AC CIRCUITS:

Al ternating current abbreviated as a.c is a system in which the magnitude of the vol tage
and current vary in a repetitive manner. Exampl es of such repetitive currents are shown
bel ow.

Before we anal yse the performance of ac circuit anal ysis, we need to remind oursel ves on
the l aws of el ectromagnetic induction and a few of the basic definitions.
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
1. The first l aw of el ectromagnetic induction states that whenever a conductor is
pl aced in the varying magnetic fiel d, el ectromagnetic fiel ds are induced known as
induced emf. If the conductor is cl osed, a current is al so induced and this is the
induced current.
2. The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of fl ux l inkage. The fl ux is
the product of the number of turns in the coil and the fl ux connected in the coil .

dΦ
E=N× ,
dt
E = el ectromotive force, N = number of turns and Φ = magnetic fl ux.

DEFINITIONS:
Waveform: This is the variation of a quantity such as vol tage or current shown on a graph
to a base of time or rotation.
A Cycl e is a repetition of a variabl e quantity recurring at equal interval s.
Period: This is the duration of one cycl e.
Instantaneous Val ue is the magnitude of the waveform at any instant in time.
Peak Val ue is the maximum instantaneous val ue measured from its zero val ue.
Peak to Peak val ue is the maximum variation between the maximum positive
instantaneous val ue and the maximum negative instantaneous val ue. For a sinusoidal
wave form , this is twice the peak val ue. It is abbreviated as Vpp,Ipp , Epp.

Peak Ampl itude is the maximum instantaneous val ue measured from the mean val ue of a
waveform. It is abbreviated as Vm,Im , Em.

1
 The frequency is the number of cycl es compl eted in a second.
It is seen that
1
f= , where f is the frequency in Hertz (Hz) and T is the period in seconds.
T
The average of al l the instantaneous val ues of an al ternating vol tage and currents
over one compl ete cycl e gives the average Val ue.
Average Val ue = 0.637×maximum val ue.
The square root of means of squares of instantaneous val ues gives the RMS
val ue.

The RMS val ue of an al ternating current is defined as the val ue of a constant

current that produces the same power in a resistor as the al ternating current.

The RMS val ue of an al ternating vol tage is defined as the val ue of a constant
vol tage that produces the same power in a resistor as the al ternating vol tage.

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IRMS = , VRMS = m .
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RMS Val ue
Form Factor = .
Average Val ue

2
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Peak or maximum Val ue
Crest Factor = .
RMS Val ue
Exampl e:
The current in an a.c circuit at any time t seconds is given by
I = 5sin (100πt-0.432)A.
Determine the:
(i) Ampl itude, frequency, Periodic time and phase angl e.
(ii) The val ue of current at t = 0.
(iii) The val ue of the current at t = 8ms
(iv) The time when current is maximum
(v) The time when current first reaches 3A.
(vi) Peak to peak val ue of current.
(vii) RMS Val ue of current.
SOLUTION:
Compare I = 5sin (100πt-0.432) A with y = A sin (ωt±α)
Where A = Ampl itude, ω = Angul ar vel ocity = 2πf, α = Angl e of l ead or l ag.
Then,
(i) Ampl itude= 5A. ω = 100π or 2πf = 100π. This gives f = 50 Hz.
1 1
From f = , T= . This gives T = 0.02s , α = 0.432 rad or 24.80 l ag.
T 50
(ii) At t = 0, I = 5sin (100π×0-0.432) or I = 5sin (-0.432)= -2.093 A.

(iii) (
At t = 8ms, I = 5sin 100π×
8
1000 )
-0.432 or I = 5sin (0.8π-0.432)

This gives I = 4.363 A.

(iv) When current is maximum I = 5A.
Hence 5 = 5sin (100πt-0.432) or sin (100πt-0.432) = 1.
100πt - 0.432 = sin-11, This yiel ds 100πt - 0.432 = 90 0 or 1.5708 rad.
100πt - 0.432 = 1.5708 ,100πt = 2.0028
2.0028
This gives t = = 6.375ms.
100π
(v) When I = 3A, then 3 = 5sin (100πt-0.432) .

3
 This gives sin (100πt-0.432) = 0.6 or 100πt - 0.432 = sin-10.6.

We get 100πt - 0.432 = 0.6435 or 100πt = 1.0755.

1.0755
This gives t = = 3.423ms.
100π
(vi) Peak Val ue = 5A, Therefore Peak to Peak Val ue= 2×5 = 10A.
Im 5
(vii) IRMS = , IRMS = .This gives IRMS = 3.536 A.
2 2
Exampl e:
If the waveform of vol tage has a form factor of 1.15 and a peak factor of 1.5, and if
the peak val ue is 4.5kv, cal cul ate the average and RMS val ues of the vol tage.
SOLUTION:
RMS Val ue Peak or maximum Val ue
From Form Factor = and Peak Factor = .
Average Val ue RMS Val ue
4.5kV 4.5kV
We shal l have 1.5 = . This gives RMS val ue = =3kV
RMS Val ue 1.5
The RMS Val ue of the vol tage is 30 00 V or 3kV.
3000
Al so 1.15 = . Average val ue = 2608.69 V.
Average Val ue
The average val ue of the vol tage is 260 8.69V or 2.61kV.
A phasor is a l ine drawn to represent a sinusoidal al ternating quantity. It is drawn
to scal e and its angl e rel ative to the horizontal represents its phase shift in time.
Phasors of the same quantities can be added or subtracted.
Exampl e:
The instantaneous val ues of two al ternating vol tages are represented respectivel y
by

V1 = 60 sin θ vol ts and V2 = 40 sin sin θ-( π3 ) vol ts. Derive an expression for the
instantaneous val ue of :
(i) The sum
(ii) The difference of these Vol tages.
[Ans:87.2 sin (θ-23.50 ), 52.9 sin (θ+40.90 )] .
TRIAL QUESTIONS:

4
 1. An al ternating current has a periodic time of 25ms and a maximum val ue of
20A. When time t = 0, current I = -10 A.
Express the current I in the form I = A sin (ωt+α)
[Ans:I=20 sin (80πt-0.524)A].
2. The instantaneous vol tage in an a.c circuit at any time t seconds is given by
V = 340sin (50πt-0.541) Vol ts.
Determine the:
(i) Ampl itude, frequency, Periodic time and phase angl e.
[Ans:340V,40ms,25Hz,310 l agging, ].
(ii) The val ue of vol tage at t = 0. [Ans: -175.1V].
(iii) The val ue of the vol tage at t = 10ms. [Ans:291.4 V].
(iv) The time when vol tage is maximum. [Ans:13.44ms].
(v) The time when current first reaches 200V.[Ans:7.447ms].
(vi) Peak to peak val ue of vol tage.[Ans:680V].
(vii) RMS Val ue of vol tage.[Ans:240.42V].
Most el ectrical suppl ies operate at 50Hz or 60Hz with domestic suppl ies at 110 V
or 220V.
We can produce sounds using el ectrical signal s in the range of 15Hz to 20kHz. As
the frequency increases, we get signal s to transmit radio, tel evision and other
communications.
Our radio stations vary between 88MHz and 108MHz. Frequencies above and
bel ow this are used for tel evision signal s. Note that at high frequencies the
vol tages and currents are very smal l e.g mil l ivol ts and microamperes.

SINGLE PHASE SERIES CIRCUITS:

Consider an instantaneous vol tage of V = Vm sin ωt from the terminal s of a generator
connected across a resistor R.
According to ohms l aw, if the val ue of the vol tage is zero at any instant, then the current is
V
Zero since i = .
R

5
 Vm
The instantaneous val ue of current wil l be given by i = sin ωt.
R
The vol tage and current waveform for a resistive circuit are shown bel ow.

The phasors representing the vol tage and current are shown bel ow. It can be seen that
both V and I are in phase. The phasor diagram of a purel y resistive circuit is shown bel ow.

or
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT:
Suppose the instantaneous val ue of current through a coil of Inductance L Henrys and
negl igibl e resistance is given by I = Imsin ωt=Imsin 2πft where t is the time in seconds
after the current has passed through zero from negative to positive val ues.
dI
Then the instantaneous val ue of the induced emf wil l be given by E = L .
dt
d
Therefore E = L (I sin 2πft). This gives E = 2πfLImcos 2πft.
dt m

(
Or we can write it as E = 2πfLImsin 2πft+
π
2) ( π
)
, Since E = V, then V = 2πfLImsin 2πft+ .
2
Vm
It can be seen that Vm = 2πfL Im, from which = 2πfL .
Im

6
 Vm
The quantity = XL is cal l ed the Inductive reactance. Therefore XL = 2πfL.
Im

Inductive reactance can be defined as the opposition offered by the inductor in an AC

circuit to the fl ow of ac current. It is measured in Ohms(Ω).
The Inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and the current produced by a
given vol tage is inversel y proportional to the frequency. This is il l ustrated bel ow.

The phasor diagram of a purel y inductive circuit is shown bel ow.

or
Inductance is the tendency of an el ectrical conductor to oppose a change in the el ectric
current fl owing through it.

RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES:

When a resistor R is connected in series with and Inductor L, the same current I fl ow
through each of them. The current I wil l be in phase with the potential difference VR

7
across the resistor, and the potential difference VL across the inductor l eads the current I
0
by 90 .

The phasor diagram for the above circuit is shown bel ow, from which we can derive the
fol l owing.

The circuit vol tage V is a vector sum of VR and VL. VR = IR, VL = I XL . The angl e of phase
difference between V and I is cal l ed the phase angl e φ.
1
Therefore V = VR + VL . This gives V = I R + I XL , from which V = I (R +XL )2 .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Hence V = IZ where Z = (R 2+XL2).

The quantity Z is cal l ed the impedance of the circuit.
The impedance Z is measured in Ohms (Ω).

From the diagram, φ = tan-1 ( )

VL
VR
IX
IR ( ) X
. This gives φ = tan-1 L Or Simpl y φ = tan-1 L
R ( )
φ can al so be given as φ = cos-1 ( )
VR
V
. This gives φ = cos-1
IR
IZ( )
or simpl y

8
φ = cos-1 (RZ ).
Hence φ = cos-1
( R
R +XL2
2
)
.

EXAMPLES:
1. A Resistance of 7Ω is connected in series with a pure inductance of 31.8mH
and the circuit is connected to a 100V, 50Hz sinusoidal suppl y. Cal cul ate
the :
(i) Circuit current
(ii) Phase angl e.

SOLUTION:
XL = 2πfL = (2π×50×31.8×10 -3) = 10 Ω and R = 7 Ω.

From Z = (R 2+XL2) , then Z = (72+10 2) . This gives Z = 149 = 12.207Ω.

From I =
V
Z
,I=
100
12.207
X
R ( )
= 8.192 A , ϕ = tan-1 L . This gives ϕ = tan-1
10
7
=550. ( )
Therefore the circuit current is 8.192 A and the phase angl e is 550 l agging.
2. A coil connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal suppl y takes a current of 10 A
at a phase angl e of 30°. Cal cul ate the resistance and inductance of coil .
SOLUTION:
From ϕ = tan-1 ( )
XL
R
X
( ) X
. We shal l have 30 0 = tan-1 L or tan 30 0 = L .
R R
230
This gives R = 3XL. Al so Z=
10
= (R 2+XL2). We get 23 = (R 2+XL2).

Upon substitution 23 = ( 3XL) +XL2 or 23 = 2XL . This gives XL = 11.5 Ω.

2

11.5
Since XL = 2πfL. Then 2πfL = 11.5 Ω. This gives L = = 36.6mH.
(2π×50 )
And R = 3XL, therebyR = 3×11.5 = 19.92Ω.

Therefore, the resistance of the coil is 19.92Ω and the Inductance is 36.6mH.

9
3. A coil of inductance 0.1H and negl igibl e resistance is connected in series
with a 25 Ω resistor. The circuit is energized from a 230 V, 50 Hz source.
Cal cul ate the :
(i) Current in the circuit.
(ii) P.d. across the coil .
(iii) P.d. across the resistor.
(iv) Phase angl e of the circuit. [23A, 196V,156 V, 51.50 ]
4. A pure inductance of 318mH is connected in series with a pure resistance of
75 Ω. The circuit is suppl ied from a 50Hz sinusoidal source and the vol tage
across the 75 Ω resistor is found to be 150 V. Cal cul ate the suppl y vol tage.
SOLUTION:
V 150
VR = 150V and from I = , we getI = = 2A .
R 75
XL = 2πfL = (2π×50×318×10 -3) = 100 Ω. From VL = IXL.

VL = 2×100 = 200 V. Since V2 = VR2 + VL2, then V2 = 150 2 + 200 2.

We get V = (150 2+200 2) , V = 250 V.

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT:
Let us suppose that the instantaneous val ue of the vol tage appl ied to a capacitor
having capacitance C farads is represented by V = Vmsin ωt = Vmsin 2πft.

dV
The instantaneous val ue of the current I is given by I = C .
dt
d
This gives I = C (V sin 2πft) = cos 2πft.
dt m

This can be written as I = 2πfCVmcos 2πft or I = 2πfCVmsin 2πft+ ( π

2).

From the expression above, it can be seen that Im = 2πfCVm, from which we can
Vm 1
deduce that = .
Im 2πfC
Vm 1
The quantity = XC = is cal l ed Capacitive Reactance and is measured
Im 2πfC
in Ohms (Ω).
1
Therefore XC = .
2πfC

10
 The capacitive reactance is inversel y proportional to the frequency, and the
current produced by a given vol tage is proportional to the frequency.

Capacitive reactance, XC , can be defined as the opposition offered by the capacitor in

an AC circuit to the fl ow of ac current. Measured in Ohms (Ω).
RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN SERIES:
When a resistor R is connected in series with and Capacitor C , the same current I fl ow
through each of them. The current I wil l be in phase with the potential difference VR
across the resistor, and the potential difference VC across the inductor l ags the current I by
0
90 .
VR = IR and VC = IXC. This s shown in the diagram bel ow.

11
The phasor diagram of the above circuit is shown from which we can derive the fol l owing.

The circuit vol tage V is a vector sum of VR and VC. The angl e of phase difference between
V and I is cal l ed the phase angl e φ.
1
Therefore V = VR + VC . This gives V = I R + I XC , from which V = I (R +XC )2 .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Hence V = IZ where Z = (R 2+XC2). Or Z = (R + ω 1C ).

2
2 2

The quantity Z is cal l ed the impedance of the circuit.

12
The impedance Z is measured in Ohms (Ω).

From the diagram , φ = tan-1 ( )

VC
VR
IX
IR ( ) X
. This gives φ = tan-1 C Or Simpl y φ = tan-1 C
R ( )
φ can al so be given as φ = cos-1 ( )
VR
V
.

This gives φ = cos-1 (IRIZ ) or simpl y φ = cos-1 (RZ ).

( ) (( )
R R
Hence φ = cos-1 Or φ = cos-1 .
)
2 2
R +X 2 1
C R+ 2 2 .
ωC
EXAMPLES:
1. A capacitor of 8.0 μF takes a current of 1.0 A when the al ternating vol tage appl ied
across it is 230 V. Cal cul ate the :
(i) frequency of the appl ied vol tage.
(ii) resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to reduce the current
in the circuit to 0.5 A at the same frequency.
(iii) phase angl e of the resul ting circuit

SOLUTION:
V 230 1 1
(i) XC = = = 230Ω. From XC = ,f=
I 1.0 2πfC 2πc Xc

1
We get f= . This gives f = 86.5Hz
2π×8.0×10 -6×230
(ii) When a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor, the Impedance Z
changes and al so the current.
V 230
Z=
I
. This gives Z =
0.5
= 460 Ω. Since Z = (R 2+XC2).

We get 460 = (R 2+230 2). This gives R = 398.4Ω

(iii) ϕ = cos
-1
(RZ ). This gives ϕ = cos (398.4
460 )
-1
. This yiel ds ϕ = 30 l ead.
0

2. A 15 Ω non-reactive resistor is connected in series with a coil of inductance 0.08 H

and negl igibl e resistance. The combined circuit is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz
suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Reactance of the coil .
(ii) Impedance of the circuit.
(iii) Current in the circuit.
(iv) Power factor of the circuit

13
 (v) Active power absorbed by the circuit.
SOLUTION: (Al ways draw the circuit diagram and the Phasor diagram).
(i) Inductive Reactance XL = 2πfL. This gives XL = 2π×50×0.08 = 25 Ω.

(ii) Impedance Z = (R 2+XL2). We get Z = (15 +25 ) = 29.15Ω

2 2

V 240
(iii) Current I = . Therefore I = = 8.23 A
Z 29.15

(iv) ϕ = cos
-1
(RZ ). This gives ϕ = cos (29.1
-1 15
5)
0
. This yiel ds ϕ = 59 l ag.

0
(v) Active Power P = IV cos ϕ=8.23×240cos 59 =1.0173kW

3. A coil having a resistance of 12 Ω and an inductance of 0.1H is connected

across a 100 V, 50 Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate: (a) the reactance and the
impedance of the coil ; (b) the current; (c) the phase difference between the
current and the appl ied vol tage.
Ans: [31.4Ω , 33.6 Ω, 2.97A and 69 .]
0

4. A metal -fil ament l amp, rated at 750 W, 100 V, is to be connected in series

with a capacitor across a 230 V, 60 Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate: (a) the
capacitance required; (b) the phase angl e between the current and the
suppl y vol tage.
SOLUTION:
The circuit is given bel ow, where R represents the l amp .

In the Phasor diagram above , the vol tage VR across R is in phase with the
current I, whil e the vol tage VC across C l ags I by 90°. The resul tant vol tage V is
the phasor sum of VR and VC.

This gives V = VR2+VC2 . We get VC = V2-VR2 .

This yiel ds VC = 230 2-100 2 . From which VC = 207V

P 750
From P = IV, the Current of the l amp I = . This gives us I = = 7.5A
V 100

14
 I I
Al so from VC = IXC. We get VC = Or C= .
2πfC 2πfVc
7.5
C= . This yiel ds C = 96μF.
2π×50×207

(b) ϕ = cos-1 ( )
VR
V
. This gives ϕ = cos ( )
-1 100
230
0
. This yiel ds ϕ = 64.2 l ead.

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN AN RLC CIRCUIT:

The diagram bel ow shows a resistor R ohms, Inductance L in Henrys and
Capacitance C in Farads connected in series across an a.c suppl y at a frequency f
Hertz. The p.d VRacross R is given by IR and is in phase with the suppl y current.

The p.d across L is 2πfLI and is represented by OB, l eading the suppl y
I
current by 90 0 . The pd across C is and is represented by OC l agging
2πfC
the suppl y current by 90 0 . Since OB and OC are in opposite direction and
assume OB is greater that OC, then OD = OB - OC. This is il l ustrated bel ow.
It is seen that OE2 = OA2 + OD2.

15
 ( I 2
) [ ( )]
2
1
Therefore V2 = (IR )2 + 2πfLI- or V2 = I2 (R )2+ 2πfL-
2πfC 2πfC

[ ( )]
2
1
This simpl ifies to V = I (R )2+ 2πfL-
2πfC

[ ( ) ]; Where Z is the impedance of

2
V 1
From which =Z= (R )2+ 2πfL-
I 2πfC
Circuit.

The resul ting reactance is 2πfL- ( 1

2πfC
. )
The resul ting reactance = Inductive Reactance - Capacitive Reactance.
The phase angl e ϕ between the current and suppl y vol tage is given by

( )
I
2πfLI-
ϕ = tan-1 (OA
AE
), ϕ = tan-1
IR
2πfC X -X
, or simpl y ϕ = tan-1 L C .
R ( )
Al so cos ϕ =
OA
OE
IR R
, cos ϕ = .This gives ϕ = cos-1 .
IZ Z ()
AE X
And sin ϕ = , sin ϕ = .
OE Z
If the Inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, tan ϕ is
positive and the current l ags the suppl y vol tage by ϕ.
Exampl e:
1. A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance
of 100 μF in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Impedance
(ii) Current
(iii) Vol tages across R, L and C
(iv) Phase difference between the current and the suppl y vol tage.

SOLUTION:
1
(i) R = 12 Ω, XL = 2πfL = 2π×50×0.15 = 47.12 Ω and Xc = .
2πfC
1
This gives Xc = = 31.83Ω
2π×50×100×10 -6

16
 Impedance Z = R 2+(XC-XC)2.

This gives Z = 122+(47.12-31.83)2 or Z = 19.437Ω

V 100
(ii) Current I = = = 5.145 A
Z 19.437
(iii) VR = IR = 5.145×12 = 61.74 V , VL = IXL = 5.145×47.12 = 242.43 V and
VC = IXC = 5.145×31.83 = 163.77 V.

(iv) From ϕ = cos-1 (RZ ) we get ϕ = cos-1 (19.437

12
). This gives ϕ = 51.9 .
0

The phasor diagram for the above exampl e is shown bel ow.

Note: Al ways Remember to draw both the circuit diagram and Phasor
diagram as these hel p you to anal yse the probl em.
2. A 240V, 50Hz AC Suppl y is appl ied to a coil of Inductance 0.08H and
resistance of 4Ω, connected is series with capacitor of 8 μF. Cal cul ate the:

(i) Impedance
(ii) Current
(iii) Power Factor
(iv) Phase angl e between the current and the suppl y vol tage.
(v) Power Consumed
[Ans: 372.99Ω , 0.643 A , 0.01072 l eading, -89.40 , 1.654W].
2. When a series RLC circuit is subject to 48 V, VR is 15 V, and VL is 22 V. What is
the vol tage across the capacitor?[Ans: 67.6 V].
3. An al ternating Vol tage V = 250 sin 800t vol ts is appl ied across a series circuit
containing a 30Ω resistor and a 50 μF capacitor. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Circuit impedance
(ii) Current fl owing
(iii) P.d across the resistor
(iv) P.d across the capacitor

17
 (v) Phase angl e between vol tage and current

[Ans: 39.05Ω , 4.527 A, 135.8 V, 113.2 V, 39.8

0
]
4. A 40μF Capacitor in series with a coil of resistance 8Ω and Inductance 80mH is
connected to a 200V, 100Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Circuit impedance
(ii) Current fl owing
(iii) Phase angl e between vol tage and current
(iv) Vol tage across the coil
(v) Vol tage across the capacitor

[Ans:13.18 Ω , 15.17 A, 52.630 , 772.1V, 603.6 V ]

5. If the suppl y frequency is 1kHz in the diagram bel ow, determine V1and V2.

[Ans: V1=26.0 V , V2=67.05 V, V=50V , 53.13 l eading. ]

0

6. A coil of resistance 5Ω and inductance 120mH in series with a 100μF

capacitor is connected to a 300V, 50Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the :
(i) Current fl owing
(ii) Phase difference between suppl y vol tage and current
(iii) Vol tage across the coil
(iv) Vol tage across the capacitor.
SOLUTION:

From XL = 2πfL, we get XL = 2π×50×120×10 -3 = 37.7Ω and from

1 1
XC = , we get XC = = 31.83Ω.
2πfC 2π×50×100×10 -6
Since XL is greater than XC, the circuit is Inductive.

18
 The Impedance Z = R 2+(XL-XC)2 , wil l be Z = 52+(37.7-31.83)2.

And this gives Z = 7.71Ω.

V 300
(i) The Current I = = = 38.91A.
Z 7.71

(ii) From ϕ = cos-1 (RZ ) we get ϕ = cos-1 (7.71

5
). This gives ϕ = 49.6 . 0

(iii) Impedance of the coil Zcoil = R 2+XL2 , wil l be Zcoil = 52+37.72.

This gives Zcoil = 38.03Ω.

And Vcoil = IZcoil = 38.91×38.03 = 1480 V.

The Phase angl e ϕ of the coil wil l be ϕ = cos-1 (RZ ), from which
ϕ = cos-1 (37.7
5
) = 82.4 .
0

(iv) Vol tage across the capacitor VC = IXC = 38.91×31.83 = 1239 V.

The phasor diagram is shown bel ow.

SINGLE PHASE PARALLEL NETWORKS:

We shal l consider onl y two circuits here. That is a Resistor connected in paral l el with an
Inductor and a resistor connected in paral l el with a capacitor.

The circuit diagram in fig(a) bel ow shows a resistor connected in paral l el with an Inductor
and the resul ting phasor diagram is shown in fig(b) bel ow.

V
The current IR = , where IR and V are in Phase.
R
V 0
In the Inductive branch, XL = , whre IL l ags V by 90 .
XL

19
The vol tage which is common to both branches is taken as reference. Since paral l el
circuits are more common, this is one reason that it is usual to take the vol tage as
reference in circuit anal ysis.

The total suppl y current I is obtained by adding the branch current compl exorial l y.

()( )
2 2
2 2 V V
We get I = IR + IL. From the Phasor diagram I = IR +IL . This gives I = +
R XL

1 1 V 1
It can be simpl ified as I = V 2+ 2 . We l ater get =Z= .
R XL I 1 1
2+ 2
R XL

The phase angl e ϕ is l agging and is given by ϕ = tan

-1
()
IL
IR
= tan-1
R
( )
XL
= tan-1
R
( )
ωL
.

Al so ϕ = cos-1 ()
IR
I
Z
, or ϕ = cos-1 .
R ()
Now, Let us consider a case when a resistor R is connected in paral l el with a
capacitance C, as shown in fig (a) bel ow. The current in the resistive branch is
V V
given IR = , where IR and V are in Phase and in the capacitive branch is given by IC = ,
R XC
0
where I l eads V by 90 . The phasor diagram is shown bel ow in fig (b) and it is seen that
I = IR + IC (compl exorial l y).

()( )
2 2
2 2 V V
From the Phasor diagram, I = IR +IC . This gives I = +
R XC

20
 1 1 V 1
It can be simpl ified as I = V 2+ 2 . We l ater get =Z= .
R XC I 1 1
2+ 2
R XC

It is seen from the diagram that the Phase angl e ϕ is a l eading angl e, and is given by

ϕ = tan-1 () IC
IR ( )
= tan-1
R
XC
I
I () Z
= tan-1(RωC). Al so ϕ = cos-1 R , or ϕ = cos-1 .
R ()
Exampl e:

1. A circuit consists of a 115 Ω resistor in paral l el with a 41.5 μF capacitor and is

connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz suppl y bel ow. Cal cul ate the:

(i) branch currents and the suppl y current.

(ii) Circuit phase angl e.

(iii) Circuit impedance.

SOLUTION:

V 230 1 1 V 230
IR = = = 2A , XC = = = 76.7Ω. Then IC = = = 3A.
R 115 2πfC 2π×50×41.5×10 -6 XC 76.7
2 2 2 2
Therefore from = IR +IC , we shal l have I = 2 +3 = 3.61A.

And from ϕ = cos

-1
()
IR
I
, we get ϕ = cos-1( )
2
3.6
. This yiel ds ϕ = 56.30 l eading.

V 230
The impedance Z = = = 63.9Ω.
I 3.6
The phasor diagram is shown bel ow.

2. A capacitor C is connected in paral l el with a resistor R across a 120 V, 200 Hz

suppl y. The suppl y current is 2 A at a power factor of 0.6 l eading. Determine the
val ues of C and R.

21
SOLUTION:

From ϕ = cos
-1
()
IR
I
I I
, we have cos ϕ = R . We get 0.6 = R . This gives IR = 1.2 A.
I 2
V 120
Al so IR = . This gives 1.2 = or R = 100Ω.
R R
2 2 2 2
Al so IC = I -IR , we get IC = 2 -1.2 = 1.6 A.

V I
From IC = = 2πfCV, then C = C .
XC 2πfV

1.6 -5
This gives C = = 1.061×10 F or 10.61μF.
2π×200×120

3. A 30 µF capacitor is connected in paral l el with an 80 Ω resistor across a 240 V, 50

Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the :
(i) Current in each branch.
(ii) Suppl y current.
(iii) Circuit phase angl e.
(iv) Circuit impedance.

[Ans: 3 A , 2.262 A , 3 .757 A , 37 , 63.88Ω ]

0

4. A 30 Ω resistor is connected in paral l el with a pure inductance of 3 mH across a 110

V, 2 kHz suppl y. Cal cul ate the :
(i) Current in each branch.
(ii) Circuit current.
(iii) Circuit phase angl e.
(iv) Circuit impedance.
SOLUTION:
V 110
The Current IR = = = 3.667 A
R 30
V V 110
Al so the , Current IL = = = = 2.918 A.
XL 2πfL 2π×2000×3×10 -3
2 2 2 2
Again the circuit Current I = IR +IL , this gives I = 3.667 +2.918 = 4.686 A.

22
 The circuit Phase angl e ϕ = cos-1 ()
IR
I
, or ϕ = cos-1 (
3.667
4.686 )
= 38.50 l agging.

V 110
The Circuit ImpedanceZ = = = 23.47Ω.
I 4.686
5. A 20 Ω resistor is connected in paral l el with an inductance of 2.387 mH across a
60 V, 1kHz suppl y. Cal cul ate the : (a)current in each branch, (b) suppl y current, (c)
circuit phase angl e, (d) circuit impedance. [Ans: 3A, 4 A, 5 A , 53.13 , 12Ω].
0

When an inductor and capacitor are connected in paral l el , there are three cases to
consider but majorl y two out of the three are more common.
0
(i) If IL > IC , then the suppl y current I = IL - IC l agging V by 90 .
0
(ii) If IC > IL , then the suppl y current I = IC - IL l agging V by 90 .

V V
Note that the currents are IL = and IC = .
XL XC

Exampl e:
1. An inductance of 80 mH is connected in paral l el with a capacitance of 10 µF across
a 60 V, 100 Hz suppl y. Determine the:
(i) branch currents.
(ii) Suppl y current.
(iii) Circuit phase angl e.
(iv) Circuit impedance.
SOLUTION:
V V 60
The currents IL = = = = 1.194 A
XL 2πfL 2π×100×80×10 -3

V
And IC = = 2πfCV = 2π×100×10×10 -6×60 = 0.377 A.
XC
0
Since IL > IC, then I = IL - IC = 1.194 - 0.377 = 0.817 A l agging by 90 .

V 60
The circuit impedance Z = = = 73.44Ω.
I 0.817
2. A pure inductance of 120 mH is connected in paral l el with a 25 µF capacitor and the
network is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz suppl y. Determine the (a) branch currents.
(b) Suppl y current and its phase angl e, (c) circuit impedance.

[Ans: 2.653 A , 0.786 A, 1.867 A l agging by 90 , 53.56Ω.] .

0

3. Three branches, possessing a resistance of 50 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a

capacitance of 100 μF respectivel y, are connected in paral l el across a 100 V, 50 Hz
suppl y.
Cal cul ate the : (a) current in each branch (b) suppl y current (c) phase angl e
between the suppl y current and the suppl y vol tage.

23
SOLUTION:
V 100 V V 100
The currents are IR = = = 2 A, IL = = = = 2.12 A.
R 50 XL 2πfL 2π×50×0.15

V
Al so IC = = 2πfCV = 2π×50×100×10 -6×100 = 3.14 A.
XC

The suppl y current I = IR +(IC-IL) .

2 2

2
This gives I = 2 +(3.14-2.12)2 = 2.245 A.

The phase angl e ϕ = cos

-1
(2.245
2
) = 27 .
0

Since IC > IL , the suppl y current l eads the suppl y vol tage by 270.

PARALLEL IMPENDANCE CIRCUITS:

When anal ysing impedances in paral l el , the vol tage is taken as reference
and the branch currents are cal cul ated with respect to the vol tage. However,
the summation of branch currents takes another form since they do not
remain in phase or quadrature with one another.

In the diagrams above, the current I may be made up two components depending
on whether it is l eading or l agging the vol tage by an angl e ϕ.

1. Icos ϕ is in phase with the vol tage and is cal l ed the active or power
component.
2. Isin ϕ is in quadrature with the vol tage and is termed as the Quadrature
or reactive component.

It is seen that from geometry that I = (Icos ϕ)2+(Isin ϕ)2.

When you consider the diagrams bel ow, the reactive component wil l either

24
l ag or l ead the vol tage by 90 0 depending on whether the current I l ags or
l eads V.

The current I can be achieved if the currents are resol ved in their respective
components. This yiel ds:
I cos ϕ = I1cos ϕ1+I2cos ϕ2 .

Isin ϕ = I1sin ϕ1 + I2sin ϕ2 .

Combining the above equations gives

I2 = (I1cos ϕ1+I2cos ϕ2)2 + (I1sin ϕ1+I2sin ϕ2)2.

Al so ϕ = tan
-1
( I1sin ϕ1+I2sin ϕ2
I1cos ϕ1+I2cos ϕ2 ) or ϕ = cos-1 ( I1cos ϕ1+I2cos ϕ2
I ).
Exampl e:
1. A paral l el network shown bel ow consists of branchesA, B and C. If IA =
10∠- 60° A, IB = 5∠- 30° A and IC = 10∠90° A, al l phase angl es, being rel ative to
the suppl y vol tage, determine the total suppl y current. phasor diagrams in Fig.
11.8

SOLUTION:
It is seen that I = IA + IB + IC. (Phasor Sum).

And Icos ϕ = IAcos ϕA + IBcos ϕB + ICcos ϕC.

This gives Icos ϕ = 10 cos ∠-60 0 + 5cos ∠-30 0 + 10 cos ∠90 0.

25
 This simpl ifies to Icos ϕ = 9.33 A………………………………(i)
Al so Isin ϕ = IAsin ϕA + IBsin ϕB + ICsin ϕC.

This yiel ds Isin ϕ = 10 sin ∠-60 0 + 5sin ∠-30 0 + 10 sin ∠90 0.

We get Isin ϕ = -1.16 A…………………………………………..(ii)
The negative sign means that the reactive component is l agging and so the
overal l power factor is l agging.

Now from I = (Icos ϕ)2+(Isin ϕ)2, we get I = (9.33)2+(-1.16)2.

This gives I = 9.402A.

Al so ϕ = tan-1 (Icos )ϕ . This gives ϕ = tan (9.33

Isin ϕ -1.16
-1
) or ϕ = 7.09 . 0

Therefore I = 9.402∠- 7.090 A.

Exampl e 2:
A coil of inductance 0.12 H and resistance 3 kΩ is connected in paral l el with a 0.02
µF capacitor and is suppl ied at 40 V at a frequency of 5 kHz. Determine the:
(i) Current in the coil , and
(ii) Current in the capacitor.

(iii) Suppl y current and its phase angl e;

(iv) Circuit impedance

SOLUTION:

The Impedance of the coil Z1 = R 2+XL2 = R 2+(2πfL)2.

This gives z1 = 3000 2+(2π×5000×0.12)2 and Z = 4817.91Ω

V 40
The current in the coil ILR = = = 8.3 mA
Z 4817.9

The Phase angl e ϕ = tan-1 ( )

XL
R
is given by ϕ = tan-1
3000 (
3769.9
)
. And ϕ = 51.50
l ag.
V
Current in the capacitor IC = = 2πfcV
XC

IC = 2π×5000×0.02×10 -6×40 = 25.13mA l eading V by 90 0.

26
Now Icos ϕ = ILRcos ϕLR + ICcos ϕC.

This gives Icos ϕ = 8.3cos ∠-51.50 + 25.13cos ∠90 0 = 5.1669mA.

And Isin ϕ = ILRsin ϕLR + ICsin ϕC

This gives Isin ϕ = 8.3sin ∠-51.50 + 25.13sin ∠90 0 = 18.475mA.

Now Suppl y current I = (Icos ϕ)2+(Isin ϕ)2,

We get I = (5.1669)2+(18.475)2 = 19.184 mA.

The Phase angl e ϕ = tan-1 (Icos )ϕ . This gives ϕ = tan (15.18.475

Isin ϕ -1
669 )
or
ϕ = 74.380 .
V 40
The circuit impedance Z = = = 2.085kΩ.
I 19.184×10 -3
TRIAL QUESTION:
A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and resistance 40 Ω is connected in paral l el
with a 30μFcapacitor across a 240 V, 50 Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the (a) current
in the coil and its phase angl e, (b) current in the capacitor and its phase
angl e, (c) suppl y current and its phase angl e,(d) circuit impedance.
[Ans: 7.748 A, 51.3 l ag , 2.262A, 90 l ead, 2.434A, 15.83 l ag,98.6Ω ].
0 0 0

Exampl e:
A coil of resistance 50 Ω and inductance 0.318 H is connected in paral l el with a
circuit comprising a 75 Ω resistor in series with a 159 μF capacitor. The resul ting
circuit is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz a.c. suppl y as shown bel ow. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Suppl y current.
(ii) Circuit impedance, resistance and reactance.

SOLUTION:

The Impedance for the Resistor and Inductor Z1 = R 2+XL2 = R 2+(2πfL)2.

This gives z1 = 50 2+(2π×50×0.318)2 and Z = 111.716Ω

V 230
The current I1 = = = 2.059A
Z 111.716

27
The Phase angl e ϕ = tan-1 ( )
XL
R
is given by ϕ = tan-1
99
50 ( )
. And ϕ = 63.20 l ag.

Therefore I1 = 2.059 ∠- 63.20 A

The Impedance for the Resistor and Capacitor

2
Z2 = R +Xc 2 2
= R+ ( )
1 2
2πfC
.

( ) = 77.62 Ω
2
1
This gives Z2 = 752+
2π×50×159×10 -6
V 230
The current I2 = = = 2.963A
Z2 77.62

The Phase angl e ϕ = tan-1 ( )

XC
R
is given by ϕ = tan-1
20
75 ( )
. And ϕ = 14.90 l ead.

Therefore I2 = 2.963 ∠14.90 A

Now Icos ϕ = I1cos ϕ1 + I2cos ϕ2.

This gives Icos ϕ = 2.059cos ∠-63.20 + 2.963cos ∠14.90 = 3.792A.

And Isin ϕ = I1sin ϕ1 + I2sin ϕ2

This gives Isin ϕ = 2.059sin ∠-63.20 + 2.963sin ∠14.90 = -1.076A.

Now Suppl y current I = (Icos ϕ)2+(Isin ϕ)2,

We get I = (3.792)2+(-1.076)2 = 3.942A.

The Phase angl e ϕ = tan-1 (Icos )ϕ .This gives ϕ = tan (3.792

Isin ϕ 1.076
-1
) or ϕ = 15.84 0

l ag.
V 230
The circuit impedance Z = = = 58.35Ω.
I 3.942
Now the Resistance R = Z cos ϕ=58.35cos 15.840 =56.13Ω,
And the Reactance X = Z sin ϕ = 58.35 sin 15.840 =15.93Ω.
Since I sin ϕ is negative, the reactance is inductive. Therefore the circuit is
equival ent to having a 56.13Ω resistor in series with a 15.93Ω inductive
reactance.
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A coil , having a resistance of 20 Ω and an inductance of 0.0382 H, is
connected in paral l el with a circuit consisting of a 150 μF capacitor in
series with a 10 Ω resistor. The arrangement is connected to a 230 V, 50
Hz suppl y. Determine the current in each branch and the total suppl y
current. [Ans:10.3 A, 10.2 A, 13.8 A].

28
 2. A network consists of three branches in paral l el . Branch A is a 10 Ω
resistor, branch B is a coil of resistance 4 Ω and inductance 0.02 H, and
branch C is an 8 Ω resistor in series with a 200 μF capacitor. The
combination is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz suppl y. Find the various
branch currents and the total current taken from the suppl y.
[Ans:10A, 13.4 A, 5.6 A, 20.8 A, 0.95 l ag.]
POLAR IMPEDANCES:
Consider three impedances connected in paral l el as shown bel ow.
V V∠0
In the first branch, V = I1Z1 or Z1 = = . This gives Z1∠- ϕ.
I1 I1∠ϕ

The impedance phase angl e is a conj ugate of the circuit Phase angl e.

Now I = I1 + I2 + I3 (Phasor Sum).

In Pol ar notation, I∠ϕ = I1∠ϕ1 + I2∠ϕ2 + I3∠ϕ3.

V∠0 V∠0 V∠0 V∠0

Therefore = + + .
Z∠-ϕ Z1∠ϕ1 Z2∠ϕ2 Z3∠ϕ3
1 1 1 1
This simpl ifies to = + + .
Z∠-ϕ Z1∠ϕ1 Z2∠ϕ2 Z3∠ϕ3
Further anal ysis of pol ar impedances reveal that it is better to deal with
impedances in series using pol ar notation and not practical to deal with
impedances in paral l el using pol ar notation.
Paral l el network cal cul ations are more approached on the basis of
anal ysing branch currents.
An al ternative approach to paral l el ac circuits using pol ar notation can be
made through admittance instead of impedance.
Admittance Y is the inverse of impedance> It is measured in Siemens (S).
V
Therefore = I = VY.
Z
V∠0
When Phase angl es are incl uded I∠ϕ = V∠0. Y∠ϕ = .
Z∠-ϕ
1
Or Simpl y Y∠ϕ = .
Z∠-ϕ

29
 Y∠ϕ = Y1∠ϕ1 + Y2∠ϕ2 + Y3∠ϕ3.

Therefore Ycos ϕ = Y1cos ϕ1 + Y2cos ϕ2 + Y3cos ϕ3.

G = G1 + G2 + G3. Here G is the conductance of the circuit.

Al so Ysin ϕ = Y1sin ϕ1 + Y2sin ϕ2 + Y3sin ϕ3.

B = B1 + B2 + B3. Here B is termed as the Susceptance of the Circuit and is measured

in Siemens (S).
R X
For a capacitive circuit, G = and B = - .
Z2 Z2

R 1 R R -X 1 -X X
Note: G = Ycos ϕ = Y× = × = 2 . Al so B = Ysin ϕ = Y× = × = - 2 .
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
Exampl e:
Three impedances 10∠- 30 0 Ω , 20∠60 0 Ω and 40∠0 0 Ω are connected in paral l el
as shown bel ow. Cal cul ate the equival ent impedance.

SOLUTION:
1 1
Y1∠ϕ1 = = ∠30 0 S.
0 = 0.1
Z1∠-ϕ1 10∠-30
1 1
Simil arl y Y2∠ϕ2 == 0 = 0.05∠-60 0 S. And Y3∠ϕ3 = 0 = 0.025∠00 S
20∠60 40∠0
Now G = G1 + G2 + G3 = (0.1cos∠30 0 +0.05 cos∠-60 0 +0.025cos∠0 0 ) = 0.137S.

And B = B1 + B2 + B3 = (0.1sin∠30 0 +0.05 sin∠-60 0 +0.025 sin ∠0 0 ) = 0.007S

This gives Y = G2+B2 = 0.1372+0.0072 = 0.1371S.

ϕ = tan-1 (GB )=tan (0.007

-1
0.137 )
0
=2.9 .

1 1
Therefore Z∠- ϕ = = = 7.294 ∠-2.90 Ω.
Y∠ϕ 0.1371∠2.90

30
Exampl e:
In the diagram shown bel ow, Cal cul ate the total Impedance and the suppl y
Current.

SOLUTION:

( ) ( ) = 56.6Ω .
2 2
1 1
Let Z1 = R 2+ = 50 2+
2πfC 2π×50×120×10 -6

ϕ = tan ( ) = tan (
50 )
X
-1 C 25.526
-1 0 0
=28 . Z = 56.6∠- 28
R 1

This gives Z1 = 56.6∠- 280 Ω.

It can be seen that Z2 = 40∠0 0 Ω.

Now Z3 = R 2+(2πfL)2 = 30 2+(2π×50×0.12)2 = 48.18Ω.

ϕ = tan-1 ( )
XL
R
= tan-1( )
37.7
30
=51.50 . Z3 = 48.18∠51.50 .

1 1
Therefore Y1∠ϕ1 = = = 0.0177∠280 S.
Z1∠-ϕ1 56.6∠-280

Y2∠ϕ2 = 0.025∠0 0 S and Y3∠ϕ3 = 0.0208∠-51.50 S

G = G1 + G2 + G3 = (0.0177cos∠280 +0.025 cos∠0 0 +0.0208cos∠-51.50 ).

G = G1 + G2 + G3 = 0.05358 S

And B = B1 + B2 + B3.

31
 B = (0.0177 sin∠280 +0.025 sin∠0 0 +0.0208sin ∠-51.50 )
B = B1 + B2 + B3 = -0.00797 S

This gives Y = G2+B2 = 0.053582+0.007972 = 0.05417 S.

ϕ = tan-1 (GB )=tan (0.00797

-1
0.05358 )
=8.5 . 0

1 1
Therefore Z∠- ϕ = = 8.46 ∠8.50Ω.
0 = 1
Y∠ϕ 0.05417∠-8.5
But I = VY = (100∠0 )(0.05417∠-8.50 ) = 5.417∠-8.50 A.

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS:
POWER IN A PURELY RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT.
Let us consider a vol tage v = Vmsin wt being appl ied on a circuit containing a resistor onl y
shown bel ow.
The resul ting current wil l be i = Imsin wt and the instantaneous power wil l be given by

P = vi = (Vmsin wt)(Imsin wt) = VmImsin wt.

2

The waveforms of v,i and P are shown bel ow.

1 T 1
∫ V I sin ωt dt . But sin ωt = (1-cos 2ωt).
2 2
The average power P is given by Pav =
T-0 0 m m 2

32
 We get Pav = ∫ [
1 T V mI m
T0 2
(1-cos 2ωt) dt. ]
This yiel ds to Pav =
[
V mI m
2T 2ω
t-
1 T V I
sin 2ωt = m m
0 2 ]
V mI m
Therefore, the average power Pav = .
2
Vm I ( 2V) 2I
From VRMS = , and IRMS = m , we get P = = VI.
2 2 2
Note: VRMS = V and IRMS = I.
V2
Therefore P = VI = I2R = .
R

PURELY INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS:

When a vol tage v = Vmsin wt being appl ied on a circuit containing a pure inductor, the

( π2 )
resul ting current is i = Imsin ωt- or i = -Im cos ωt .

The instantaneous power P = vi = (Vmsin wt)(-Im cos ωt) or P = -VmImsin ωtcos ωt.

1
This simpl ifies to P = - VmImsin 2ωt.
2
The waveforms of v,i and P are shown bel ow.

1T 1 1 T
The average power Pav = ∫0 - VmImsin 2ωt.dt = - VmIm[sin 2ωt] = 0.
T 2 4ωT 0
Therefore the average power in a purel y inductive ac circuit is zero.

33
From the above diagram, it is seen that the frequency of the power is twice that of
v or i.
Al so from the graph, it is seen that for a compl ete cycl e, the power is zero. When v
and i are positive, power is positive and energy is del ivered to the l oad, when v and
i have opposite signs power is negative and energy is returned from the inductor to
the source.
When the current in an inductor is increasing, energy is transferred from the
circuit to the magnetic fiel d, but this energy is returned when the current is
decreasing.
PURELY CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUITS:
When a vol tage v = Vmsin wt being appl ied on a circuit containing a pure inductor, the

(
resul ting current is i = Imsin ωt+
π
2 ) 0
since current l eads the vol tage by 90 in a capacitive
circuit.
i = Im cos ωt .

The instantaneous power P = vi = (Vmsin wt)(Im cos ωt) or P = VmImsin ωtcos ωt.

1
This simpl ifies to P = V I sin 2ωt.
2 mm
The waveforms of v,i and P are shown bel ow.

1T 1 1 T
The average power Pav = ∫0 VmImsin 2ωt.dt = VmIm[sin 2ωt] = 0.
T 2 4ωT 0
Therefore the average power in a purel y capacitive ac circuit is zero.
When the vol tage across the capacitor is increasing, energy is
transferred from the circuit to the el ectric fiel d, but this energy is
returned when the vol tage is decreasing.
R-L or R-C AC CIRCUITS:
Let a vol tage v = Vmsin ωt be appl ied on a circuit containing a resistor and inductor or a

34
resistor and a capacitor. The resul ting current wil l be given by i = Imsin (ωt+ϕ) where ϕ
wil l be positive for an RC circuit and negative for an RL circuit.
The instantaneous power P = vi = (Vmsin ωt)Imsin (ωt+ϕ)=VmImsin ωtsin (ωt+ϕ).

Or P = VmImsin ωtsin (ωt+ϕ).

1
And appl ying factor formul ae gives P = V I [cos ϕ-cos (2ωt+ϕ)]………………(i)
2 mm
The waveforms of v,i and P are shown bel ow.

From equation (i) , it can be seen that the instantaneous power has two
components:
1
(i) V I cos ϕ, which contains no reference to ωt and therefore remains constant
2 mm
with time.
1
(ii) V I cos (2ωt+ϕ) , the term 2ωt indicating that it varies at twice the suppl y
2 mm
frequency. From the figure above, it can be seen that the power undergoes two
cycl es of variation for one cycl e of the vol tage wave.

It can be shown that the average val ue of power over one cycl e is given by
Pav = IVcos ϕ, where V and I are RMS val ues of vol tage and current respectivel y.
THE POWER TRIANGLE:
A phasor diagram in which the current l ags behind the appl ied vol tage by an angl e
ϕ ( the case of inductive circuit) is shown bel ow. The horizontal component of V is
V cos ϕ and the vertical component of V is Vsin ϕ.

35
If each of the vol tage phasors of triangl e Oab is mul tipl ied with I, we get the
power triangl e shown bel ow.

or

There are various terms to consider in this power triangl e.

(i) True or Active power P = VIcos ϕ measured in Watts.
The active power is al so referred to as the real power and is the rate of
energy conversion or dissipation taken as an average over one or more
compl ete cycl es.
It can al so be defined as the time average of the instantaneous product
of vol tage and current.

(ii) Reactive Power Q = VIsin ϕ measured in vars(var).

The reactive power is the peak rate of energy storage in the reactive
el ements of the circuit. The average rate of energy storage is zero, the
energy continual l y fl owing into and back out from the reactive
components. This reactive power is sometimes referred to as the
imaginary power.
(iii) Apparent Power is the product of the RMS vol tage and current. It is
measured in Vol t-amperes (VA) . The apparent power is the useful
means of rating an equipment bearing in mind that the conductor has
heat l osses.
(iv) Power factor: This is the ratio of active power P to the apparent power S.

36
 Active Power P P
Power factor = , Or cos ϕ = = .
Apparent Power S VI

ACTIVE AND REACTIVE COMPONENTS OF CURRENT:

The active component (Icos ϕ) of current is the one which is in phase with the
appl ied vol tage. It is al so referred to as the watt-ful l component of current.
The Reactive component (Isin ϕ) of current is the one which is in quadrature with
the appl ied vol tage. It is al so referred to as the watt-l ess component of current.

WHY ARE TRANSFORMERS AND ALTERNATORS RATED IN kVA.

It is so because the maximum apparent power to be carried out by these el ectrical
machines has a direct infl uence on its physical size.
As the operating current of an el ectrical machine increases, we have to empl oy
thicker conductor and size of cabl e.
As the l ine vol tage becomes higher, we have to provide greater insul ation which
resul ts in increase in size of the machine.
Therefore, the size of an el ectrical equipment depends upon the product VI and

37
that is why these el ectrical components are rated in VA or kVA.
IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR:
The higher the power factor of the l oad, the greater is the active power generated
by a given generator and transmitted by a conductor.
The l ower the power factor, the l arger must be the size of the source to generate
that power and greater must be the cross sectional area of the conductor top
transmit and the greater is the cost of generation and transmission. That is why
suppl y authorities do al l they can to improve power factor and penal ise customers
with l ower power factor.
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH POWER FACTOR:
1. Increased system capacity and reduced system l osses in El ectrical systems.
By adding capacitors (kvar generators) to the system, the power factor is improved
and the kW of the system is increased.
2. Lower util ity charges:
Inductive l oads require reactive power which cause l ow power factor. An increase
in reactive power causes an increase in required apparent power (kVA) which the
util ity is suppl ying. The facil ity l ow power factor cause the util ity to increase its
generation and transmission capacity in order to handl e this extra demand. By
raising the power factor, we use l ess kvar resul ting in l ess kW and this reduces on
the peak kW bil l ing demand.
Al so util ities charge customers an additional fee when their power is l ess. We
avoid this by increasing the power factor. Util ities start the bil l ing in kVAh instead
of kWh and this is the reason why control l ing of power factor is essential .
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR:
1. At l ow power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same
power, therefore they require a l arger area of cross section.
2. At l ow power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same
power, which increases the copper l osses (I2R ) and resul ts in poor efficiency
of the system.
3. At l ow power factor, vol tage drop (IR) increases, which resul ts in poor
regul ation of the system.
4. The kVA rating of el ectrical equipment and machines connected in power
systems such as transformers, switch gears, al ternators wil l be more at
l ower power factor since it is inversel y proportional to power factor.
CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR.
1. Industrial furnaces, arc l amps, el ectric discharge l amps etc operate at a l ow
power factor.
2. Many AC machines absorb reactive power to produce their magnetic fiel ds,

38
 and this reduces the power factor.
3. The prescence of reactive power causes the real power to be l ess than the
apparent power and so the el ectrical l oad has a power factor l ess than unity.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT/CORRECTION:
Power factor correction is the process of adj usting the
characteristics of el ectric l oads in order to improve power factor cl oser to
unity.
Power factor improvement can be done by three methods and these are:
(i) Static capacitor: Power factor can be improved by connecting a
capacitor in paral l el with the inductive l oad. The capacitor draws a
l eading current which can neutral ize the l agging power factor
produced by the inductive l oads. For three phase l oads the capacitors
are connected in star or del ta.

Capacitor banks are the cheapest means of generating reactive power

which al so requires l ess maintenance.
(ii) Synchronous condensers:
Synchronous motors take the l eading current when they are over
excited and therefore they behave l ike capacitors. Therefore an
overexcited synchronous motors running at no l oad us cal l ed
Synchronous motor.
When such machines are connected in paral l el with the suppl y, it
takes the l eading current which partial l y neutral ises or tend to
minimise the l ow power factor. Hence power factor is improved.
Synchronous condensers are used by l arge industries whose cost is
huge.

39
 (iii) Phase advancers:
Phase advancer is a power factor improvement device. Phase
advancer in real is an external ac excitation for the motor which rel ieves the stator
windings of exciting current and the power factor is improved. It actual l y
compensates the reactive power required and this further neutral ises the l agging
current I.
Exampl e:
1. A coil having a resistance of 6Ω and an inductance of 0.03H is connected
across a 50V, 60Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Current
(ii) Phase angl e between current and appl ied vol tage.
(iii) Apparent power
(iv) Active power.
SOLUTION:
XL = 2πfL = 2π×60×0.03 = 11.31Ω.

The Impedance Z = R 2+XL2 . This gives Z = 62+11.312 = 12.8Ω.

V V 50
From Z = , we have I = = = 3.906 A. The Phasor diagram is shown
I Z 12.8
bel ow.

It is seen that tan ϕ =

XL
R
or ϕ = tan-1 ( )
11.31
6
= 620 .

Apparent Power= VI = 50×3.906 = 195.3 VA

Active Power= VIcos ϕ=50×3.906cos 620 = 91.69 Watts.
2. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with a capacitor takes 100 W at a
power factor 0.5 from 100V, 60Hz suppl y. Find the:
(i) Current fl owing
(ii) Phase angl e
(iii) Resistance
(iv) Impedance and Capacitance.
SOLUTION:

40
From P = IVcos ϕ. Therefore 100 = I×100×0.5 Or I = 2A.
From cos ϕ = 0.5 or ϕ=cos-1(0.5) = 60 0 l eading.
From P = I2R. This gives 100 = 22×R. We get R = 25Ω
V 100
Impedance Z = = = 50 Ω. Al so from Z = R 2+XC2 , XC = Z2-R 2.
I 2

This gives XC = 50 2-252 or XC = 43.3Ω

1 1 1
But XC = or C = = = 61.26μF.
2πfC 2πfXC 2π×60×43.3

3. An inductor coil is connected to a suppl y of 230V, 50Hz and takes a current

of 5A. The coil dissipates 750W. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Resistance and Inductance of the Coil .
(ii) Power factor of the coil .
SOLUTION:
V 230
Impedance Z = = = 46 Ω . But al so P = I2R. We get 750 = 52R.
I 5
This gives R = 30 Ω.

Al so from Z = R 2+XL2 , XL = Z2-R 2 .

This gives XL = 462-30 2 or XL = 34.87Ω.

From XL = 2πfL, then 34.87 = 2πfL = 2π×50×L.

This gives L = 0.111H Or L = 111mH.

From P = IVcos ϕ , we have 750 = 5×230 cos ϕ or cos ϕ = 0.652 l ag.
4. The power taken by an inductive circuit when connected to a 120V, 50Hz
suppl y is 400W and the current is 8A. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Resistance (ii) Impedance (iii) Reactance and Powerfactor (iv) Phase
angl e between vol tage and current. [Ans:6.25Ω,15Ω,13.64Ω,0.4167,65.370 ]
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A substation is suppl ying 200kVA and 150kvar. Cal cul ate the
corresponding power and Power factor.[132kW, 0.66].
2. A Load takes 50kW at a power factor of 0.8 l agging. Cal cul ate the Apparent
Power and reactive Power. [62.5kVA, 37.5kvar].
3. A coil of resistance 400Ω and impedance 0.20H is connected to a
75V,400Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the power dissipated in the coil . [5.452W].
4. A Vol tage of v = 200sin ωt is appl ied across a pure resistance of 1.5kΩ.

41
 Find the power dissipated in the resistor. [13.33W].
Exampl e:
1. A singl e phase motor takes 30A at a power factor of 0.65 l agging from a
240V, 50Hz suppl y. Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the capacitor connected in paral l el to correct the power
factor to unity.
(ii) Val ue of suppl y current after power factor correction.
SOLUTION:
(i) I M = 30A , cos ϕM = 0.65 or ϕ = 49.460 l ag. IC = ? ϕC = 90 0 l ead.

Since the power factor is to be improved to unity, the phase difference

between the suppl y vol tage and current shoul d be zero. Therefore
IC = IMsin ϕM

IC = 30sin 49.460 = 22.80 A.

(ii) Suppl y current I = IMcos ϕM. This gives I = 30×0.65 = 19.5 A

2. A singl e phase motor operating off at 400V, 50Hz suppl y is devel oping
10kW at an efficiency of 84% and a power factor of 0.7 l agging. Cal cul ate
the:
(i) Input apparent power
(ii) Active and reactive components of the current
(iii) Reactive power in (kvars)
SOLUTION:
Poweroutput
Efficiency η = ×100.
Powerinput
10000 10000×100
We get 84 = ×100. This gives IV = = 17kVA
IV cos ϕ 84×0.7
From cos ϕ = 0.7, we can get ϕ = 45.570 and sin ϕ = 0.714
17000
The Current I is cal cul ate from I = = 42.5 A
400
Active component of current Icos ϕ = 42.5cos 45.570 =29.75 A
Reactive component of current Isin ϕ = 42.5sin 45.570 =30.35 A
Reactive Power = IVsin ϕ = 17000 sin 45.570 = 12.14kvar.
3. A singl e phase motor takes 50A at a power factor of 0.6 l agging from a
230V, 50Hz suppl y. Determine the val ue of the shunting capacitor needed to
raise the overal l power factor to 0.9 l agging.

42
SOLUTION:
I M = 50A , cos ϕM = 0.6 or ϕ = 53.130 l ag. IC = ? ϕC = 90 0 l ead.

Let the Suppl y current be I, and cos ϕ = 0.9 ,ϕ = 25.840 .

Now Icos ϕ = ICcos ϕC + IMcos ϕM. This gives I×0.9 = (50×0.6).

This gives I = 33.33 A

Al so Isin ϕ = ICsin ϕC - IMsin ϕM.

We get - 33.33sin 25.840 = ICsin 90 0 - (50×0.8)

V
This gives IC = 25.47 A. From IC = , we have IC = 2πfcV
XC
IC 25.47
Therefore C = = = 352.5μF.
2πfV 2π×50×230
4. A motor has an output of 6kW at an efficiency 75% and a power factor of
0.64 l agging when operated from a 250V , 60Hz suppl y. It is desired to raise
the power factor to 0.925 l agging by connecting a capacitor in paral l el with
the motor. Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Suppl y current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
SOLUTION:
(i) Let IM = Current taken by the motor, IC = Current taken by the Capacitor
Poweroutput
Efficiency η = ×100. From cos ϕM = 0.64, ϕM = 50.20.
Powerinput
10000 6000×100
We get 75 = ×100. This gives IM = = 50A
ImV cos ϕ 75×250×0.64
(ii) From Icos ϕ = ICcos ϕC + IMcos ϕM. This gives I×0.925 = (50×0.64).

Suppl y current I = 34.59 A

(iii) Al so Isin ϕ = ICsin ϕC - IMsin ϕM. But cos ϕ = 0.925 and ϕ = 22.330l ag

Therefore IC = IMsin ϕM - Isin ϕ.

We get IC = (50sin 50.20 ) - (34.59sin 22.330 ) = 25.27 A

V
(iv) From IC = , we have IC = 2πfcV
XC

43
 IC 25.27
This gives C= = = 268 .1μF.
2πfV 2π×60×250
Rating of Capacitor (kvar) = ICVsin ϕC = 25.27×250 sin 90 0 = 6.317kvar

5. A 200V 50Hz singl e phase suppl y feeds the fol l owing l oads.
(i) Fl uorescent l amps taking a current of 8A at a power factor of 0.9
l eading.
(ii) Incandescent l amps taking a current of 6A at unity power factor.
(iii) A motor taking a current of 12A at a power factor of 0.65 l agging.
Determine the total current taken from the suppl y and the overal l power
factor.
Find al so the val ue of the static capacitor connected in paral l el with the
l oads to improve the power factor to 0.98 l agging.
SOLUTION:
Let I = Total current, IF = Current taken by fl uorescent l amps,

IL = Current taken by Incandescent l amps, IM = Current taken by motor.

From cos ϕF = 0.9, ϕF = 25.840 , cos ϕL = 1, ϕL = 0 0 , cos ϕM = 0.65, ϕM = 49.460.

Icos ϕ = IFcos ϕF + ILcos ϕL + IMcos ϕM.

This gives Icos ϕ = 8cos 25.840 + 6cos 0 0 + 12cos 49.460 = 21A……..(i)

Al so Isin ϕ = IFsin ϕF + ILsin ϕL + IMsin ϕM.

We get Isin ϕ = 8sin 25.840 + 6sin 0 0 + 12sin -49.460 = -5.633 A……..(ii)

From (i) and (ii), I = 212+(-5.633)2 = 21.74 A

-5.633
From (i) and (ii), we get tan ϕ = , ϕ = -150 .
21
The current taken from the suppl y is 21.54 A at a power factor of 0.966 l agging.
Al so from cos ϕS = 0.98, ϕS = 11.480 l ag, cos ϕL = 0.966 l ag, ϕL = -150.

Now IScos ϕS = ILcos ϕL . This gives IS×0.98 = 21.74×0.966. We get IS = 21.43 A

Again ISsin -ϕS = ICsin ϕC + ILsin -ϕL.

We get IC = 21.74sin 150 - 21.43sin 11.480 . This yiel ds to IC = 1.362 A

V
From IC = , we have IC = 2πfcV
XC
IC 1.362
This gives C= = = 21.67μF.
2πfV 2π×50×200

44
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A motor has an output of 4.8kW at an efficiency 80 % and a power factor of
0.625 l agging when operated from a 240V , 60Hz suppl y. It is required to
raise the power factor to 0.95 l agging by connecting a capacitor in paral l el
with the motor. Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Suppl y current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
[Ans:40A, 26.32 A , 23 A,305μF,5.52kvar]
2. A 230V 50Hz singl e phase suppl y feeds the fol l owing l oads.
(i) Fl uorescent l amps taking a current of 5A at a power factor of 0.8
l eading.
(ii) Incandescent l amps taking a current of 8A at unity power factor.
(iii) A motor taking a current of 7A at a power factor of 0.75 l agging.
Determine the total current taken from the suppl y, active power, reactive
power and the overal l power factor.
[17.35A, 3967W,375var, 0.996 l agging]
3. A singl e phase l oad of takes 5kW operates at t a power factor of 0.6
l agging . Determine the val ue of the shunting capacitor needed to raise the
overal l power factor to 0.95 l agging. [Ans:5.02kVA].
4. A 250V 50Hz singl e phase suppl y feeds the fol l owing l oads.
(i) Fl uorescent l amps taking a current of 8A at a power factor of 0.7
l eading.
(ii) Incandescent l amps taking a current of 10A at unity power factor.
(iii) A 3kVA motor operating at ful l l oad and at a power factor of 0.8
l agging.
(iv) A static capacitor
Determine for l amps and motor the
(a) Total current taken from the suppl y, active power, reactive power and
(b) Overal l power factor.
(c) Total power
(d) Val ue of the static capacitor to improve the overal l power factor to
0.975 l agging. [28.31A, 0.890 l agging,6.3kW,91.27μF ]

45
 EXAMPLES ON AC CIRCUITS (USE OF COMPLEX NOTATION).
1. For the circuit shown bel ow, determine the circuit current I fl owing and the
p.d across each impedance.

SOLUTION.
Total impedance ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3

This gives ZT = (15∠30 0 ) + (10∠-60 0 ) + (12∠50 0 )

This yiel ds ZT = (12.99+j7.5) + (5-j8.66) + (7.713+j9.193)

This simpl ifies ZT = (25.703+j8.033) = 26.929∠17.360 .

V 100∠0 0 .
The current I = = 3∠- 17.360 A.
0 = 3.71
Z 26.929∠21 .

P.d across Z1 is given by

V1 = IZ1 = (3.713∠-17.360 ) ×(15∠30 0 ) = 55.695∠12.640 V

P.d across Z2 is given by

V2 = IZ2 = (3.713∠-17.360 ) ×(10∠-60 0 ) = 37.13∠-77.360 V

P.d across Z3 is given by

V3 = IZ3 = (3.713∠-17.360 ) ×(12∠50 0 ) = 44.56∠32.640 V

2. Two Impedances Z1 = 5∠30 0 Ω, Z2 = 10∠450 Ω draw a current of 3.36 A

when connected in series to a certain ac suppl y. Determine the:
(a) Suppl y vol tage.
(b) Phase angl e between the vol tage and current
(c) P.d across Z1.

(d) P.d across Z2.

46
SOLUTION:
(a) Total impedance ZT = Z1 + Z2.

This gives ZT = (5∠30 0 ) + (10∠450 ) = (4.33+j 2.5) + (7.071+j 7.071).

This simpl ifies ZT = (11.401+j 9.571) = 14.886∠40 0 .

Now, V = IZ = 3.36×14.886∠40 0 = 50∠40 0 V.

(b) Phase angl e is 40 0 l agging.

(c) P.d across Z1 is given by V1 = IZ1 = 3.36 ×5∠30 0 = 16.8∠30 0 V

(d) P.d across Z2 is given by V2 = IZ2 = 3.36 ×10∠450 = 33.6∠450 V

3. For the circuit diagram bel ow, determine the suppl y current and its phase
rel ative to the appl ied vol tage.

SOLUTION:
Let Z1 = (10+j 20 )Ω and Z2 = (20-j15)

1 1 1
The total impedance ZT, is given by = + .
ZT Z1 Z2

1 1 1 1 (10-j 20 ) (20+j 15)

This gives = + . We get = +
ZT (10+j 20 ) (20-j1
5 ) ZT 10 2+20 2 20 2+152

1 (10-j 20 ) (20+j 15)

This yiel ds to = + = 0.052 - j 0.016
ZT 500 625

1
This simpl ifies to = 0.0544∠- 17.10 .
ZT

V 1
The suppl y current I = = V× = (30 )×(0.0544∠-17.10 ) = 1.632∠- 17.10 A.
Z Z
4. For the circuit diagram bel ow, determine the suppl y current and its phase
rel ative to the appl ied vol tage.
47
 SOLUTION:
1 1
XC = = = 26.526Ω and XL = 2πfL = 2π×50×0.12 = 37.7Ω
2πfc 2π×50×120×10 -6
Let Z1 = (50-j26.526)Ω , Z2 = 40Ω and Z3 = (30+j 37.7)Ω
1 1 1 1
The total impedance ZT, is given by = + +
ZT Z1 Z2 Z3
1 1 1 1
This gives = + +
ZT (50-j26.526) 40 (30+j 37.7)
1 (50+j 26.526) 1 30-j37.7
This yiel ds to = + +
ZT 3203.63 40 2321.29

1
This simpl ifies to = 0.05353 - j0.00796 = 0.054119∠- 8.460.
ZT

V 1
The suppl y current I = = V× = (100 )×(0.054119∠-8.460 )
Z Z
This gives the suppl y current I = 5.4119∠- 8.460 A
5. A coil of resistance 25Ω and inductance 0.044H is connected in paral l el
with a branch made up of a 50μF capacitor in series with a 40Ω resistor and
the whol e is connected to a 200V, 50Hz suppl y. Cal cul ate the total current
taken from the suppl y and its phase angl e and draw the compl ete phasor
diagram.
SOLUTION:
1 1
XC = = = 63.662Ω , XL = 2πfL = 2π×50×0.044 = 13.823Ω
2πfc 2π×50×50×10 -6
Let Z1 = (25+j13.823)Ω , and Z2 = (40-j 63.662)Ω
1 1 1
The total impedance ZT, is given by = +
ZT Z1 Z2
1 1 1
This gives = +
ZT (25+j13.823) (40-j63.662)

48
 1 (25-j 13.823) 40+j 63.662
This yiel ds to = +
ZT 816.08 5652.85

1
This simpl ifies to = 0.03771- j0.0056764 = 0.038135∠- 8.560.
ZT

V 1
The suppl y current I = = V× = (200 )×(0.038135∠-8.560 )
Z Z
This gives the suppl y current I = 7.627∠- 8.560 A.

6. In the diagram bel ow, the p.d between points A and B is 50∠- 68.130 V.
Determine the:
(a) Suppl y current I
(b) Equival ent input impedance
(c) Suppl y vol tage V
(d) Suppl y vol tage angl e.
(e) P.d across points B and C
(f) Val ue of the currents I1 and I2.

SOLUTION:
Let ZBCU = 10 + j6 and ZBCL = 4 + j 15. The effective Impedance ZBC for both
ZBCL

1 1 1 1 1 1
and ZBCU is given by = + . This gives = + .
ZBC ZBC ZBCL ZBC (10+j 6) (4+j 15)

1 10-j 6 4-j15 1
This yiel ds to = + . And simpl ifies to = 0.09 - j 0.1064
ZBC 100+36 16+225 ZBC

1
Or simpl y = 0.13936∠- 49.80 . We get ZBC = 7.176∠49.80Ω
ZBC

We l ater write ZBC = 4.632 + j 5.481

Now Total impedance ZT = ZAB + ZBC = (3.36-j2.47) + (4.632+j5.481)

49
This gives ZT = 7.992 + j3.011= 8.54∠20.640 .

But ZAB = 3.36 - j2.47 = 4.17∠- 36.320

VAB 50∠-68.130
(a) Suppl y Current I = = = 11.99 ∠- 31.810 A.
ZAB 4.17∠-36.320

(b) Equival ent in put Impedance ZT = 8.54∠20.640 Ω

(c) Suppl y Vol tage V = IZT = (11.99 ∠-31.810 )( 8.54∠20.640 . ).

This gives V = IZT = 102.4∠-11.170 V

(d) ϕ = -11.170 + 31.810 = 20.640 l agging.

(e) VBC = IZBC = (11.99 ∠-31.810 )(7.176∠49.80 ) = 86.0∠180 V.

VBC 86.0∠180 86.0∠180

(f) I1 = = = 0 = 7.374∠-12.960 A
ZBCU 10+j 6 11.662∠30.96

VBC 86.0∠180 86.0∠180

I2 = = = = 5.54∠-57.070 A
ZBCL 4+j 15 15.524∠75.070

7. A current of (15+j 8)A fl ows in a circuit whose suppl y vol tage is

(120+j 200 ) V.
Determine the:
(i) Active power
(ii) Reactive power
SOLUTION:
̅
Apparent Power P = I V. This gives
S = (15-j8)(120+j 200 ) = 3400 + j2040 = P + j Q
Therefore, Active Power= 3400 W and Reactive Power= 2040 var.

8. A current of (12+j 5)A fl ows in a circuit when the suppl y vol tage is
(150+j 220 ) V. Determine the:
(a) Active power
(b) Reactive Power
(c) Apparent Power
SOLUTION:

50
 ̅
Apparent Power S = V I = (150+j 220 ) (12-j5) = 2900 + j 1890 = P + j Q
Active Power= 290 0W , Reactive power= 1890 var l agging,
Apparent Power= 3461.5 VA.
9. A capacitor of capacitive reactance 40Ω and a resistance of 30Ω are
connected in series to a suppl y of 200∠60 0 V. Determine the active power in
the circuit.
SOLUTION:

Z = (30-j40 )Ω. This gives ϕ = tan-1 (4030 )=53.13 and |Z| = 50Ω
0

We get Z = 50∠- 53.130 .

V ( 200∠60 0 )
From I = , we get I = = 4∠113.30 A.
Z ( 50∠-53.130 )
Active Power= IV cos ϕ = 200×4cos (-53.130 )=480 W.
Method 2:

Active Power= IR2R = 42×30 = 480 W.

10. Two impedances Z1 = 6∠40 0 Ω, Z2 = 10∠30 0 Ω are connected in series

and have a total reactive power of 1650 var l agging. Determine the:
(a) Average Power
(b) Apparent Power
(c) Power factor
SOLUTION:
Total impedance ZT = Z1 + Z2.

This gives ZT = (6∠40 0 ) + (10∠30 0 ) = (4.596+j3.8587) + (8.66+j 5).

This simpl ifies ZT = (13.2565+j 8.8567) = 15.9429∠33.750.

1650
Now IVsin 33.750 = 1650. This gives apparent Power= = 2969.92
sin 33.750
VA
Apparent Power= 2969.9 VA

Average PowerP = IV cos 33.750 = 2969.92 cos 33.750 = 2469.4 W.

Power factor = cos ϕ = cos 33.750 = 0.8315 l agging.

51
 [ 4 )] A fl ows in a circuit which has an appl ied
( π
11. A current i = 7.5sin ωt-
vol tage
v = 180 sin [ωt + (π/12)] V . Determine the:
(a) Circuit Impedance (b) Active Power (c) Reactive Power (d) Apparent
Power.
SOLUTION:

Impedance Z = (
180∠150
7.5∠-450 Ω = 24∠ )
60 0 Ω .

Active power = IVcos ϕ = (7.52 )×(1802 )cos 60 = 337.5 W

0

Reactive Power = IVsin ϕ = (

2) ( 2)
7.5 180 0
× sin 60 = 584.56 var l agging

Apparent Power= IV = (
2) ( 2)
7.5 180
× = 675 VA

12. The diagram bl ow shows an R-L series Circuit.

(a) Draw its phasor diagram.
(b) Derive an expression for determining its circuit impedance in compl ex
notation.

SOLUTION:
(a) The Phasor diagram is shown bel ow

52
(b) Figure (a) bel ow shows a vol tage triangl e that is derived from the phasor
diagram. Now if each side of the vol tage triangl e is divided by the current I,
we get the impedance triangl e figure(b) bel ow.
The impedance triangl e may be superimposed on the Argand diagram figure
(c) bel ow.

From the Argand diagram, it can be seen that the Impedance Z = R + j XL.

PARALLEL AC NETWORKS:
The diagram bel ow shows three impedance Z1,Z2 and Z3 connected in
paral l el . The potential difference across each is the same and equal to the
suppl y vol tage V.

53
 V V V
Currents I1,I2 and I3 are given by I1 = , i2 = and I3 = .
Z1 Z2 Z3

V
The ZT total equival ent impedance of the circuit, then = .
ZT

The suppl y current I = I1 + I2 + I3 (phasorial l y )

V V V V
Thus = + + .
ZT Z1 Z2 Z3

1 1 1 1
This gives = + +
ZT Z1 Z2 Z3

This can be written as YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3.

In general , for n Impedances connected in paral l el ,

YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + … + Yn (Phasorial l y).

The use of admittance has greatest advantage in paral l el circuits.

CURRENT DIVISION IN AC CIRCUITS:
Consider a special case of two impedances Z1and Z2 in paral l el .

1 1 1
The equival ent impedance ZT is given by = + .
ZT Z1 Z2

Z1Z2
The total equival ent Impedance ZT is given by ZT = .
Z1+Z2

The suppl y Vol tage V is given by V = IzT = I ( )

Z1Z2
Z1+Z2
.

Al so V = I1Z1 and = I2Z2

On substitution we get I ( )
Z1Z2
Z1+Z2
ZZ
( )
= I1Z1 and I 1 2 = I2Z2
Z1+Z2

From which we can deduce that I1 = I ( )

Z2
Z1+Z2 ( )
and I2 = I
Z1
Z1+Z2
.

54
 DEFINITIONS:
Admittance is defined as current fl owing in an a.c circuit divided by the
suppl y vol tage. It is the reciprocal of impedance Z. The symbol for
Admittance is Y.
I 1
Thus Y = = .
V Z
The Admittance may be resol ved into two parts, the real G and the imaginary
part B.
G is cal l ed Conductance and B is cal l ed Susceptance.
In Compl ex form, Y = G ± j B
The diagram bel ow shows an Admittance triangl e where Y = Admittance,
G = conductance and B = Susceptance

Note that Ycos ϕ = G and Ysin ϕ = B.

TRIAL QUESTION:
1. In the diagram shown bel ow, Determine;
(a) Equival ent circuit impedance
(b) Suppl y current I
(c) Circuit phase angl e
(d) Currents I1 and I2.

[10.33∠-6.310 Ω,4.84∠6.310 A, 6.310 l eading,I1=0.953∠-73.780 A, ]

55
 I2 = 4.765∠17.660 A.

2. In the diagram bel ow, determine the:

(a) Val ue of impedance Z2.

(b) Current fl owing in Z2.

(c) Components comprising of Z2 if the suppl y frequency is 2kHz.

[6.25∠52.340 Ω ,16.0∠7.660 A, R=3.819 Ω , L=0.394mH ]

3. The p.d across and the current in a certain circuit are represented by
(190+j 40 )V and (9-j4)A respectivel y. Determine the active power and the
reactive power sating cl earl y whether the l atter is l eading or l agging.
[1550W, 1120 var l agging.]
4. A circuit consists of an impedance 5∠- 450 Ω in paral l el with a
resistance of 10Ω . The suppl y is 4 A. Determine for the circuit:
(a) Active power
(b) Reactive power
(c) Power factor

[49.34 W, 28.90 var l eading ,0.863 l eading ].

56
 PARALLEL RESONANCE:
A paral l el network containing resistance R, pure inductance L and pure
capacitance C connected in paral l el is shown bel ow.

1
The admittance of the resistive branch, G = .
R
1 -j
The admittance of the inductive branch, BL = = .
j XL ωL
1 j
The admittance of the capacitive branch, BC = = = j ωC.
-j XC
( )
1
ωC

The total circuit admittance, Y = G + j (BC-BL) =

1
R (
+ j ωC-
1
ωL
. )
The circuit is at resonance when the imaginary part is zero. i.e ωC- ( 1
ωL)= 0.

1 1 1 1
Or ωC - = 0 and ω2 = . This gives 2πf = and fr =
ωL LC LC 2π LC
1
The resonant frequency, fr = and it is the same as for series resonance.
2π LC
For paral el rtesonance:
(i) Admittance Y is a minimum
(ii) Impedance Z isa maxumum
(iii) Current I is a minimum
(iv) The resonant frequency is obtained by equating the imaginary part of
admittance to zero.

57
Resoance occurs in the two branch network containing capaciatance C in paral l el
with inductance L and resistance R in serires as shown bel ow.

When the quadrature (vertical ) component of the current ILR is equal to IC.
Resonance occurs.
At this condition, the current I is in-phase with the suppl y vol tage V.

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
At resonance, the quadrature component of ILR is equal to IC. This gives
IC = ILRsin ϕ1.

From IC = ILR sin ϕ1, we shal l have

V
XC
=( )( )
V X
× L . This simpl ifies to ZLR2 = XLXC.
ZLR ZLR
1
Since XL = 2πfrL, XC = and ZLR2 = R 2 + XL2, we shal l have
2πfrC

R 2 + XL2 = (2πfrL)× ( 1
2πfrC ) L
or R 2 + XL2 = .
C
L 2 L
We l ater get XL2 = - R or (2πfrL)2 = - R 2.
C C

We again get 2πfrL = (CL -R ) or f = 2πL1 (CL -R )

2
r
2
.

2π LC L )
(
2
1 1 R
This simpl ifies to f =
r
- .
2

[ When R is negl igibl e, fr=

1
2π (LC1 )= 2π 1LC which is the same as in series resonance.]
58
CURRENT AT RESONANCE:
At resonance, the current Ir = ILRcos ϕ1.

This gives Ir = ( )( )
V
×
R
ZLR ZLR
. Or Ir =
VR
ZLR
2.

2 L VR
But since, ZLR = , then Ir = .
C
()
L
C
VRC
This simpl ifies to Ir = . The current is at a minimum at resonance.
L
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE:
Since the current at resonance is in –phase with the vol tage the impedance of the circuit
acts as a resistance. This resistance is known as the dynamic resistance, R D.

It is sometimes cal l ed Dynamic impedance.

VRC V L V L
From Ir = , it can be seen that = . Therefore, = RD = . It is measured in
L Ir RC Ir RC
Ohms(Ω).

REJECTOR CIRCUIT:
The paral l el resonant circuit is often described as a rej ector circuit since it presents its
maximum impedance at the resonant frequency and the resul tant current is a minimum.

Q-FACTOR:
The Q-factor of aparal l el resonat circuit is the ratio of the current circul ating in the
paral l el branches of the circuit to the suppl y current. Q-factor is a measure of
current magnification.

Circul ating current capacitor current I

Qr = = = C.
Current at resonance Current at resonance Ir

Q =
(V
X ) Vω CR
= C r D
. But R D =
L
. This gives Qr = ωrCR D =
ωrL
.
( R) V
V CR R
r

Qr for paral l el resonance has the same expression as for series resonance.
There is quite a smal l difference between the resonant frequency of a series circuit
and that of a paral l el circuit. The resonant frequency of a coil in paral l el with a

capacitor is given by fr =
1 1 R2
2π LC L2
- ( )
. However, around a cl osed l oop comprising
the coil and a capacitor the energy woul d natural l y resonate at a frequency given
by f = 1/(2π√LC). The frequency f is cal l ed the is termed the natural frequency, fn

59
and the frequency seen at the terminal s of the figure bel ow is cal l ed forced
resonant frequency fr.

Therefore, fn =
1
2π LC
and fr =
1
2π ( 1 R2
-
LC L2).

1
( 1 R2
- )= ( 1 R2
- )
Thus
fr
=
2π LC L2 LC L2 f
. This simpl ifies r = ( )
1 R2
- × LC.
fn
( 1
2π LC ) 1
LC
fn LC L2

We get
fr
fn
= ( LC LCR 2
-
LC L2
= ) ( ) 1-
R 2C
L
2
1 L 2 L RC 1
But from Q = Or Q = 2 . We l ater get = 2.
R C RC L Q

Therefore,
fr
fn
= ( ) (1- )
1-
R 2C
L
=
Q
1
2

Or fr = fn 1-( Q1 ). 2

It is seen that even with smal l val ues of Q, the difference between fr and fn tends to
be very smal l .
A higher val ue of Q makes the paral l el resonant frequency tend to the same val ue
as that of the series resonant frequency.
fr
Al so for paral l el circuits, Qr = and fr = f1f2.
f2-f1

Exampl e 1:
A pure inductance of 150mH is connected in paral l el with a 40μF capacitor across
a 50 V, variabl e frequency suppl y. Determine the:
(i) Resonant frequency of the circuit.
(ii) Current circul ating in the capacitor and inductance at resonance.

60
SOLUTION:

(i) The Paral l el resonant frequency is given by fr =

1
2π ( )
1 R2
- .
LC L2

1
In this case, R = 0. This gives fr = .
2π LC
1
Therefore fr = = 64.97 Hz
2π (150×10 -3×40×10 -6)
V V
(ii) Current Circul ating in L and C at resonance is given by I = or = .
XC XL
V
And I = = 2πfCV = 2π×64.97×40×10 -6×50 = 0.816 A.
XC

Exampl e 2:
A coil of 1kΩ resistance and 0.15H inductance is connected in paral l el with a
variabl e capacitor across a 2.0 V,10kHz suppl y as shown bel ow.

Cal cul ate the:

(i) Capacitance of the capacitor when the suppl y current is a minimum.
(ii) Effective impedance Z of the network at resonance.
(iii) Suppl y current.
SOLUTION:
The network suppl y current is a minimum when the network is in resonance.

1 1
(i) From fr = . we have 2πf = or (2πf)2LC = 1
2π LC LC
1 1
And C = 2 . This gives C = = 1.6887nF.
(2πf) L (2π×10000 )2×0.15
61
 (ii) Effective impedance of the network at resonance is the same as Dynamic
resistance.
L 0.15
Dynamic resistance R D = . This gives R D = = 88.826kΩ.
RC (1000×1.6887×10 -9)

V 2
(iii) Current at resonance, Ir = . This gives Ir = = 22.52μ A.
RD 88826.44

Exampl e 3:
A coil of inductance 0.20 H and resistance 60Ω is connected in paral l el with a 20μF
capacitor across a 20 V variabl e frequency suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Resonant frequency
(ii) Dynamic resistance
(iii) Current at resonance
(iv) Circuit Q-factor at resonance.
SOLUTION:

(i) For Paral l el resonance, fr =

1
2π ( 1 R2
-
LC L2).

This gives fr =
1
2π ( 1
-
(60 )2
[0.20×20×10 -6] (0.2)2
.)
1
We get fr = ×400 = 63.66Hz.
2π
L 0.20
(ii) Dynamic resistance R D = . This gives R D = = 166.7Ω.
RC (60×20×10 -6)
V 20
(iii) Current at resonance, Ir = . This gives Ir = = 0.12 A.
RD 166.7

ωrL
(iv) Circuit Q-factor at resonance, Qr = .
R
2πfrL 2π×63.66×0.2
This gives Qr = = = 1.33
R 60
IC
The Q factor can al so be cal cul ated from Qr = and it wil l give the same resul t.
Ir
Exampl e 4:
A coil of inductance 100mH and resistance 800 Ω is connected in paral l el with a variabl e
capacitor across a 12 V , 5kHz suppl y. Determine for the condition when the suppl y current
is a minimum the:

62
 (i) Capacitor of the capacitor.
(ii) Dynamic resistance.
(iii) Suppl y Current
(iv) Q-factor.
SOLUTION:
(i) The suppl y current is a minimum when the paral l el circuit is at resonance.

From fr =
1
2π ( 1 R2
-
LC L2 )
. We shal l have 2πfr = ( 1 R2
-
LC L2).

1 R2 R2 1
This gives (2πfr)2 = - 2 Or (2πfr)2 + 2 = .
LC L L LC
(2πfrL)2+R 2 1 L
We l ater get = Or C = .
L C (2πfrL)2+R 2
100×10 -3
We get C = = 9.515nF.
(2π×5000×100×10 -3)2+800 2

L 100×10 -3
(ii) Dynamic resistance R D = . This gives R D = = 13.137kΩ.
RC (800×9.515×10 -9)
V 12
(iii) Current at resonance, Ir = . This gives Ir = = 0.913m A.
RD 13137

ωrL
(iv) Circuit Q-factor at resonance, Qr = .
R
2πfrL 2π×5000×100×10 -3
This gives Qr = = = 3.927.
R 800
Exampl e 5:
A coil of inductance 5mH and resistance 10 Ω is connected in paral l el with a250nF
capacitor across a 50 V variabl e frequency suppl y. Determine the:
(i) Resonant frequency
(ii) Dynamic resistance
(iii) Current at resonance
(iv) Q-factor at resonance.
SOLUTION:

(i) For Paral l el resonance, fr =

1
2π ( 1 R2
-
LC L2).

63
 This gives fr =
1
2π ( 1
-9 -
(10 )2
[5×10 ×250×10 ] (5×10 -3)2
-3 . )
1
We get fr = ×28213.472 = 4490 Hz
2π
L 5×10 -3
(ii) Dynamic resistance R D = . This gives R D = = 2000Ω.
RC (10×250×10 -9)
V 50
(iii) Current at resonance, Ir = . This gives Ir = = 25m A.
RD 2000

ωrL
(iv) Circuit Q-factor at resonance, Qr = .
R
2πfrL 2π×4490×5×10 -3
This gives Qr = = = 14.1
R 10
Exampl e 6:
A coil of inductance 120mH and resistance 150 Ω is connected in paral l el with a variabl e
capacitor across a 20 V , 4kHz suppl y. Determine for the condition when the suppl y
current is a minimum the:
(i) Capacitance of the capacitor.
(ii) Dynamic resistance.
(iii) Suppl y Current.
(iv) Q-factor.
(v) Band width.
(vi) Upper and Lower -3dB frequencies.
SOLUTION:
(i) The suppl y current is a minimum when the paral l el circuit is at resonance.

From fr =
1
2π ( 1 R2
-
LC L2 )
. We shal l have 2πfr = ( )
1 R2
- .
LC L2

1 R2 R2 1
This gives (2πfr)2 = - 2 Or (2πfr)2 + 2 = .
LC L L LC
(2πfrL)2+R 2 1 L
We l ater get = Or C = .
L C (2πfrL)2+R 2
120×10 -3
We get C = = 13.16nF.
(2π×4000×120×10 -3)2+150 2
L 120×10 -3
(ii) Dynamic resistance R D = . This gives R D = = 60.788kΩ
RC (150×13.16×10 -9)

64
 V 20
(iii) Suppl y Current at resonance, Ir = . This gives Ir = = 0 .329m A.
RD 60788

ωrL
(iv) Circuit Q-factor at resonance, Qr = .
R
2πfrL 2π×4000×120×10 -3
This gives Qr = = = 20.1
R 150
fr f
(v) From Qr = , we have f2 - f1 = r .
f2-f1 Qr
fr 4000
Bandwidth = = = 199Hz.
Qr 20.1

(vi) Since f2 - f1 = 199 Hz and al so fr = f1f2, we have fr2 = f1f2.

16000000
We have 4000 2 = f1f2 or f2 = .
f1
16000000
From f2 - f1 = 199, we get - f1 = 199.
f1

This gives f12 + 199f1- 16000000 = 0.

This is a quadratic equation in f1 which can be sol ved to give two val ues.

f1 = 3900 Hz and f2 = 4100 Hz

Exampl e:
The bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is 500Hz. If the resonant frequency is
6000Hz.
What is the val ue of Q? If R = 10Ω, what is the val ue of the inductive reactance at
resonance? Cal cul ate the inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
SOLUTION:
fr 6000
From Qr = , we have Qr = = 12. Therefore Q = 12
f2-f1 500
XL
Al so Q = .This gives XL = QR = 1.2×10 = 120Ω
R
XL 120
Al so from XL = 2πfrL, we have L = = = 3.183mH
2πfr 2π×6000
At resonance, |XL| = |XC|.
1 1 1
Al so XC = . This gives C = . We get C = = 221nF.
2πfrC 2πfrXC 2π×6000×120

65
Exampl e:
For the two branch network shown bel ow, determine the resonant frequency.

SOLUTIUON:

( )
( )
L
R L2-
1 C
The resonant frequency for the above circuit is fr = × .
2π LC 2 L
RC -
C ( )

( ( ).
)
2×10 -3
(5)2-
1 25×10 -6
We geAt fr = ×
(3) -(
25×10 )
-3
2π (2×10 -3×25×10 -6) 2 2×10
-6

This gives fr = 626.5Hz.

TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A 0.15μF capacitor and a pure inductance of 0.01H are connected in paral l el across
a 10 V, variabl e frequency suppl y: Determine the:
(i) Resonant frequency of the circuit.
(ii) Current circul ating in the capacitor and Inductance. [4.11Hz, 38.73 mA]

2. A 30μF capacitor is connected in paral l el with a coil of inductance 50mH

and unknown resistance R across a 120V,50Hz suppl y. If the circuit has an
overal l power factor of 1, find the:
(i) Val ue of R.
(ii) Current in the coil
(iii) Suppl y Current. [37.7Ω, 2.94 A, 2.714A].
3. A coil of resistance 25Ω and inductance 150mH is connected in paral l el with
a 10μF capacitor across a 60V, variabl e frequency suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Resonant frequency
(ii) Dynamic resistance
(iii) Current at resonance
(iv) Q-factor at resonance.[127.2Hz, 600 Ω, 0.10A, 4.80 ]
4. A coil of resistance 1.5kΩ and 0.25H inductance is connected in paral l el with

66
a variabl e capacitance across a 10 V, 8kHz suppl y. Cal cul ate the:
(i) Capacitance of the capacitor when the suppl y current is a minimum.
(ii) Dynamic resistance.
(iii) Suppl y Current. [1561pF, 106.8 kΩ, 93.66μA]

END:

67
68
69