Advanced Steel Making

Dr. Manmath Kumar Dash

2

Steel & its Speciality

Strengthening Mechanisms

Alloy Design Principles

Materials Modelling & Simulation

Failure Analysis & Process Standardization

Other R&D Activities

INDEX
01
Steel & its Speciality

• Strengthening Mechanisms

• Alloy Design Principles

• Materials Modelling & Simulation

• Failure Analysis & Process Standardization

 Usage of Steel:
4

In the construction of bridges or buildings...

In the automobile sector...
For everyday uses:
cans,pots,containers,etc...

At the heart of food preservation…

In communications…

In energy…
In health...
5 LIQUID STEEL
Fe – C

1638oC
Temperature oC

Lowest melting point 1153oC

STEEL CAST IRON

Fe Fe3C
Weight Percent Carbon
6

STEEL CAST IRON

(wrought iron) less than 2% C more than 2% C
ductile, malleable brittle
Why do we need strong, tough, ductile and damage-tolerant structural metallic alloys ?

To develop a material the understanding of hierarchy of structure is essential

Electron microscopy: To understand material plasticity
EBSD characterisation to understand material plasticity
Materials in real environments and its Characterisation
Electron Microscopy
 Importance of Materials Characterisation

Materials Science
Tetrahedron Structure Interrelated

Properties
Processing

Performance

End user needs and constraints

 Steel & It’s Speciality
12

 Ferrous Alloy with Carbon content less than 1.5 % is called as Steel

 If C content increased to >2 %; it is called Cast Iron

 Steel is broadly divided in 2 groups-

 Low Alloy Steel (LAS) - (Alloying content < 8%)

 High Alloy Steel - (Alloying content > 8%)

 Stainless Steel comes under High Alloy Steel category

 Since it has Cr content > 12%

Speciality :
• The Alloy having Higher Strength at room temperature is malleable at Hot working temp. Range
• Strength and toughness can be altered with Heat Treatment by means of Microstructure & crystal orientation
• Several Strengthening mechanisms are possible in a steel alloy
 Strengthening Mechanism
13

 Precipitation Hardening

 Solid Solution Strengthening

 Strengthening due to Phase Transformation

 Strain Hardening

 Grain Boundary Strengthening

 Dispersion Strengthening
 Precipitation Hardening
14

What are the Precipitates ?

Precipitates are the second phase constituents which comes out of the solid solution during solidification
of steel or during heat treatment

Importance
To Comfortably achieve the specified mechanical properties, Microstructures and corrosion resistance

Alloy carbides Alloy Nitrides Other precipitates

• Tungsten carbide (W-C, W2-C) • Vanadium Nitrides (V-N) (Intermetallic phases)
• Vanadium carbide (V-C) • Niobium Nitrides (Nb-N)
• Titanium carbide (Ti-C) • Chromium Nitrides (Cr2-N) • Ni-Al (Light weight steel)
• Niobium carbide (Nb-C) • Titanium nitrides (Ti-N)
• Moly. carbide (Mo2-C) • Aluminium Nitrides (Al-N) • Cu-Ni (PH stainless Steel)
• Chromium carbide (Cr23C6, Cr3C2)
• Cementite (Fe3C)
 Solid Solution Strengthening
15

• Solid solution strengthening is a type of alloying that can be used to improve the strength of a pure metal.
• The technique works by adding atoms of one element to the crystalline lattice of another element, forming
a solid solution
 Strengthening due to Phase Transformation
16

SEM Micrograph Bainitic Steel

Upper Bainite Lower bainite

Martensitic Transformation

• Carbide precipitation at the lath boundaries in Upper bainite

• Lower bainite shows oriented Carbide precipitation
 Strain Hardening
17

• Strain hardening occurs due to plastic

UTS
deformation because of generation of
YS
dislocation
• The dislocations will interact and become
pinned or tangled
• Due to dislocation entangled force require for
deformation increases hence the strength
 Grain Boundary Strengthening
18

• Grain boundaries act as pinning points impeding further dislocation propagation.

• Grain refinement strengthening used to increase the yield strength of metals by refining grains to
increase grain boundaries
 Dispersion Strengthening
19

• Dispersion strengthening refers to a process of increasing the strength of material by introducing

uniform dispersion of second phase particles, which inhibits the dislocation motion
Steel & its Speciality

• Strengthening Mechanisms
• Alloy Design Principles
• Materials Modelling & Simulation
• Failure Analysis & Process Standardization

Research and Development

 Computational
Metallurgy

Exapmle of composition

Type of Steel Garde YS (Mpa) UTS (Mpa) EL (%)

C Si Al Mn Ni Cr Ti V Nb Mo Fe-Balance

Mild Steel A36 0.15 0.05C 0 0.45 Martensite

0 strengthener
0 0 0 0 0 99.35 235 440 22
S500MC 0.12 0.5 0.015 1.7 Determine
0 phase0 distribution
0.15 0.2 0.1 0 97.215 561 658 14
HSLA
S960MC 0.12 0.25 0.015 1.3 Austenite
0 stabilizer
0 0.07 0.05 0.05 0 98.145 977 1061 3
DP600 0.1 Mn
0.14 0.05 1.4 Solid solution
0 0.16strengthener
0 0 0 0.18 97.97 490 610 23
DP
DP980 0.1 0.35 0.05 1.85 Retards0 ferrite
0.15formation
0 0 0 0.18 97.5 760 995 12
FB Gen. FB 0.35 1.5Si 0.05 1.8 Promots0 ferrite1 formation
0.07 0 0 0 95.23 835 1090 18
MS or Mart. Gen. Mart. 0.42 1.5 0.5 1.51 Austenite
0 stabilizer
0.5 0 0 0.5 0.2 95.07 970 1140 6
CP CP800 0.14 1V 0 2.2 Precipitation
0 strengthener
0.27 0 0 0.025 0 96.365 560 860 18
TRIP X11MnSiAlNbTi18-1-3 0.1 1.2 3.2 18 Refine 0microstructure
0 0.025 0 0.025 77.45 650 910 22
X8MnSiAlNbTi125-1-3 0.1 1 3 25 Austenite
0 stabilizer
0 0.025 0 0.04 70.835 580 830 20
TWIP
X73MnSiAlNbTi125-1-3 0.7 1.3 3.2 25 Reduce 0 Ms temperature
0 0.025 0 0.05 69.725 610 870 18
Nb
TRIPLEX X98MnAlNbTi124-11 1 0.2 10.8 24 Refine 0microstructure
0 0.02 0 0.05 63.93 715 910 22
QP980 0.25 2 0 2.5 Promotes
0 ferrite 0 transfermation
0 0 0 0 0 690 1050 23
QP
QP1180 0.25 3 0 CE=C+Mn/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 1223 17

Design of Alloy:
Better combination of phases
 Microstructural
Engineering

Optimization of microstructural feature

 Alloy Design Principles
23

• Chemistry
Marine • Heat Treatment
Working Environment Corrosive • Surface treatment

Normal
• Chemistry
• Heat Treatment
Working Temperature
High Temp. • Surface treatment
& pressure
Room Temp. Subzero Temp.
Product • Chemistry
Requirement High Pressure • Heat Treatment
Atmospheric & Vacuum . • Surface treatment
Strength & toughness

High Strength • Chemistry

High Strength & toughness • Grain Size
High toughness • Microstructure (Phases)
DBTT. • Cleanliness Level
Fatigue Strength
• Cleanliness level
• Tramp elements
• Detrimental Phases
 Effect of alloying Elements
24

Element Phase Strength/ Toughness/ Creep / hot Corrosion Hardenability Detrimental Machining
Formation Hardness DBTT hardness Resistance Phases
C γ Stabilizer
Mn γ Stabilizer - - -
Si α Stabilizer - - - -
S - - - -
P - - - - - -
Ni γ Stabilizer - - -
Cr α Stabilizer -
Mo α Stabilizer -
V α Stabilizer - - -
Nb α Stabilizer - - -
W α Stabilizer - -
Ti - - - -
Cu γ Stabilizer - - - -
Al - - -
 Alloy Design Method
25

1. Composition Optimization

2. Microstructure Control

3. Formation of desired Phases

4. Processing Conditions

5. Software tools to predict alloy properties and chemistry

Steel & its Speciality

• Strengthening Mechanisms
• Alloy Design Principles
• Materials Modelling & Simulation
• Failure Analysis & Process Standardization

Research and Development

Computational
Metallurgy

Composition
&
HT Profile

Combinatorial
Matrix
Analysis

Design of Alloy:
Better combination of phases
 Process Improvement using Forge NxT
28

FORGE NxT 3.2 enables to simulate and analyse the following processes:

1. Hot Rolling

2. Heat Treatment

3. Die Stress analysis

Results from the simulation:

• Temp Distribution • Velocity profile in metal

• Von Mises Stress

 Overview of Forge NxT
29

Process Flow
Importing Defining the Saving and After
Defining
3D Meshing properties launching the computation
the global
geometries objects (thermal and computation analysing
parameters
of objects material) on server the results

Result Analysis

Temp distribution on the Hot Rolling Simulation

workpiece.
 Process Improvement using Thercast software
30

Thercast NxT2.1 enables to simulate and analyse the following processes:

1. Ingot Casting

2. Continuous Casting

3. Tundish

Results from the simulation:

• Segregation analysis • Stress Analysis • Liquid Fraction

• Total Solidification time • Velocity profile in metal • Temp Distribution

 Overview of Thercast software
31

Process Flow
Importing Defining the Saving and After
Defining
3D Meshing properties launching the computation
the global
geometries objects (thermal and computation analysing
parameters
of objects material) on server the results

Result Analysis

Continuous casting Ingot Casting

 Solidification profile
32

Mold filled: 0% Mold filled: 65% Mold filled: 100% Mold filled: 100% Mold filled: 100% Mold filled: 100%
Solid: 0% Solid: 20% Solid: 40% Solid: 60% Solid: 80% Solid: 100%
 Prediction of Carbon Segregation
33

• Solute partitioning resulting into Macro segregation.

• Cooling rate for dendritic Grain growth and micro segregation
 Comparison of Change in velocity profile
34

At the end of pouring 25% solid 50% solid 90% solid

 Validation of Simulation Results
35

Simulation result compared with actual ingot Positions of Sample and observed microstructure in
stereo microscope
Simulation of heat-treatment cycle: Various grades of steel

Steel Type Grades

Austenitic SS321, 316, 304(N)
17-4PH (AMS 5643/AMS 5622)
Precipitation hardened
AMS5659/15-5PH, 11-10PH, AMS 5629/13-8PH
410, 403,402, 440 (SF450)
Martensitic
07X16H6-W, 38XH3MFA, F431, EN41B
Special Steel 300M, 21-4 N, 38MnS6, C38, APC
General Steel 83WV3, 60SiCr8, 9260, AISI4140H

Thermodynamic
Simulation
JMATPro Analysis

02
 Simulation of heat-treatment cycle: Various grades of steel

Heating
 Air
 Nitrogen
 Hydrogen

Soaking
K: Thermal conductivity in W/m.K
 Temperature range Q: Heat transferred Joules/second or Watts
 Thickness L: Distance between the two isothermal planes
 Thermal conductivity A: Area of the surface in square meters
ΔT: Difference in temperature in Kelvin

Cooling
 Slow (F/C cooling)
 Ari/Normalizing
 Fast/Quenching

03
Steel & its Speciality

• Strengthening Mechanisms
• Alloy Design Principles
• Materials Modelling & Simulation
• Failure Analysis & Process Standardization

Research and Development

 What is failure
40

Mechanical Properties
YS, UTS, %E, %RA
 When product doesn’t meet the quality
Toughness
requirements as mentioned in the customer Fracture Toughness
specification Microstructure
Phase percentages
Inclusion rating
Grain Size
Soundness
UT indications
MPI indications,
Surface cracks
Chemistry
Ladle
Typical Failures that can occur in our products Product
Remelted Ingot Chemistry
 Failure Analysis
41

Most of the Failures occurred due to defects in the product

1. Surface defects – Cracks

2. UT indications

Method of Analysis :

1. Defect location and Micrography

2. Use of 7QC tools to analyze the problem
3. Advanced micrography in some cases to know the cause
4. Tracing the material processing history and check for deviation from SOP
5. 5-Why Analysis to go deeper and find out root cause
6. take correction and Corrective action
7. Take Preventive action.
 7 QC Tools
42

# QC Tool Significance 1

1 Flow Chart Diagrammatic representation of sequence

of operations
2 Cause & very popular root cause analysis tool 2
effect
Diagram
3 Check Sheet Structured format for collecting and
analyzing data
4
4 Histogram Frequency distribution of the data from a
process
6
5 Pareto Chart bar graph arranged in descending order
of height from left to right 5
6 Scatter Brings out possible relationship between
Diagram two variables 7
7 Control Chart used to study the process variation over
time
 Types of Surface Defects
43

Surface Defects

Continuous Casting Hot Rolling

Casting powder Scratches
Entrapment

α-Fe Slivers

Straightening crack

Cu from mold wear

Inclusions
Seams Laps
 Crack formation in C. C.

S. No. Defect Causes Remedies

• Poor mould surface/Mould wear
• Mould surface should be checked before
• Mold level fluctuation
casting
1 Longitudinal crack • Mold misalignment
• Proper mould alignment
• Non-uniform cooling in primary/secondary
• Avoid mould level fluctuation
cooling
• Uniform heat removal
• Use of proper mould powder
• Poor oscillation conditions
• Surface temp. at straightening to be
2 Transverse crack • Low surface temperature at straightening
monitored
• Abrupt change in casting speed
• No abrupt changes to be made in casting
speed

• Non uniform cooling at secondary zone

3 Internal cracks • Interdendritic region with low ductility and • Optimise secondary cooling
strength
 Crack formation in Hot Rolling

S No. Possible Reason Causes Remedies

Scale during rolling can produce scratches on

1 Scale on the surface Remove the scale by descaling
the rolled surface
Worn out roll grooves/
2 Worn out roll grooves/ guides with scratches Check the roll grooves/Guides
Guides

Under/Over filling of the Under/Over filling forms the surface cracks Proper reductions to avoid under
3
pass due to fin formation filling of the passes

It will generate non uniform stresses in rolled

4 Non-uniform temperature Proper soaking of the bloom
bars
Try to finish rolling above
5 Lower corner temperature Low temperature and high strains at corners
recrystallization temperature
Surface defects on Input Presence of casting defect like pin hole,
6 Avoid the surface defects in casting
Bloom surface cracks etc.
 Crack formation Due to Alloying Elements

S. No. Possible Reason Causes Remedies

Forms carbonitrides during solidifications and
Micro-alloying
1 lowers the ductility at temp. range of 600 – Avoid low ductility region in straightening
elements V, Ti, Nb
850 °C
- Maintain proper Al/N ratio
2 Al/N ratio Free nitrogen can lead to cracking
- Maintain lower N content
- Reduce S
3 Mn/S ratio Low Mn/S ratio
- Mn/S ratio should be high
 Steel Making

S. No. Process Significance/ Importance

1 EAF Removes P due to Oxidizing condition in EAF

2 LF Removes Sulphur due to reducing conditions in LF

3 VD For LAS – degassing due to vacuum& effectively control gases in Steel- O, H, N

Used for SS- first to control C using Oxygen blowing and Then Gases through VCD.
4 VOD
Cost effective because of HC ferrochrome can be used instead of Cr metal
Static solidification of LM using casting powder as a Lubricant and as well as covering from
5 I.C.
atmosphere during teeming
It has higher yield and low processing cost as compared to Ingot casting
Lower segregation level due to Low C/s Area, & EMS
6 C.C.
Lower inclusion content since inclusion floatation carried out in intermediate pouring vessel -
Tundish
7 Hot rolling Has better yield and higher productivity as compared to ODF
 Steel Making

S. No. Process Significance/ Importance

Slow cooling in box furnaces, Stress relieving, Annealing,

1 H.T. Generally to control the stress levels to arrest the surface cracks
Normalizing- generally for homogenization of segregating elements

Improved cleanliness, Directional Solidification, Isotropic Properties.

2 ESR
In defense and Nuclear ESR products are used generally

Improved cleanliness level and excellent gas level control

3 VAR
Generally Aerospace sector demands for VAR products.
STEEL MAKING PRACTICE AT SAARLOHA

Green Steel
Lab Scale - IF & Commercial - EAF

INDUCTION FURNACE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

 Decarburizatio Dephosphoriza
Charging Melting
n tion

Chemistry
Tapping Slag removal
check
 EAF specifications:

Model SSKD420
Make ABB
Charge Capacity (Max.) 37 tons
Charge working Capacity 35 tons
Fume Extraction system 2 fans (2.16 lakh m3/hr each)
Lance burner 2
Carbon Injector 2
DRI Feeder rate 700kg/min
Electric energy consumption 1500kWh
Transformer Capacity 22MVA
type AC/3 phase
Yield 90%
Schematic representation of EAF

Charge Entry door

(via bucket crane)

hydraulics
 Some key points (EAF):

• As electrodes are lowered and current is supplied, electric arc is generated producing high temperature and melts
the charge.

• As the temperature in furnace rises, the arc stabilizes due to formation of molten pool.

• Chemical energy is supplied via several sources including oxy-fuel burners and oxygen lances. Oxygen reacts with
various components including Al, Si, P, C and Fe. All these reactions are exothermic and aid in melting of scrap.

• Dolomite (1000kg) and DBM (dead burnt magnesite-50kg) is added per charging to maintain basicity and prevent
brick lining from getting corroded.

• Graphite consumable electrodes are being used.

• Carbon and Phosphorous are controlled in EAF.

• Calcined lime and coke is also feeded for better recovery of carbon.

• After partial melting of the first charge , second charge is added. Chemistry is checked after full melting. Slag is
removed and molten metal is transferred to pre-heated ladle furnace.
Carbon control-
2C + O₂ 2CO
*To control carbon, oxygen is added via oxy-fuel burners and to increase carbon coke is fed directly.

phosphorous control
2(Fe2P) + 5(FeO) + 4(CaO) (4Cao-P2O5) + 9(Fe)
[CaO replaces FeO to form compound –tetra calcium phosphorous pentoxide which is taken out in slag.]

• Refractory lining in EAF consists of Magnesia bricks and outer lining of MgO-C (carbon magnesia)
tapered bricks.

• Graphite electrode used are 400mm diameter and 1800mm long , each weighing 367 kg and consumed
at 2.5-2.6 kg/T rate.

• EAF tilts 45° at tapping hole and (10-15°) at slag door.

• EAF slag composition has FeO (10-40%), CaO (22-60%), SiO2(6-34%), Al2O3(3-14%) and Mg0(3-13%).
Summary

INDUCTION FURNACE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

R&D/LAB COMMERCIAL

LADDLE FURNACE
ESR

VACUUM DEGASSING

CONTINUOS CASTING INGOT CASTING

Electric ARC Furnace Laddle Furance (L.F.) Vacuum Degassing (VD)

DATA ANALYSIS of Steel Making

Heat No:
Date
Weight of L.M.
Transfer Time
L.F. Start Time
Before VD Temp.
V.D. Start time
Time To Reach 1mBAR
Grade L.F. Start Temp. Holding Below 1mBAR (min)
Sampling Time Deep Vaccume Time
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
L1A (<1mBAR)
Charge Quantity (kg) L2A V.D. Stop time
1st charge (kg) L2B Argon Flow (Nm3/hr)
2nd charge (kg) L3A After VD Temp.
3rd charge (kg) L4A N2 Purging
Sampling Time Bulk Addition Qty (kg) After VD Additions
Total Lime Addition (kg) Casi wire (m)
Sampling Temp.
Total Al Addition (KG) S wire (m)
Tapping Time Al wire Addtion (kg)
Tapping Temp. AVD Arcing Time (min)
Al Tapping Addition (kg) Lifting Time & Temp.
Lime Used (kg)
O2 Blown (Nm3)
Tapping O2 (ppm)
Tapping C%
Tapping P%
DATA ANALYSIS of Continuous Casting
Heat No.
Continous Casting Template
Grade: Date:
Liquidous Temp: Casting Temp: Super Heat:
Mould size and type: No. of Strands:
Mould Temp: Metal Tempearure at Tundish Outlet:
Mould Frequency Stroke Length Negative Strip
Oscillation
Casting speed (m/s): Quantity:
Casting Start Time: Casting End Time:
Flow Rate in Mould (T/min): Flow Rate in Hot Top (T/min):
Tundish Filling Time(min): Tundish Oveflow level (mm): Tundish Oveflow level ():
Tundish Filling Time(min):
Flow rate for water jet cooling: Metallurgical Length:
Temperature at centre of bloom Temperature at corner of bloom
Bloom Tempearure at straightner:
C/S: C/S:
Remarks:
DATA ANALYSIS of Ingot Casting
Ingot Casting Template
Heat No. Grade: Date:
Liquidous Temp: Casting Temp: Super Heat:
Mould size: No. of moulds:
Mould Temp: Hot Top Temp:
Mould Powder: Quantity:
Casting Start Time: Casting End Time:
Flow Rate in Mould (T/min): Flow Rate in Hot Top (T/min):
Mould Filling Time(min): Hot Top Filling Time(min):
Solidification Time: Ingot Stripping Time:
Remarks:
Process flow:
 Scrap
* It is main raw material: discarded or worn out iron and steel.

Flash number 1 2 3 4 5

scrap Plain carbon Cr steel scrap Cr-Mo Cr-Ni-Mo Cr-Ni-Mo

(HMS)

Points to be noted
• Scrap should not be heavily rusted or wet
• Pieces must not be large (as it may wear lining during charging+ increase melting time)
Scrap continue…

Scrap yard details 1 2 3

Inside Lime Pig iron Gas –Cut material

Rail scrap Plain carbon (Gas used- LPG
DRI Flashes of Cr, Mo, Ni and oxygen)
Returns from forging
Returns from RMS
MSTB
Scales
outside SS Scrap (austenitic RMS end cut pieces Ni mill scale
stainless steels, SS316 MSTB returns from Cu mill scale
and SS304) Bharat forge
 Scrap continue…
Scrap C% Weight
Some Points:
Top Pig iron 3.5 -4.5% 9080 (25%)
• Max. possible charge weight-36 tons
Flashes 0.4% 9560 • PMI machine is used to test scrap composition
• Charge mix information is given by scrap yard
RMS/Forging 0.4% 4190 incharge
• Magnet is used to handle the charge
Bundle 1% 1540
(and crane Jaws in case of stainless steel)

HMS/Sundry 0.2% 3140

scales 0.2% 1020

Bottom MSTB 0.4% 2580

 Fig.4. molten metal exits at
Fig.1. graphite electrodes Fig.2. EAF Charging Fig.3. EAF Taping
ladle furnace.
Thank You