscience and toleration of sectaries,’ published at the
same time by the Scotch, in which, after taking due note of ‘their
own great services,’ they announce that, ‘being all bound by one
covenant, they will go on to the last man of the kingdom in opposing
that party in England which was endeavouring to supplant true
religion by pleading for liberty of conscience.’ Evidence might be
tediously multiplied to show, that if Marston Moor and Naseby had
been won by the Scots and the trained bands of the city, the civil
sword would really have been applied ‘to force the consciences
which Christ set free,’ at a time when these consciences were at
their quickest, to a conformity, if not more oppressive than that
exacted by Laud, yet more fatal to intellectual freedom.

[1] [Whitelock, Memorials, i. p. 209, Ed. 1853.]

[2] [Whitelock, i. p. 294.]

[3] [On the new forcers of conscience under the Long Parliament.]

Meanwhile the parliamentary erastians had a power at their back,

no child of their own, too strong for the Scots and the assembly, and
soon to prove too strong for parliament itself. The first note of alarm
at this power had been sounded by the wary Scots about the end of
1644.

‘One evening,’ says Whitelock, ‘Maynard and I were sent for by

the Lord General’ (Essex) ‘to Essex House. There we found with
him the Scotch commissioners, Mr. Hollis, Sir Philip Stapleton’
(presbyterian leaders in the commons) ‘and others of his special
friends. After compliments, and that all were set down in council,
the lord chancellor of Scotland was called on to explain the matter
on which he desired the opinion of Maynard and Whitelock. ‘Ye
ken verra weel that lieutenant-general Cromwell is no friend of
ours, and not only is he no friend to us and to the government of
our church, but he is also no well-wisher to his excellency” {304}
(Essex), “whom you and we all have cause to love and honour;
and if he be permitted to go on his ways, it may endanger the
whole business; therefore we are to advise of some course to be
taken for prevention of this business. Ye ken verra weel the
 accord’ ’twixt the two kingdoms, and the union by the solemn
league and covenant, and if any be an incendiary between the
two nations, how he is to be proceeded against. Now the matter
is, wherein we desire your opinions, what you tak the meaning of
this word incendiary to be, and whether lieutenant-general
Cromwell be not sike an incendiary as is meant thereby, and
which way wad be best to tak to proceed against him, if he be
proved to be sike an incendiary, and that will clepe his wings from
soaring to the prejudice of our cause. Now, ye may ken that by
our laws in Scotland we clepe him an incendiary whay kindleth
coals of contention in the state to the public damage; whether
your law be the same or not, ye ken best who are mickle learned
therein; and therefore, with the favour of his excellency, we desire
your judgment in these points.”’ [1]

In reply, Maynard and Whitelock, after much disquisition on the

meaning of the word ‘incendiary,’ one ‘not much conversant in our
law,’ explain that lieutenant-general Cromwell is ‘a gentleman of
quick and subtle parts, and one who hath (especially of late) gained
no small interest in the house of commons, nor is he wanting of
friends in the house of peers, nor of abilities in himself to manage
his own defence to the best advantage,’ and that on the whole, till
more particular proof of his incendiarism should be forthcoming, it
would be better not to bring the matter before parliament. The
incendiarism of lieutenant-general Cromwell really consisted in this,
that he had (again to quote Whitelock) ‘a brave regiment of horse of
his countrymen, most of them freeholders, or freeholders’ sons, who
upon matter of conscience engaged in this quarrel. And thus being
well armed within by satisfaction of their own consciences, and
without by good iron arms, they would as one man stand firmly and
charge desperately.’ [2] Nearly every military success of importance
that had been won for the parliament had been won by these
soldiers of conscience, and unhappily their conscience was not of a
kind that would brook presbyterian uniformity. At the time of the
conference at Essex House, {305} Cromwell, with the help of the
persuasive arts of Vane, was moving the parliament, disgusted with
the practical inefficiency of its conservative and presbyterian
commanders, to measures which would give it an army led by
officers mostly of his own training, and fired by that religious
inspiration of which freedom of conscience was the necessary
condition.

[1] [Whitelock, i. pp. 343-7.]

[2] [ib. i. p. 209.]

The story of the new-modelling of the army, of the self-denying

ordinance, and of the special exemption of Cromwell from its
operations, is too well known to need repetition. Two points deserve
special notice; one, the long discussion against the imposition of the
covenant on the new army, ending in an ordinance of parliament
after the army was already formed, that it should be taken by the
officers within twenty days, which does not appear to have been
ever carried into effect; the other, that the self-denying ordinance, as
originally passed by the commons, excluded from military command,
during the war, all members of either house of parliament. It would
thus have been general and prospective in its operation. In this
form, the lords, with judicial blindness, rejected it. The commons
then sent it up in a new form, merely discharging from their present
commands those who were at present members of either house of
parliament. In this form it was passed, and thus when Vane at the
end of 1645 carried a measure, declaring vacant the seats of those
members who had adhered to the king and ordering them to be
filled, the officers of the new-model army were eligible, and elected
in large numbers. If the party of the army and the sectaries had not
thus gained a footing in the house, the course of history would
probably have been very different.

The new-model army went to the war, according to May, the clerk
of the Long parliament, ‘without the confidence of their friends and
an object of contempt to their enemies.’ [1] Their outward triumph it
is needless to describe; we should rather seek to appreciate the
nature of the spiritual triumph which the outward one involved. It
used to be the fashion to treat the sectarian enthusiasm of the
‘Ironsides’ as created, or at least stimulated, by Cromwell. The army
went mad, and it was to gain Cromwell’s private ends. The prevalent
conception of our time, that the great men of history have not
created popular ideas or events, but merely expressed or {306}
realised them with special effect, excludes such a view. The
sectarian enthusiasm, as we have seen, was a necessary result of
the consciousness of spiritual right elicited by the Reformation,
where this consciousness had not, as in Scotland, been early made
the foundation of a popular church, but had been long left to
struggle in the dark against an unsympathetic clergy and a regulated
ceremonial worship. The spirit which could not ‘find itself’ in the
authoritative utterance of prelates, or express its yearnings
unutterable in a stinted liturgy, was not likely, when war had given it
vent and stimulus, to acquiesce in a new uniformity as exact as that
from which it had broken. It had tasted a new and dangerous food.
Taught as it had been to wait on God, in search for new revelations
of him, it now read this lesson by the stronger light of personal
deliverances and achievements, and found in the tumultuous
experience of war at once the expression and the justification of its
own inward tumult.

[1] [Breviary of the History of the Long Parliament, Maseres,

Tracts, i. 74.]

It is a notion which governs much of the popular thought of the

present day, and which the most cultivated ‘men of feeling’ are not
ashamed to express, that the world is atheised when we regard it as
a universe of general laws, equally relentless or equally merciful to
the evil and to the good. If such a notion, through mere impatience
of thought, can dominate an educated age, we may well excuse
uncultivated men, who clung close to God, for believing him to
manifest himself to his favoured people by sudden visitation and
unaccountable events. This was indeed the received belief of
Christendom at the time of our civil war. The man who was to
vindicate a higher reason for God’s providence, and to be called an
atheist for doing so, was still at Mr. van den Ende’s school in
Amsterdam. It was in the realisation of the belief by individuals that
the difference lay. Where the bible was not in the hands of the
people, it could be regulated by priests and ceremonial. Elsewhere it
was controllable by state-churches, or by ecclesiastical authority,
claiming to be jure divino like the presbyterian, and which appealed
to popular reason, but to this reason as regulated by fitting
education and discipline. Everywhere, in ordinary times, law and
custom would put a veil on the face which the believer turned
towards God. But now in England the bands were altogether loosed.
Enthusiasts who had been waiting darkly on God while he was
hidden behind established {307} worships and ministrations of the
letter, who had heard his voice in their hearts but seen no sign of
him in the world, were now enacting his work themselves, and
reading his strange providences on the field of battle. Their own
right hand was ‘teaching them terrible things.’ Here was the
revelation of the latter days, for which they had been bidden to wait.
That which they had sought for literally ‘with strong crying and
tears,’ which they had not found in the system of the church, in the
reasoning of divines, in the ungodly jangle of the law, was visible
and audible in war. There

God glowed above

With scarce an intervention …
… his soul o’er theirs.
They felt him, nor by painful reason knew.’ [1]

[1] [ ‘My own East!

How nearer God we were. He glows above
With scarce an intervention, presses close
And palpitatingly, his soul o’er ours!
We feel him, nor by painful reason know!’
BROWNING, Luria.]

Henceforth, whatever authority claimed their submission as divine,

must come home to their conscience with a like directness, and this
the jus divinum of the presbyterians failed to do. This new spiritual
force the ministers had left to itself. While they were wrangling at
Westminster or settling warmly into the berths which the episcopal
clergy had vacated, it had been gathering strength unheeded. At the
outbreak of the war each regiment had a regular minister as its
chaplain, but after the battle at Edgehill made it clear that the
business would be a longer one than had been expected, these
divines, according to Baxter, withdrew either to the assembly or to
their livings. Baxter himself lost an opportunity which he afterwards
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