Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Flowers are the sexual reproductive structures of the plant (angiosperms). The diversity in the
structures of the inflorescences, flowers and floral parts shows range of adaptations to for the end
products of sexual reproduction-the fruits and seeds.
Flower
It contains the following structures
1) Accessory parts
a. Sepals b. Petals
2. Reproductive parts
a. Androecium b. Gynoecium
The sexual reproduction in a flower can be studies in the following events.
1. Pre-fertilization events
2. Fertilization
3. Post-fertilization events

Pre-fertilization- structures and events

 The development of the flower from the floral primordial is influenced by the hormones.
 This leads to the differentiation of the floral primordial. In the flower the male and female
reproductive structures – the androecium and gynoecium differentiate and develop.
 The androecium consists of male reproductive organs- the whorl of stamens.
 The gynoecium represents the female reproductive organs with stigma, style and ovary as
its parts.

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain

Stamen: It consists of filament and anther. Filament is the long and slender stalk.
 The filament is attached to the thalamus or the petals of the flower.
 The free end of the filament generally has bi-lobed, club shaped structure called anther.
 Each bi-lobed anther has 2 theca ; hence it is called as dithecous.
 The longitudinal groove separates the theca.
 The anther is a four sided structure with four microsporangia located at the corners, two
in each lobe.
 The microsporangia develop and become pollen sacs. Pollen sacs are filled with pollen

grains.
STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM
A typical microsporangium appears nearly circular in outline.
It is surrounded by four wall layers.
1) Epidermis 2) Endothecium 2) Middle layers 4) Tapetum
 The outer three wall layers perform the function of protection and help in dehiscence of
anther to release the pollen.
 The innermost layer tapetum, nourishes the developing pollen grains.
 The cells o the tapetum has dense cytoplasm and generally has more than one nucleus.
 In the young anther, sporogenous tissue is present in the centre of microsporangium.
Sporogenous tissue is a group of compactly arranged homogenous cells.

MICROSPOROGENESIS
 The process of formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell (PMC) through
meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
 As the anther develops the cell of the sporogenous tissue undergoes meiotic divisions to
form microspore tetrads.
 Each cell of the sporogenous tissue gives rise to microspore tetrad (arranged in cluster of
4 cells). As the anther matures and dehydrates, the microspores dissociate from the
cluster and develop into pollen grains.
 Each microsporangium consists of thousands of microspore or pollen grains.

POLLEN GRAIN
 Pollen grains represent the male gametophytes.
 Pollen grains are spherical measuring about 25-50 mm in diameter.
 It has two layered walls- outer exine & inner intine.
 Exine is hard and made up of sporopollenin.
 Sporopollenin is one of the most resistant organic materials, which can withstand high
temperatures, strong acids and alkali. No enzyme that degrades sporopollenin is so far
known.
 Intine is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
  Pollen grain exine has prominent apertures called germ pore where sporopollenin is

absent.

 The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded by plasma membrane.

 The mature pollen grain contains two cells – the vegetation cell and generative cell.
 The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped
nucleus.
 The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It is spindle
shaped with dense cytoplasm and nucleus.
 In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at 2- celled stage.
 In the remaining species the generative cell undergoes mitosis to form two male gametes
before pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage).

VIABILITY OF POLLEN GRAINS

 Once the pollen grains are shed, they have to land on stigma to fertilize the ovule before
losing their viability.
 The viability of pollen grains is highly variable and also depends on temperature and
humidity.
 In cereals like rice and wheat, pollen grains loose viability within 30 minutes of
 In Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae, the viability remains for months.
 NOTE: Pollen grains can be stored years together in liquid nitrogen in -1960C. Such
pollen grains can be used in crop breeding programs. The stored pollen bank is similar to
seed bank.

SIGNIFICANCE OF POLLEN GRAINS

 Pollen grains fuses with the ovule and helps in the production of seeds.
 Pollen grains are rich in nutrients and used as pollen tablets as food supplements.
 In western countries, pollen products are available in the form of tablets and syrups.
 Pollen consumption has been claimed to increase the performance of athletes and race
horses.
 NOTE: Pollen grains of many species, causes severe allergy and bronchial afflictions
leading to chronic respiratory disorders like asthma, bronchitis etc. ex:-Parthenium or
carrot grass pollen causes allergy.

THE PISTIL MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE) AND EMBRYO

THE PISTIL
The pistil or the gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower. It consists of a
swollen base – the ovary (with ovules), a style arising from the ovary and a pollen receptive tip,
the stigma.
OVARY
 It is the based bulged part of the pistil or carpel.
 It is a hollow structure with one or many chambers called ovarian cavity or locules.
 The areas where ovules are attached within ovaries are called placenta.
 The arrangement of ovules on the placenta in the locules is called placentation.

TYPES OF OVARY
1) Mono-carpellary – It is the gynoecium with a single pistil – ex: Mango.
2) Multi-carpellary – Gynoecium with more than one pistil.
3) Syncarpous ovary: A gynoecium with 2 or more pistil fused ex: Tomato
4) Apocarpous ovary: A gynoecium with 2 or more free pistil. Ex: Rose, Lotus, Strawberry
The placenta shows the attachment of ovules or the megasporangia. The ovules in an ovary may
be one ex: Wheat, Paddy, Mango or many ex: Papaya, Watermelon.
THE MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE)
 A typical anatropous ovule consists of following structure.
 The ovule is attached to the placenta by means of a stalk called funicle. In anatropous
ovule, the funicle is bent and the micropyle faces the placenta.
 The body of the ovule fuses with funicle in the region called hilum. It is junction between
ovule and the funicle.


 Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments.
 Integuments cover the ovule except at the tip where there is a small opening called
micropyle.
  Opposite to the micropyle is the chalaza, which represents the basal part of the ovule.
 Within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called nucellus with rich reserve food
materials.
 Embryo sac or female gametophyte is located in the nucellus. The embryo sac is formed
from a megaspore through reduction division.

MEGASPOROGENESIS
 The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called
megasporogenesis.
 Ovule gives rise to a single megaspore mother cell in the micropylar region of the
nucellus.
 Megaspore mother cell is a large cell with dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
 The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiotic and results in production of 4 megaspores.
 In majority of angiosperms, one of the megaspores is functional while the other three
degenerate, since the embryo sac develops from a single megaspore, it is called
monosporic development.


EMBRYOSAC OR FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
 One of the functional megaspore nuclei undergoes mitosis to form two nuclei.
 The nuclei starts moving to the opposite poles to form the 2 nucleate embryo sac.
 Both the nuclei divide again to give rise to 4 nuclear stages, followed by 8 nuclear stage
of the embryo sac.
 Up to this stage, the mitotic division is only free nuclear. It is the nuclear division which
is immediately not followed by cell wall formation.
 These 8 nuclei arrange themselves to form the embryo sac or female gametophyte.


 Six of the eight nuclei starts developing the cell wall and forms the cell. Remaining two
nuclei called polar nuclei are situated below egg apparatus in the large central cell,
 The three cells arranged at the micropylar end forms the egg apparatus with two
synergids and one egg cell.
  The synergids have special thickenings at the micropylar tip called filliform apparatus
which guides the pollen tube into the synergids.
 Three cells at chalazal end forms the antipodals.
 Hence embryo sac has 8 –nucleus and 7 cells.

POLLINATION
Both the male and female gametes in the flowering plants are non-motile. They need a
mechanism to bring the gametes near to each other. This happens through the process of
pollination.
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is known as pollination.
KINDS OF POLLINATION
Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be divided into 3 types.
(1) AUTOGAMY
This is the type of pollination, when pollen is transferred from an anther to a stigma of the same
flower. Autogamy requires synchrony in pollen release and receptivity.
Anther and stigma should lie close to each other. In plants like viola, oxalis and commelina –
two types of flowers are produced. They are
a) Chasmogamous flowers – open flowers with exposed anther and stigma.
b) Cleistogamous flowers – closed flowers or flowers which do not open at all. Here anther
and stigma lie close to each other.

c)
(2) GEITONOGAMY
In this type of pollination, transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower of the same plant takes place.
It can be called as cross pollination, but the genes are similar in pollen grains as well as the egg.
(3) XENOGAMY
It is also called as cross pollination, where pollination takes place between flowers borne by two
different plants belonging to same species.
This process brings about genetic recombination and variation.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION
It can be classified into abiotic and biotic agents.

POLLINATION BY WIND (ANEMOPHILY)

It is the most common among the abiotic agents. Ex:- Maize, grasses.
CHARACTERISTCS OF WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS
  Pollen grains produced by these flowers are light and non-sticky.
 They have well exposed stamens.
 Stigma feathery to trap air borne pollen grains.
 They have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an
inflorescence.
 Ex:- Corn cob tassels are stigma or style which wane in the wind to trap pollen grains.

POLLINATION BY WATER OR HYDROPHILY

 Pollination by water is called hydrophily.
 It is a rare process and limited to 30 genera and they are mostly mono cotyledons.
 Water is the mode of transport for the male gametes among the lower group of
organisms.
 Ex: algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes.
 The distribution of some bryophytes and pteridophytes are limited because they need
water for the distribution of male gametes and fertilization.
 In a major group of aquatic plants, flowers emerge from the water level and get pollinated
by insects or wind.
 Ex:- water hyacinth and water lily.
 In vallisnaria, the female flowers reach the surface of the water by the long stalk. Male
flowers release pollen grains on water, which are carried by water currents and reach the
stigma.
 In the sea grasses (Zostera), the female flowers are submerged and pollen grains are also
released in the water. Pollen grains are long ribbon like, which are passively carried by
the water to reach stigma.
 In most water pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from wetting by a
mucilaginous covering.
 The flowers produced are not colorful and do not produce nectar.
 The pollen grains do not possess exine.

POLLINATION THROUGH ANIMALS OR ZOOPHILY

Pollination through animals is called as zoophily.
Ex:- Bees, Butterflies, Flies, Beetles, Wasps, Ants, Moths, Birds (Sun birds and humming birds),
Bats, Primates (lemurs), Rodents, Garden and gecko lizards etc.
Insects are the dominant biotic pollinating agents.
Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers
 They are large, colorful, fragrant and rich in nectar.
 Pollination by insects is called Entaemophily.
 When flowers are small, they cluster in the inflorescence to make them conspicuous.
 Flowers are colorful and produce sweet fragrance, Flies and beetles pollinated flowers
secrete foul odour to attract them.
 Flowers produce nectar and pollen grains as floral reward for the animals who visit them.
 Pollen grains will be generally sticky.
 As the animal visits the flower, gets coated with pollen grains, carry them on their body
and when comes in contact with the stigma, it results in pollination.
 Some flowers as the floral rewards provides safe place to lay eggs.
 Ex:- The tallest flower Amorphophallus (6 feet tall flower).
  A mutual relationship exists between a species of moth and yucca plant. The moth
deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn gets pollinated. The
larvae of moth come out of the egg as the seed starts developing. Hence, both moth and
the plant cannot complete their life cycle without each other.

OUTBREEDING DEVICES
Flowers have developed certain devices to discourage self-pollination and to encourage cross-
pollination.
Continuous self-pollination result in inbreeding depression.
The outstanding devices are:
(a) NON-SYNCHRONICITY: The pollen and the stigma receptivity are not synchronized.
Either pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes
receptive or stigma becomes receptive much before the release of pollen.
(b) HETEROSTYLY: Placement of anther and stigma at different positions so that pollen
cannot come in contact with the stigma of the same flower.
(c) SELF INCOMPATIBILITY: It is the genetic process, which prevents self pollen from
fertilizing the ovules belonging to same plant. This is done by inhibiting pollen
germination on the pistil.
(d) UNISEXUALITY: Production of unisexual flowers
In caster and maize plants, both male and female flowers are present on the same plant.
This prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy
In papaya plant, male and female flowers are present on different plant, each plant is
either male or female. This condition prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.

POLLEN PISTIL INTERACTION

 It is the event that takes place from pollen deposition on the stigma, until pollen tube
enters the ovule.
 After the process of pollination, stigma will be compatible for the right type of pollen
grains and incompatible for the wrong type of pollen grains.
 Stigma also exhibits self incompatibility.
 When the right type of pollen is present on the stigma, it promotes post fertilization
events.
 This process of acceptance and rejection of the pollen grains, mediated by chemical
components present in pollen and the pistil is called pollen pistil interaction.
 The pollen grains which germinate on stigma produce a pollen tube through one of the
germ pore grow through stigma, style and reach the ovary.
 The components of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube.
 In two-celled condition pollen grains (vegetative and generative cell), the generative cell
divides and forms the two male gametes during the pollen tube growth.
 In three-celled condition pollen grains, pollen tubes carry two male gametes from the
beginning.
 Pollen tube reaches the ovule through the micropylar end and enters one of the synergids
through filiform apparatus. The filiform apparatus guide the pollen tube entry.
 All these events from pollen depositions on the stigma until pollen tubes enter into ovule
is referred to as pollen pistil interaction.
ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION
This is the process of crossing different species and genera to combine desirable characters to
produce commercially superior varieties.
Only desired pollen grains are used for pollination and stigma is protected from contamination
by unwanted pollen grains.

This can be achieved by emasculation and bagging techniques.

(a) Emasculation – It is the process of removal of anthers from the flower bud before the
anther dehisces using a pair of forceps. This is done in bisexual flowers.
(b) Bagging – Emasculated flowers are covered with bag made up of butter paper. This
process is called bagging.

(c)
When the stigma attains maturity or receptivity, mature pollen grains are dusted on it and the
flowers are re bagged and the fruits are allowed to develop.
NOTE: In an unisexual flower, only bagging is required, emasculation process is not required.
The flower buds are bagged before the flowers open followed by pollen dusting on receptive
stigma. Then the flowers are re bagged.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
 The pollen tube which has reached the synergids releases the male gametes into the
cytoplasm of synergids.
 One male gamete reaches egg cell and fuses with the nucleus. This is called syngamy,
which results in the formation of zygote.
 The other male gamete fuses polar nuclei, to produce a triploid primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN). This process of fusion of three male nuclei is called triple fusion.
 Since syngamy and triple fusion occurs in the embryo sac, the phenomenon is termed as
double fertilization.
 The central cell with PEN becomes primary endosperm cell which develops into
endosperm.
 The zygote develops into an embryo.
POST FERTILIZATION ; STRUCTURE AND EVENTS
It is characterized by
 Development of endosperm
 Development of embryo
 Maturation of ovule into seed
 Development of ovary into fruit

ENDOSPERM
 Endosperm development normally precedes embryo development.
 The cells of endosperm tissue are filled with reserve food materials which help in embryo
development.
 The PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclear endosperm.
 The tender coconut, the coconut water is the free nuclear endosperm and the
surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm.

EMBRYO
 Embryo develops from the zygote situated at the micropylar end.
 Division of the zygote only begins after certain amount of endosperm is formed, so that
embryo gets assured nutrients.
 The zygote gives rise to pro-embryo and subsequently globular, heart shaped and mature
embryo.


DICOT EMBRYO
 It has embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
 The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is epicotyl, which terminate
with plumule.
 The portion below the level of cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates at its lower end in
the radical. The radical or root tip is covered with a root cap.


MONOCOT EMBRYO
 The embryos of monocotyledons posses’ only one cotyledon.
 In the grass family, the cotyledon is called scutellum that is situated towards one side of
the embryonal axis.
 At its lower end, embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in an
undifferentiated sheath called coleorrhiza.
 The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of the attachment of scutellum is the
epicotyl.
 Epicotyl has shoot apex and leaves primordial enclosed in a hollow foliar structure
coleoptile.
SEED
 Seed is the fertilized ovule.
 A seed consists of seed coats, cotyledons and an embryo axis.
Mature seeds may be
(a) Albuminous seeds – retain a part of endosperm as is is not completely used up during
embryo development. Eg – Wheat, Maize, Barley, Castor, Sunflower etc
(b) Non albuminous seeds – The seeds has no residual endosperm as it is completely
consumed during embryogenesis. Eg – Pea and ground nut.
 In some seeds, remnants of nucellus persist. This residual persistent nucellus is called
perisperm.
 Integuments of ovule harden to form the seed coat.
 The micropyle remains as a small pore in the seed coat, for the entry of oxygen and water
during germination.
 As the seed matures, its 10-15% moisture content is reduced, followed by decrease in
metabolic activity and the embryo enters into a state of inactivity called dormancy.
 Onset of favourable conditions results in germination.


SIGNIFICANCE OF SEEDS OR ADVANTAGES OF SEEDS
 Seed formation is depends on the process of pollination and fertilization.
 Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats, helping the species to
colonise other areas.
 Reserve food materials in the seed, nourishes the young seedlings until they are capable of
photosynthesis.
 The hard seed coat provides protection to the embryo.
 Seeds are the product of sexual reproduction bringing about genetic recombination and
leading to variation.
 Because of the dormancy nature of seed, they can remain alive for hundreds of years.
  The oldest lupine (Lupinus arcticus) excavated from arctic thundra. The seed germinated
and flowered after an estimated record of 10000 years of dormancy.
 A recent record of 2000 years old viable seed of the date palm Phoenix dactylifera
discovered during the archeological excavation at King Herold’s palace near Dead Sea.

FRUIT
 Fruit develops from the ovary after the process of fertilization.
 The ovary wall develops into fruit wall called pericarp.
 The fruit that develops from ovary is called true fruit. Ex- Mango, lemon etc
 The fruit that develops from thalamus is called false fruit. Ex- Apple, Strawberry, Cashew

etc

 The development of fruit without fertilization is called parthenocarpy and the fruits are
called parthenocarpic fruits, eg- Banana

APOMIXIS
 It is the process of formation of seed without fertilization.
 Ex: Species of asteraceae and grasses
 Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
 One of the way in which apomixis seeds are produced is when the diploid egg cell is
formed without reduction division and develops into embryo without fertilization.

Significance of apomixis: Hybrid varieties of crops are used in cultivation to increase

productivity. One problem with hybrids is that, in the seeds of hybrid plants the characters gets
segregated and hence do not maintain hybrid character. If these hybrids are made into apomictic,
there is no segregation of characters in the hybrid progeny. Then farmers can use hybrid seeds to
raise new crop every year and does not have to buy hybrid seeds every year.

Polyembryony
Presence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony. Ex-Mango and citrus fruit
like orange.
Many nucellur cells differentiate and develop into embryo in an embryo sac. In such species, the
ovule contains many embryos.