lOMoARcPSD|56449220

EPSC 222 Research Methods IN Education Course Outline

and Notes 2020
Education Arts (Chuka University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

COURSE OUTLINE
EPSC 222: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
Course Purpose
The main purpose of this course is to identify research methods appropriate for Educational
related studies.
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of this course, the learner should be able to:
1. Describe types of research
2. Explain the relevance of research in education.
3. Distinguish various research designs.
4. Explain relevance of past literature
5. Identify problems in education.
Course Content
Week 1: Meaning and purpose of research
Week 2: Characteristics of a good research
Week 3: Ethics in research
Week 4: Research problem
Week 5: CAT 1
Week 6: Variables
Week 7: Stating objectives and hypotheses
Week 8: Literature review
Week 9: Sampling
Week 10: CAT 2
Week 11: Methods and tools of data collection
Week 12: Reliability and validity
Week 13: Research designs
Week 14: Data organization and preparation
Week 15: Preparation of research proposal and report
Teaching and Learning Methodology
Lectures, Class discussion, Class presentations, Question and Answer Method,
Demonstrations, Drawing
Course Evaluation
Continuous Assessment tests: 30%
Final Examination: 70%
Total 100%
References
Albon, D. & Mukherji, P. (2010). Research methods in Early Childhood. An Introducing Guide.
London: Sage Publications.
Borg, W. R. & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational Research: An Introduction, 5th edition, New York:
Longman.
Kathuri, J. & Pals, A. (1993). Introduction to Educational Reserch. Njoro: Egerton Media Center.
Mugenda, O. M. & Mugenda, G. A. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press.
Pelto, P.J. and Pelto, G.H. (1978). Anthropological Research: the Structure of Enquiry
Cambridge University.
Takane, Y. & Ferguson, G. A. (1989). Statistical Anaysis in Psychology and Education Sixth Edition.
New York: McGraw Hill
Taylor, S.R. and Bogodan, R. (1984) Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The
search for meaning 2nd edition .John Wiley and Sons.

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

EPSC 222: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research refers to a systematic investigative process employed to increase or
revise current knowledge by scientifically discovering new facts.
Research may also be defined as a process of arriving at effective solutions to
problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data using
scientific methods.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
Research serves the following purposes:
a. To discover new knowledge: This involves finding of new facts, their
correct interpretation and practical application.
b. To make a description: Descriptive studies involve careful observation
and reporting of an incident in which case the researcher answers questions
like what? when? where? and how?. For example, computing the crime
rates for various cities
c. To make an explanation: Explanatory studies may involve accurately
describing an incident, predicting its occurrence and examining factors that
cause its occurrence. For example, identifying variables that explain why
some cities have higher crime rates than others
d. To explore a fact: Exploratory studies aim at familiarizing oneself with a
new fact and typically occur when a researcher becomes interested in a new
topic or when the topic of study is relatively new. Exploratory studies serve
to satisfy the researcher’s curiosity, to test the feasibility of undertaking a
more extensive study, and to develop methods to be used in any subsequent
study.
e. To enable control: Control is concerned with the ability to regulate the
incident under study by manipulating one variable in order to exert control
over the other variable and holding all the other conditions constant.
f. To develop a theory: Theory development involves formulating concepts,
laws and generalizations about a given incident. Research may also be
conducted to confirm or validate an existing theory as well as falsification
of a theory.
g. To make a prediction: Prediction is the ability to estimate a particular
variable given a set of other variables. Research may be carried out with
the aim of accurately predicting occurrence of an incident from a given set
of variables.

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH

a. Systematic: Research must follow predetermined rules and regulations
meaning that a researcher must employ valid procedures and principles.
The procedures followed should adopt a certain logical sequence.
b. Originality: A research must present materials that no one else has ever
seen which may include significant modification and improvements to
existing theories and methods. Thus, research work should seek to fill some
knowledge gap for it to be original.
c. Accuracy: This is the degree to which each research process, instrument
and procedure is related to each other. Accuracy measures whether
research instruments have been selected in the best possible manner and
the research procedure suit the research problem or not. Therefore, the
methods used in conducting the research should be relevant, appropriate,
justified and flawless otherwise the findings may be disregarded.
d. Objective (Empirical): A research is objective or empirical if it has been
conducted following rigorous scientific methods and procedures where
each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and is based on real
life experiences. This means that research data should be based on
observable and practical facts and not on what the researcher thinks or
expects. Therefore, any conclusions drawn should be based on solid
evidence gathered from real measurement, experience or observations.
e. Credibility: Credibility in research refers to the use of the best sources of
information and best procedures. Use of primary data and giving of
accurate references increases the credibility of a research. Use of secondary
data decreases the credibility of the research because secondary data has
already been manipulated by human beings and therefore not suitable for
use in research.
f. Replicable: This means a researcher should be able to confirm the findings
of a previous research in a new environment, with a different group of
subjects or at a different point in time.
g. Generalizability: This refers to the extent to which research findings can
be applied to larger populations. If research findings can be applied to any
sample from the population, the results are said to be generalizable.
h. Generative: This means that a particular research should be able to
generate more research questions and related areas for further research.

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

i. Controlled: In research, some factors need to be kept constant to allow for

the testing of the variables under study. It is usually difficult to measure or
observe the effect of all variables at the same time and therefore researchers
observe the effect of one variable while keeping the other variables
constant.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH
1. Plagiarism: Plagiarism is a situation where a researcher refers to another
person’s work as theirs without acknowledging the author. Sometimes
researchers steal the work of students, assistants or fellow researchers and present
such work as their own, which is still plagiarism. It is unethical to practice
plagiarism in research.
2. Fraud: It is unethical to practice fraud in research. Fraud refers to the situation
where a researcher fakes data that has not actually been collected or false
presentation of research methodology and results.
3. Confidentiality: Confidentiality refers to a situation where the researcher can
identify the respondent providing information but promises not to reveal the
respondent’s names to anyone else. Information obtained during research should
be kept confidential especially if confidentiality has been promised otherwise
respondents’ consent must be sought before revealing any such information. A
lack of confidentiality and mishandling information collected from research may
cause respondents physical and psychological harm e.g. releasing names of
people who are HIV positive may stigmatize them. Use of on interview schedule
for data collection may necessitate the researcher to promise confidentiality to the
respondents.
4. Anonymity: Anonymity may be used to enhance confidentiality. Anonymity
refers to a situation where a respondent’s name is not disclosed at all meaning
that no one including the researcher can tell who provided the information. This
may enable a researcher to get more honest responses from participants especially
when sensitive information is being sought e.g. sexual behaviour and personal
beliefs. Use of a questionnaire allows the respondents to remain anonymous.
5. Physical and Psychological Harm: It is unethical for a researcher to undertake
a research for personal gain or research that will have a negative effect on others.
Therefore, a researcher should do all the preliminary tests and obtain all the
background information in an effort to avoid imparting any physical or
psychological harm to subjects. In social research, psychological harm can be
caused by:

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

a. Asking embarrassing questions

b. Expressing shock or disgust when collecting data
c. Using threatening statements
d. Compelling people to say something that they do not believe in
e. Causing fear and anxiety among respondents
f. Forcing respondents to recall unpleasant occurrences against their
will thus creating discomfort and resentment
6. Principle of Voluntary and Informed Consent: A researcher should conform
to the principle of voluntary and informed consent where respondents willingly
participate in research without being forced, manipulated or tricked into
participation. The researcher should disclose the real purpose of the research and
the intended use of the results at the point of getting permission to undertake
research from a participant. This enables the participant to make an informed
decision about participating or not. With respect to voluntary participation, the
participants should be made aware of their freedom to withdraw from
participation at any point of research. Regarding informed consent, participants
should be informed about:
a. The purpose of the research study
b. Any foreseen risk
c. A guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality
d. The identification of the researcher
e. An indication of the number of subjects involved
f. Benefits and compensation or a lack of them
7. Vulnerable or Special Populations: when research involves vulnerable or
special populations such as children, mentally challenged people, the sick, street
children and the poor, permission from those who care for these special
populations must be sought and based on the principle of voluntary and informed
consent.
8. Publication of Research Findings: It is unethical to conceal research findings
after completion of the research. Researchers may be tempted to conceal research
findings under the following circumstances:
a. When the findings are contrary to the researcher’s expectations or
anticipation of the research sponsors
b. When the findings are likely to affect certain policies negatively
c. When the findings are likely to bring about protests especially where
institutions are involved

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

It is important to note that in case of sensitive findings, modalities of

revealing them should be agreed upon instead of shelving the findings
completely.
With regard to publication of research that was conducted jointly, it is also
unethical for any participating author to publish the study as a personal
effort without consulting the other team members.
It is also unethical to publish several articles using similar data from a
particular research.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either theoretical or practical situations and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
Identifying a research problem
A research problem may be identified from the following sources:
a. Existing theories: Existing theories contain generalizations and
hypothesized principles which can be scientifically tested through a
research process.
b. Existing literature: A systematic reading of literature from books and
articles regarding an area of interest may give a background of basic
information and insight into various issues that could be studied.
c. Discussions with experts: Discussions on general topics in the area of
interest either in class or seminars with experienced and well informed
researchers may be a good source of potential researchable problems.
d. Previous research studies: Previous research studies in the area of interest
usually indicate areas of further research which when carried out may add
to the knowledge that has been built up by the researchers.
e. Replication: Carrying out a research study that has been done previously
to determine whether the finding hold over time or across regions.
f. Personal experiences: First hand observations and reflections on
intriguing experiences may lead to vivid images or an intuition that
facilitate a researcher to formulate specific research problems from a
general area of interest.
Characteristics of a good research problem
a. It should be written clearly and in such a way that the readers’ interest is
captured immediately

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

b. The specific problem identified in the research problem should be

objectively researchable.
c. The scope of the specific research problem is indicated.
d. The importance of the research study in adding new knowledge is stated
clearly.
e. It must give the purpose of the research study.

VARIABLES
A variable is a measurable characteristic in a population that assumes different
values among the subjects in the population.
Types of variables
a. Dependent variables: A dependent variable attempts to indicate the total
influence arising from the effects of the independent variable. Therefore, a
dependent variable varies as a function of the independent variable.
b. Independent variables: An independent variable is a variable that a
researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect or influence on
another variable. Independent variables are also called predictor variables
because they predict the amount of variation that occurs in another
variable.
c. Extraneous variables: Extraneous variables are those variables that affect
the outcome of a research study either because the researcher is not aware
of their existence or if the researcher is aware, he or she does not control
for them.

STATING OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES

The research objectives and hypotheses are based on the title of the research. A
research title should contain an independent variable, a dependent variable, the
respondents and the location of the study. For example:
SOCIAL FACTORS INFLUENCING DRUG ABUSE AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN MERU SOUTH SUB COUNTY,
KENYA
The following components can be identified from the title:
a. Independent variable: Social factors
b. Dependent variable: Drug abuse
c. Respondents: Secondary school students
d. Study location: Meru South Sub County in Kenya
Research objectives

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

A research objective refers to the specific aspect of the research that the
researcher intends to focus on. The objectives enable the researcher to keep to the
scope of the research by defining the area of knowledge the research is focused
on. The objectives also guide in the formulation of testable research hypotheses.
The research objectives are guided by the research title as follows:
Given the title
SOCIAL FACTORS INFLUENCING DRUG ABUSE AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN MERU SOUTH SUB COUNTY,
KENYA
Identify the specific areas of concern in which case one may use the indicators of
the independent variable. The indicators of social factors include peer pressure,
media, role models, parenting style, culture etc. The objectives related to the title
include:
i. To determine the influence of peer pressure on drug abuse among
secondary school students in Meru South Sub County in Kenya.
ii. To examine the influence of media on drug abuse among secondary school
students in Meru South Sub County in Kenya.
iii. To investigate the influence of role models on drug abuse among secondary
school students in Meru South Sub County in Kenya.
iv. To evaluate the influence of parenting style on drug abuse among
secondary school students in Meru South Sub County in Kenya.
Research hypotheses
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. A
hypothesis states possible differences, relationships or causes between two
variables or concepts. Each hypothesis will usually express a predicted
relationship between two or more variables or concepts.
Hypotheses are vital because they are the ones that are put to empirical test in a
study. The test of hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may
either support or fail to support the hypothesis. Since hypotheses are based on
existing theories, previous research, personal experience or personal observation,
failure of results to support the hypothesis actually implies that the existing
theories or principles need to be revised or retested under various conditions.
Types of hypothesis
a. Null hypothesis or statistical hypothesis: a null hypothesis always states
that no real relationship or differences exists and any relationship between
two variables or difference between two groups is merely due to chance.

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

b. Alternative hypothesis or research hypothesis: the alternative hypothesis

states that there is a relationship or differences but the researcher does not
know the nature of such a difference or relationship.
Note: The null hypothesis is always stated while alternative hypothesis is
disregarded because researchers avoid commitment to a specific outcome of the
study findings. The alternative hypothesis always indicates the opposite of the
null hypothesis. For example:
HO1: There is no statistically significant difference between peer pressure and
drug abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County
in Kenya.
HA1: There is a statistically significant difference between peer pressure and drug
abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County in
Kenya.
Research hypotheses are formulated from each of the research objectives. The
following hypotheses are derived from the objectives discussed above.
HO1: There is no statistically significant difference between peer pressure and
drug abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County
in Kenya.
HO2: There is no statistically significant difference between media and drug
abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County in
Kenya.
HO3: There is no statistically significant difference between role models and drug
abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County in
Kenya.
HO4: There is no statistically significant difference between parenting style and
drug abuse among secondary school students in Meru South Sub County
in Kenya.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
a. It should be simple, clear, precise and stated in terms that can be
understood by all concerned.
b. It should state clearly and briefly the expected relationship between
variables.
c. It should be based on sound rationale derived from a theory, previous
research or personal experience that is consistent with most known facts.
d. It should be testable using available techniques meaning that data can be
collected to support or fail to support the hypothesis.
e. It must be limited in scope.

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

f. It must be testable within a reasonable time frame.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem being
investigated.
The Purpose of Literature Review
a. To determine what has already been done regarding the research problem
under study.
b. To reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that have
been found useful in investigating the research problem under study.
c. To make the researcher familiar with previous studies thus facilitate the
interpretation of the study findings.
d. To determine new approaches and stimulate new ideas regarding research
possibilities which have been overlooked in the past.
e. To help the researcher in limiting the research problem and redefining it
better by converting a tentative research problem into a detailed and
concise plan of work.
Sources of Literature
a. Primary Sources: This is a direct description of any occurrence by an
individual who actually observed or witnessed the occurrence.
b. Secondary Sources: These include any publication written by an author
who was not a direct observer or participant in the events described.
Examples of secondary sources of information are; books, scholarly
journals, theses, newspapers and the internet.
Steps in Carrying Out Literature Review
a. To guide the literature search, make a list of key words and phrases related
to the study. For example, a research of family conflict may use key words
and phrases such as family violence, abuse, family dissolution etc
b. Copy the references correctly and collect the relevant literature which
should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly manner.
c. Make a list of the main themes in the order of presentation and outline the
headings and subheadings depending on how detailed the literature review
is.
d. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made with the more general
literature being covered first before narrowing down to that which is more
specific to the research problem.
Referencing within Text

10

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

Referencing within text refers to accrediting a statement or finding an author to

show that the statement or finding quoted is by hat particular author. These
statements should be paraphrased to avoid putting them in quotes (parenthesis).
The methods used when referencing within text are:
a. The author’s last name and the year of the document’s publication are
written after a paraphrased statement in a text and put in brackets. For
example, Contentment yields life satisfaction (Adija & Akim, 2011).
b. The author’s last name and the year of the document’s publication are
written before a paraphrased statement in a text. In this case, only the year
of the document’s publication is put in brackets. For example, Adija and
Akim (2011) indicated that contentment yields life satisfaction.

SAMPLING
Sample size and sampling techniques: Sampling is the process of selecting a
number of subjects for a study in such a way that the selected subjects represent
the large group from which they were selected. The selected subjects form the
sample while the large group from which they were selected is referred to as the
population. The main purpose of sampling is to obtain a representative group
which will enable the researcher to gain information about the population.
Sampling techniques
Sampling techniques are divided into probability sampling and non probability
sampling.
1. Probability sampling (Random Sampling)
Probability sampling is used when the researcher is interested in selecting a
sample that is representative of the population. There are four main types of
random sampling namely; Simple Random Sampling, Systemic Random
Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling and Cluster Sampling.
a. Simple Random Sampling: This is a sampling technique that allows each
member of the accessible population an equal chance of being selected for
inclusion in the sample. It may involve using tables of random numbers or
giving a number to every subject or member of the accessible population,
placing the numbers in a container and then selecting any number at
random.
b. Systemic Random Sampling: This is a sampling technique in which every
Kth case or subject in the accessible population is selected for inclusion in
the sample. To obtain a truly random sample, the list of all members of the
accessible population must be randomized. Once the list is randomized, the

11

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

researcher decides on the sampling interval by dividing the accessible

population by the sample size. A sampling interval is the distance between
the cases that are selected for the sample.
c. Stratified Random Sampling: This is a sampling technique in which the
accessible population is divided or stratified into two or more groups or
strata using a given criteria (gender) and then a given number of cases or
subjects are randomly selected from each population subgroup or stratum.
In stratified sampling, cases or subjects are selected in such a way that the
existing subgroups in the population are more or less reproduced in the
sample. The steps involved in stratified random sampling include
 Identify the population
 Define the criteria for stratification
 List the population according to the defined strata or subgroups
 Determine the required sample size and the appropriate
representation in each stratum or subgroup
 Randomly select the appropriate number of cases or subjects from
each stratum or subgroup
d. Cluster Sampling: This is a sampling technique in which an intact group
of respondents is selected and all members of such an intact group are
included in the sample. For example, a researcher may want to study
hospitalized malaria patients in Kenya. Using cluster sampling, the
researcher may confine himself to district hospitals which he randomly
selects then all hospitalized malaria patients in the randomly selected
hospitals are included in the sample.
2. Non Probability Sampling (Biased Sampling)
Non probability sampling is used when the researcher is not interested in selecting
a sample that is representative of the population. There are six main types of non-
probability sampling namely: Purposive Sampling, Maximum Variation
Sampling, Homogenous Sampling, Snowball Sampling, Quota Sampling and
Convenient Sampling (Accidental Sampling)
a. Purposive Sampling: This is a sampling technique that allows the
researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to
the objectives of the study. Therefore, the cases or subjects are selected
because they are informative or they have the required characteristics.
b. Maximum Variation Sampling: This is a sampling technique where
effort is made to get a sample containing very valid cases or subjects.

12

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

c. Homogenous Sampling: This is a sampling technique where a sample of

similar cases or subjects is selected to enable in depth study of the group.
d. Snowball Sampling: The initial subjects with the desired characteristics
are identified using purposive sampling technique and then the few
identified subjects name others that they know have the required
characteristics until the researcher gets the required sample size.
e. Quota Sampling: The objective of quota sampling is to include various
groups or quotas of the population in the study. Therefore, the researcher
purposively selects the cases or subjects that fit the identified quotas.
f. Convenient Sampling (Accidental Sampling): This technique involves
selecting the cases or subjects of study as they become available to the
researcher. For example, a radio programme may ask a few questions to
radio listeners and tell them to take the answers to a specified place.

METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Observation
This is the process in which a researcher obtains information about objects or
individuals of interest by watching them in real life situations. The information is
categorized and recorded according to given guidelines.
Tools used for observation
a. Checklists: This consists of a list of items with a place to check or mark if
the item is observed.
b. Time sampling: This is a tool used to record the frequency of occurrence
of behaviour on the basis of systematically spaced time intervals.
c. Mechanical instruments: This are tools used to record behaviour as it
occurs and they include video and audio recorders.
d. Behavioural diaries: This consists of a book where behaviour is noted on
a daily basis.
e. Observation schedules: This is a list that carefully outlines items to be
observed against which the observer writes the descriptions, presence,
absence or frequency of the observations.
2. Interview
This is a method of collecting data through verbal interaction with the respondent.
Steps involved in interview method
a. Preparation for the interview: The interviewer should be well selected and
trained on how to conduct the interview including the use of the interview
tools.

13

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

b. Establishing rapport: The interviewer should make sure that the

interviewee is comfortable by cultivating a good relationship with the
person.
c. Eliciting information: The interviewer initiates questions or activities that
will make the interviewee to provide the required information.
d. Recording the responses: The information provided by the interviewee is
accurately recorded using pen and paper, schedules, check lists or/and
electronic recording devices.
3. Questionnaire
This is a set of printed questions that s completed by the respondent for the
purpose of collecting data. It provides the respondent with anonymity and
therefore the freedom to express their opinions.
4. Standardized tests
These are tests administered to respondents in an attempt to determine the
presence of attributes being investigated. Standardized tests have consistency and
uniform procedures for administering, scoring and interpreting the behaviour of
participants. Examples of standardized tests are personality tests, cognitive
scales, achievement tests, self esteem tests etc.

RELIABILITY
Reliability in research refers to the repeatability of any research that yields similar
results each time it is undertaken with similar population. Reliability of a research
instrument refers to the consistency of results achieved by a research instrument.
To establish reliability, a research instrument may be administered to the same
group several times and if very similar results are obtained each time, the research
instrument may be considered highly reliable. Reliability of a research instrument
can be defined as the measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields
consistent result or data after repeated trials.
Methods of Assessing or Testing Reliability
The four techniques for testing the reliability of a test or research instrument are:
The test-retest technique: This involves administering the same instrument
twice to the same group of subjects with a time lapse of one to four weeks between
the first test and the second test keeping all the testing conditions constant. The
scores from both tests are then correlated and if the coefficient of reliability or
coefficient of stability is high, the test or research instrument is said to yield data
that have high test-retest reliability. The main disadvantage of test-retest
technique is that the subjects may be sensitized by the first testing or they may
tend to remember their responses during the second testing thus making the

14

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

reliability coefficient to be artificially high. Another difficulty is in determining

the a reasonable period between the two testing sessions since if the period is too
short, the subjects would remember their responses in during the second testing
and if the period is too long, the subjects may have changed or other extraneous
factors may interfere with the variable being measured.
The equivalent form technique: This technique or approach uses two equivalent
instruments or tests which are different but designed to measure the same concept.
The scores obtained from the two forms of the tests or research instruments are
then correlated. If the correlation coefficient is high, the test or research
instrument is said to have high equivalent form reliability. Equivalent form
technique solves the problem inherent in test re-test technique. The main
disadvantage of the equivalent form technique is the problem of constructing the
two tests which measure the same concept. The equivalent form technique is used
in establishing the reliability of standardized test data such as intelligence tests
and achievement tests.
The split-half technique: In this technique or approach, a test or research
instrument is designed such that there are two parts. One of the ways of dividing
the research instrument into two parts is taking odd and even items. the scores
from the two groups of items for all the subjects are then correlated and if the
correlation coefficient is high, then the test or research instrument is said to have
a high split-half reliability. Each method of splitting the test or research
instrument into two parts will yield a different correlation coefficient. Increasing
the number of items in the test or research instrument increases the chances of
obtaining a consistent estimate of the reliability of the data. The main advantage
of split half technique is that it eliminates the chance error due to differing test
conditions experienced in test-retest technique and the equivalent form technique.
The internal consistency technique: The internal consistency of data is
determined from scores obtained from a single test or research instrument
administered to a sample of subjects. In this technique or approach, a score
obtained in one item is correlated with scores obtained from other items in the
instrument. The Chronbach’s Alpha Coefficient is then computed to determine
how items correlate among themselves. A high Chronbach’s Alpha Coefficient
implies that the items correlate highly among themselves which means that there
is high consistency among the items in measuring the concept of interest.

VALIDITY

15

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

Validity in research refers to the strength with which research conclusions are
considered to be true or false. Validity may be defined as the degree to which
results obtained from the analysis of data actually represent the phenomenon
under study. Therefore, validity has to do with how accurate the data obtained in
the study represents the variable of the study. Validity of a research instrument is
defined as the degree to which it measures what it is intended to measure.
Types of Validity
a. Construct validity: This is the measure of the degree to which data
obtained from a test or research instrument meaningfully and accurately
reflects or represents a theoretical concept. For example, would a score of
90% on a reading test accurately reflect the true reading ability of a learner?
b. Content Validity: This is a measure of the degree to which data collected
using a particular test or research instrument represents a specific domain
of indicators or content of a particular concept. For example, a test of
arithmetic for standard four learners would not yield content valid data if
items do not include all the four operations that is addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
c. Criterion-related Validity: This refers to the use of a measure in assessing
subject’s behaviour in specific situations. For example, if a test or research
instrument purports to measure performance in a job, the subjects who
score high on the instrument must also perform well on the job. There are
two types of criterion related validity that is predictive validity which
refers to the degree to which obtained data predict the future behaviour of
the subjects and the second one is the concurrent validity which refers to
the degree to which obtained data are able to predict the behaviour of the
subjects in the present and not in the future (e.g. psychiatrist might use a
measure to establish whether a patient is schizophrenic in which case a
patient’s scores on the psychiatric test would correlate highly with the
patient’s present behaviour if the test does indeed yield data that accurately
represents this type of mental illness).
d. Internal Validity: Internal validity of a study has to do with the degree to
which extraneous variables have been controlled for in the study. If
extraneous variables have not been controlled for, one does not know
whether the observed effects on the dependent variable are due to the
independent variables or to the extraneous variables. Where the researcher
has controlled for the extraneous variables, changes on the dependent
variable can accurately be attributed to the independent variables.

16

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

e. External Validity: External validity of a study has to do with the

representativeness of the sample with regard to the target population.
External validity refers to the degree to which research findings can be
generalized to populations and environments outside the experimental
settings. The question is, can the same results be obtained at other times
and in other settings, keeping the key factors constant. If the study findings
are only applicable to the sample, then the study findings are not externally
valid and as such, they cannot be generalized to other populations

RESEARCH DESIGNS
a. Case study: This is an in depth investigation of an individual, group,
institution or phenomenon. The primary purpose of a case study is to
determine factors and relationships among the factors that have resulted in
the behaviour under study. Therefore, the investigation makes a detailed
analysis of a single subject, group or phenomenon. Data collection methods
include observation, interviews, consulting other people and reviewing
records. Case studies have a narrow focus which results in detailed data
unique to the case under study.
b. Experimental design: This involves random assignment to place
participants in to two groups (an experimental group which receives
treatment and the control group which does not receive any intervention)
c. Quasi-Experimental design: This research involves comparison of two
groups one which is influenced by an external factor and another group
which is not influenced by an external factor.
d. Correlation: This research involves determining the strength of the
relationship between two or more variables.
e. Longitudinal design: This approach examines the behaviour of a group of
people over a fairly lengthy period of time. The group of people involved
in longitudinal research is called cohorts and they share a certain
characteristic within a defined period.
f. Cross-sectional design: This is a type of study that takes place at a single
point in time and utilizes different groups of people who differ in the
variable of interest but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic
status, education background and ethnicity. For example people who share
other characteristics but differ in age meaning that any differences in the
groups can be attributed to age differences other than other variables. This

17

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

design is used when the purpose of the study is descriptive often in form
of a survey.
g. Ethnographic research: This is a research conducted with the aim of
documenting or reporting the everyday experiences of individuals by
observing and interviewing them and relative others. For example, an
elementary class may be observed on a regular basis and the students and
teachers involved might be interviewed in an attempt to describe as fully
and as richly as possible what goes on in the classroom. The descriptions
might depict the social atmosphere of the classroom; the intellectual and
emotional experiences of students; the manner in which the teacher acts
towards and reacts to students of different ethnicity, sex or ability; how the
rules of the class are learned, modified and reinforced; as well as the
questions asked by the teacher and students.
h. Historical research: This research involves studying aspects of the past
experiences either by pursuing documents of the past period or by
interviewing individuals who lived during the time. The researcher then
attempts to reconstruct as accurately as possible what happened during that
time and to explain why it did happen. The main problem with historical
research is making sure that the documents or individuals being
investigated really did come from or lived during the period under study as
well as ascertaining that what the documents or individuals say is true.

DATA ORGANIZATION AND PREPARATION

Data organization
Data must be systematically organized and accurately scored in order to facilitate
data analysis. Data organization involves grouping data either by the independent
variable they relate to, by type of individuals or participants, by time of
observation, by place of observation or by category of observation in order to
make it easier to analyze or to study interactions among the different variables.
Organizing data may also include typing any data into the computer; scoring any
test and recording the scores appropriately; as well as transcribing any audio or
video tapes which allows for clarification of hard to understand passages of
speech.
Data preparation
Once data is organized, it should be cleaned and coded in preparation for analysis.
Data cleaning involves correction of any flaws in questionnaire design or
response population by editing questionnaires, checking whether the responses

18

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

make sense as well as identifying areas to focus on for detailed analysis. Cleaning
of data may include discarding incomplete questionnaires.
Coding data refers to translating data particularly qualitative data that is not
expressed in numbers into a form that allows it to be processed by a specific
software program or subjected to statistical analysis. Data coding is generally
putting data into a format that is useful for analysis.
Data Analysis
The main aim of data analysis and interpretation is to transform the data collected
into credible evidence about the incident under study. Data analysis is the process
of systematically applying statistical or logical techniques to describe and
illustrate, condense and recap as well as evaluate data. Analysis of qualitative
data is usually an ongoing process where data is continuously collected and
analyzed almost simultaneously. Qualitative researchers group similar responses
into categories and identify patterns, relationships and trends from which
meaning can be derived. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical techniques
such as frequencies, mean, standard deviation, correlation, chi square, t-test,
regression etc.
Data presentation
Analyzed data may be presented on statistical tables, pie charts, bar graphs,
histogram, line graphs, excerpts and prose narration.

PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND REPORT

A research proposal
A research proposal refers to a detailed outline of the proposed study. Therefore,
the research proposal should be written in the future tense because it describes a
study that is yet to be conducted. The research proposal contains: preliminary
pages, three chapters, work plan, the budget, references and appendices.
1. The Preliminary pages
The preliminary pages include: title page, declaration and recommendation page,
the abstract, table of content, list of tables, list of figures and finally the
abbreviation and acronyms page. The page numbers for preliminary pages should
be in roman numbers e.g. i, ii, iii, iv... with the title page remaining unnumbered.
i. Title Page: The title page contains the title of research, author’s name, the
rubric, the institution’s name as well as the month and the year the proposal
was written.
ii. Declaration and recommendation page: This page contains a declaration
by the author that the study is original and that it has not been presented

19

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

for examination in any university. The university supervisors also

recommend that the research proposal has been submitted for examination
with their permission. Each declaration is confirmed by signatures of the
author and university supervisors.
iii. The abstract: The abstract is a one paragraph summary of the entire
research proposal. The abstract should state the problem, objectives,
methodology and the expected outcome briefly. Most research funders will
make the decision to read the detailed proposal depending on the
information provided in the abstract which means that the abstract is the
selling point of the proposal hence salient issues in the proposal should be
highlighted.
iv. Table of content: This contains the main sections and sub-sections of the
research proposal together with the respective page numbers.
v. List of tables: This is a list of all the tables in the research proposal. The
tables should be numbered chronologically in the order of appearance in
the entire research proposal. The table number and table title should be
written above the table with the table title underlined and on a separate line.
vi. List of figures: This is a list of all the figures in the research proposal. The
figures should be numbered chronologically as they appear in the research
proposal. The figure numbers and figure titles should be written below the
figure and on the same line separated by a point.
vii. Abbreviations and acronyms page: Abbreviations are shortened form of
words or phrases while acronyms are words formed from the initial letter
or letters of each major parts of a compound term. Acronyms are
abbreviations that can be pronounced as if they were a word e.g. NARC.
The list of abbreviations and acronyms used in the research proposal as
well as the complete statements should be arranged alphabetically and
separated by a full colon on the abbreviation and acronyms page.
2. Chapter One: Introduction
The sections in chapter one include: background of the study, statement of the
problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions,
research hypotheses, significance of the study, limitations of the study,
assumptions of the study, and the definition of terms.
i. Background of the study: This section provides a brief introduction of the
proposed study and the purpose is to build up a case for the statement of
the problem. Information in the background should portray the situation as
it is and enable the researcher to justify the proposal. The background

20

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

should be written beginning with the global view, then the regional view
and finally the local view of the incident under study.
ii. Statement of the problem: A problem statement is a specific statement
that clearly coveys the purpose of the research study. The statement focuses
on what the researcher desires to describe, predict, control or explain.
iii. Purpose of the study: This is a statement describing the main aim or
reason why the study is being conducted.
iv. Research objectives: Objectives in research refer to specific aspects of
the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to bring out at the
end of the research study.
v. Research questions: These are questions the researcher intends to answer
by conducting the study. The research questions are derived from the
research objectives and are stated in a question form.
vi. Research hypothesis: A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding
the outcome of the study. A hypothesis states possible differences,
relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Each hypothesis
will usually express a predicted relationship between two or more variables
or concepts.
vii. Significance of the study: This section outlines the parties or individuals
expected to benefit from the study and how this benefit will be attained by
each one of them. It also indicates the knowledge gap being added to the
field of study.
viii. Limitations of the study: This refers to any aspect of a research that may
influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no
control.
ix. Assumptions of the study: An assumption is any fact that a researcher
takes to be true without actually verifying it.
x. Definition of terms: This refers to a list of terms whose meaning has been
operationalized for purpose of the research. The meaning of these terms in
the research may be different from the dictionary meaning. Among the
terms included in the definition of terms are the study variables.
3. Chapter Two: Literature Review
The sections in chapter two include: the literature review organized according to
the study objectives, the theoretical framework and the conceptual framework
i. Review of literature: Literature review involves the systematic
identification, location and analysis of documents containing information
related to the research problem being investigated.

21

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

ii. Theoretical framework: This describes the various theories that guide the
research. A theory is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations
that are assumed to exist among those concepts or constructs. The theories
should be stated, discussed and their relevance to the study justified. Some
theories of learning include the theory of classical conditioning, the social
learning theory and the theory of operant conditioning.
iii. Conceptual framework: This is a figure that describes the relationship
among the study variables. The relationship is indicated using arrows that
show the direction of influence.
4. Chapter Three: Methodology
Sections in chapter three include: research design, location of the study,
population of the study, sample size and sampling techniques, instrumentation,
reliability, validity, data collection procedure, ethical and logistic consideration
and finally the data analysis procedure.
i. Research designs: This section describes the design used for the study and
provides reasons why the design is appropriate.
ii. Population: This refers to the entire group of subjects or individuals with
similar characteristics that is the focus of study. Target population is the
entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to
generalize the study findings. Accessible population is a portion of the
target population to which the researcher has reasonable access
iii. Sample size and sampling techniques: Sampling is the process of
selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the selected
individuals represent the large group from which they were selected. This
section contains the sample size and the techniques used in selecting the
sample.
iv. Instrumentation: This section contains detailed information about the
instruments used for data collection.
v. Reliability: Reliability in research refers to the repeatability of any
research that yields similar results each time it is undertaken with similar
population. The methods of estimating the reliability of the research
instruments is indicated.
vi. Validity: Validity in research refers to the strength with which research
conclusions are considered to be true or false. This section states how the
research instruments are validated.

22

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

vii. Data collection procedure: This section systematically outlines the steps
involved in data collection beginning with how the research permit is
obtained to when all the desired data is collected for the research.
viii. Ethical and logistic consideration: This section outlines measures to be
put in place by the researcher to guard against ethical malpractice during
the entire research process. Such measures may include using language that
is sensitive to the feelings of respondents, obtaining written, informed and
voluntary consent from respondents for participation in the study,
disclosing the true purpose of the research to the respondents, maintaining
confidentiality and being honest when reporting the research findings.
ix. Data analysis procedure: This refers to a statement describing the steps
involved in analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data. A table is
usually used to illustrate how each research question or research hypothesis
will be analyzed by indicating the type of statistics to be employed. The
table is titled “Data Analysis Methods”.
5. The Work Plan
This refers to a detailed list of activities necessary to implement the research study
and is normally presented in chronological order with the duration of a particular
activity stated. Some activities take place simultaneously therefore the time
period on the work plan should reflect this overlap activities.
6. The Budget
The budget refers to a financial plan indicating the amount of money required for
the research and an account of how such money will be spent at various stages of
the research process. A contingency amount which is usually 10% of the total
budget is included to cater for any eventualities. The grand total of the budget is
obtained by adding the total amount and the contingency amount.
7. References
This refers to a list of materials which the researcher actually read and cited in
the text.
8. Appendices
An appendix refers to any extra information that is placed after the end of the
main text. This information may include research instruments (such as
questionnaires, interview schedules, focus group discussion guides as well as
observation forms), letter of authorization to conduct the research, consent forms,
photographs, maps etc.

A Research Report

23

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

A research report refers to a detailed outline of the research process and finding.
Therefore, the research report should be written in the past tense because it
describes a study that has already been conducted. The research report contains:
preliminary pages, five chapters, references and appendices. There are additional
preliminary pages in the research report appearing in the following order: title
page, declaration and recommendation page, the copy right page, the dedication
page, the acknowledgement page, the abstract, the table of content, the list of
tables, list of figures as well as the abbreviations and acronyms page. Chapters
one to three in a research report are similar to what is contained in the research
proposal but written in past tense instead of future tense.
Chapter four contains the research results and discussions of these results
organized according to the research objectives.
Chapter five contains sections on Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
and suggestions for further studies

PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

Identifies existing research on the topic.

Highlights useful strategies, procedures, and tools.

Familiarizes the researcher with prior studies to aid interpretation of findings.

Stimulates new ideas and explores overlooked research approaches.

Refines and limits the research problem into a detailed plan.

24

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|56449220

Assignment
1. Group work [maximum of 10 members]
Identify any two problems in schools and discuss how research can be useful in
getting a solution to each of the problems. [10 marks]
2. Individual work
Identify a research area of interest and
a. Write a suitable research title [2 marks]
b. Identify the independent and the dependent variables from the title [2
marks]
c. State three research objectives for the research [3 marks]
d. State three hypotheses [3 marks]
e. Identify a theory for the research and give a reason for using the theory as
a guide for the research [4 marks]
f. Write the statement of the problem for the research [6 marks]

25

Downloaded by Victor Makazi ([email protected])