Art & Culture

Architecture
and Sculptures
Module 1
Harappan Civilization

These bricks
can be used to
make railway
track from
Lahore to
Multan
 Architecture Town Planning (Mohenjo-Daro)

Citadel

Lower Town
 Sculptures: Stone Statues

1. Bust of a bearded man

• Found in Mohenjo-Daro
• Material used: soapstone(steatite)
• Interpreted as priest or Priest king
• Draped in shawl decorated with trefoil
patterns
• Eyes: elongated and half closed as in
meditative concentration
• Hairs parted in middle
• Armlet
• Fillet
• Necklace (holes around the neck)
Sculptures: Stone Statues

Male Torso
• Found in Harappa
• Material used : red sandstone
• socket holes in neck and soldiers(for the
attachment of head and arms)
• Natural pose and sophisticated modeling

Dancing Male Torso

• Found in Harappa
• Material used:Grey
sandstone
• Music and Dance had
great place in life
Sculptures: Metal casting

Technique used: “lost wax” or “Cire

Perdue”

Wax Metal
Molten
wax
clay

Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-Daro,

Material used :Bronze
Sculptures: Metal casting

Bronze figure
of Bull

Bronze buffalo

Copper dog and birds

Sculptures: Terracota figures
Terracotta images :compared to stone and bronze statues terracotta representations
of human form are crude.

Mother Goddess,
Mohenjo-Daro

Toy animal with

movable head,
Mohenjo-Daro

Bull,
Kalibangan
Sculptures: Terracota figures Toy carts with wheels, whistles,
rattles, birds and animals,
gamesmen and discs.

Mask of horned deity,

Harappa

Bearded
males(repetition of
this figure in
exactly same
position would suggest
that he was deity.)
Harappa
 Sculptures: Seals
•usually made of steatite, and occasionally
of agate, chert, copper, faience and
terracotta, gold and ivory with beautiful figures
of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger,
elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.

•realistic rendering of these animals in various

moods.
•purpose :mainly commercial.

•seals were also used as amulets, carried on

persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-
day identity cards.
• engraved in pictographic script = yet to be deciphered.

•most remarkable seal is one depicted with figure in

centre and animals around. identified as Pashupati
Seal by some whereas some identify it as female deity
or Proto Shiva.
•This seal depicts human figure seated cross-
legged.
•elephant and tiger = right side of seated figure
•on left rhinoceros and buffalo.
•+2 antelopes below seat.
•Seals such as these = between 2500 and 1500
BCE + considerable numbers in sites such as
Mohenjodaro.
 Sculptures: Pottery

Wheel made or handmade

Plain pottery Decorative purpose

Painted pottery
•Red and black pottery

•Polychrome pottery
Sculptures: Beads and
Ornaments Raw material: ranging
from precious metals
and gemstones to
bone and baked clay.

Farmana in Haryana =
dead bodies buried
with ornaments.

shapes—disc-shaped,
cylindrical, spherical,
barrel-shaped, and
segmented.
 Sculptures: Beads and
Ornaments

Centre of
shell object
Bead
industry
•spindles and spindle whorls in houses discovered è spinning
of cotton and wool was very common. fact that both rich and
poor practised spinning = finds of whorls made of expensive
faience as also of cheap pottery and shell.

•Men and women wore 2 separate pieces of attire similar

to dhoti and shawl.
•shawl covered left shoulder passing below right
shoulder.

•people were conscious of fashion. Different hairstyles were

in vogue and wearing of beard was popular among
all. Cinnabar was used as cosmetic and face-
paint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner).
Mauryan Period
Mauryan Art &
Architecture

COURT ART FORMS POPULAR ART FORMS

•Stupas •Caves
•Palaces •Sculptures
•Pillars
(Capital figures)

(Abacus)
Sculpture: Yaksha – Yakshini(care taker of natural treasure)

Didarganj, Patna
Museum

Yaksha, Parkham
Mathura
Sculpture: Yaksha – Yakshini(care taker of natural treasure)
Post Mauryan Period

Gandhara & Mathura

School of Art
GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ARTS

•Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas

was a famous backer of art and
architecture.
•The Gandhara School of art flourished
in his reign.
•It was profoundly influenced by Greek
methodologies.
•The figures of Buddha were more
spiritual and carved mainly in grey and
bluish-grey color with the finest
detailing.
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS

•The Mathura School of Art was entirely

influenced by Indian.
•The stone used in the Mathura school of arts
was red sandstone. The sculptures were less
spiritual.
•They mostly used the spotted red sandstone for
making sculptures and statues. The initial
images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattva are
happy and fleshy figures with little spirituality
about them.
•The Mathura School of arts prided themselves
on creating images of Buddha and they also
made statues of many gods and goddesses
such as Jain Tirthankaras.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GANDHARA AND MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS

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Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty

Area Northwest Frontier Mathura
Outside influences Greek influence •Purely indigenous
•No foreign influence
Religious influence Buddhism •Hinduism
Hellenistic realism •Buddhism
•Jainism
•Secularism

Material Used Bluish- Grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone

Grey sandstone
Areas of differences Gandhara School of art M athura School of Art

Features of Buddha sculptures •Spiritual Buddha •Delighted Buddha

•Sad Buddha •Less spiritual
•Bearded Buddha •Shaven head and face
•Less ornamentation •Muscularity
•Great detailing •Energetic
•Buddha in Yogi postures •Graceful posture of Buddha
•Greek factors like wavy hair, large •Seated in Padmasana
forehead, long ears •Buddha surrounded by two monks:
Padmapani (holding Lotus) and
Vajrapani( Holding Vajra)
•Halo around the head of Buddha
decorated with geometrical motifs
•The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasti,
Sarnath, and Kausambhi
•Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jain Jinas

Various Mudras of Buddha in •Abhayamudra- Don’t fear —

Gandhara Art •Bhumisparshamudra -Touching the
earth
•Dhyana mudra- Meditation
•Dharmachakramudra- A preaching
mudra
•Abhayamudra- Don’t fear
•Bhumisparshamudra -Touching the earth
•Dhyana mudra- Meditation
•Dharmachakramudra- A preaching mudra
Gupta
Period
Temple Architecture
•While construction of stupas continued,
Brahmanical temples and images of gods also
started getting constructed.
•The shrines of the temples were of three
kinds—
•(i) sandhara type (with pradikshinapatha),
• (ii) nirandhara type (without
pradakshinapatha), and
•(iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed
from all sides)
Lakshaman Temple,
Khajuraho
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION

•The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called
‘iconography’, which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols
and mythologies associated with them. And very often, while the fundamental myth
and meaning of the deity may remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a
spot can be a response to its local or immediate social, political or geographical
context.
Nagara Temples
Central India
•In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four
pillared structures to a large complex.
•This means that similar developments were incorporated in
the architecture of temples of both the religions.
•Two such temples that survive are; temple at
Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of Vidisha (it is a part of a
large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which
was a Buddhist site.
•The early temples were modest looking shrines each have
four pillars that support a small mandapa before an equally
small room that served as garbhagriha.
•Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta
period are in Madhya Pradesh.
•The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many
traits and the most visible is that they are made
of Sandstone.
1. TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO, MADHYA PRADESH:
•The temples at Khajuraho were made in the
10th century, about 400 years after the temple at
Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
•The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
•We can see how dramatically the shape and style
of the nagara temple architecture had developed.
•The temples at Khajuraho are all made of
Sandstone.
•The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya
Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king
Ganda.
•The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was
built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.
•All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high,
upward in a curved
•All the towers or shikhara of the
temple rise high, upward in a curved
pyramidal fashion, emphasizing the
temple’s vertical thrust ending in a
horizontal fluted disc called an
Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a
vase.
•The crowning element Kalasha and
Amalaka are to be found on all nagara
temples of this period.
•The Khajuraho temples are also
known for their extensive erotic
sculptures (about 10% of total
sculptures); the erotic expression gives
equal importance in human
experience as a spiritual pursuit, and it
is seen as a part of the larger cosmic
whole.
•Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns
(embracing couples-erotic sculptures) sculptures,
considered auspicious.
•Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with
typical features.
•There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of
them dedicated to Hindu gods.
•There are some Jain temples as well as a
Chausanth Yogini temple.
•Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square
shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or goddesses
associated with the rise of Tantric worship after
the 7th
•[Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP
Kalaparishad and is one week long (first week of
February) festival of classical dances celebrated
annually against the spectacular backdrop of
Khajuraho]
2. DASHAVATARA VISHNU TEMPLE, DEOGARH, UP:
•Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are
unknown, it is believed that this temple was built in the
early 6th century CE.
•This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.
•This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture.
[Panchayatana is an architectural style where the main
shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller
subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total
of five shrines – i.e., Pancha]
•There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.
•In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four
subsidiary shrines were originally dedicated.
•The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which
it was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also
house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dashavatara temple.
•The grand doorway of the west facing temple
(west facing is less common) has the sculptures
of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right
side.
•The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which
makes it clear that this is an early example of a
classical nagara style of the temple.
•Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining
on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
•Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion
between human soul and the eternal divine)
•Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of
achieving moksha , symbolically communicated
by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had
taken the form of an elephant)
•The temple is west facing, which is less
common, as most of the temples are east or
north facing.
West India
•There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of
India, including Gujarat and Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable,
at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.
•The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.
•While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be
seen in some of the 10th to 12th-century temple sculptures.
•The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white
marble which is also seen in some of the 10th to 12th-century Jain
temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century temple at Ranatpur.
•Among the most important art, historical sites in the region
are Samlaji in Gujarat.
•It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a
post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.
•A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been
found in this region.
Samlaji in Gujarat
1. SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA,
GUJARAT:
•The temple dates back to the early
11th century and was built by Raja
Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty.
•The Solanks were a branch off later
Chalukyas.
•There is a massive rectangular stepped
tank called Surya Kund in front of it.
•The hundred square metre rectangular
pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank
in India.
•A hundred and eight miniature shrines
are carved in between the steps inside the
tank.
•A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one
to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall)
which is open on all sides, as was the
fashion of the times in western and central
India temples.
East India
•East Indian temples include those found in the
North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each of
these three areas produces a distinct type of
temple.
•The history of architecture in the northeast
and Bengal is hard to study because a number
of ancient buildings in those regions were
renovated, and what survives now is later brick
or concrete temples at those sites.
•It appears that terracotta was the main
medium of construction.
•A large number of sculptures have been found
in Assam and Bengal, which shows the
development of important regional schools in
those regions.
 ASSAM:
•An old 6th century sculpted door frame
from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another
few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea
Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness
to the import of the Gupta idiom in that
region.
•The post-Gupta style continued in the
region well in the 10 th
•However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a
distinct regional style developed in Assam.
•The style that came with the migration of
the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the
dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to
the creation of what was later known as
the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
•Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is
dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was
built in the 17th century.
 BENGAL:
•The style of sculptures during the period between the
9th and 11th centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and
Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at that time.
•That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named
after the Sena kings.
•While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist
monastic sites, the temple of the region is known to express
the Vanga style.
•The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B, built
in the 9th century, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a
large amalaka, is an example of early Pala style.
•Many of the temples from 9th to 12th centuries were located
at Telkupi in Puruta district, W.B.
•They were submerged when dams were constructed in the
region.
•The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the
earliest Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandya.
•Many local vernacular building
traditions of Bengal also influenced
the style of the temple in that region.
•The most prominent of these was
the shape of the sloping or curving
side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali
hut.
•This feature was eventually even
adopted in Mughal buildings and is
known as across India as the Bangla
Roof (word Bungalow derived from
this).
 ODISHA (KALINGIA ARCHITECTURE):
•The main architectural features of Odisha temples
are classified in three orders:
A. REKHAPIDA/ REKHA DEULA/ RATHAKA
DEULA:
Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building
with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the
garbhagriha.

 PIDHADEULA:
It is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof
and is mainly found for housing the outer dancing
and offering halls.

 KHAKRADEULA:
It is a rectangular building with a truncated
pyramid shaped roof. Temples of the female
deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha
usually) and will have a resemblance with
Dravidian temples of the south.
•Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga –
modern Puri district, including Bhuvaneswar or ancient
Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
•The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within
nagara order.
•In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is
vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply
inwards.
•Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas.
•The ground plan of the main temple is almost always
square, which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure
becomes circular in the crowning
•The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their
interiors are generally quite bare.
•Odisha temples usually have outer walls.
1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:
•It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of
Bengal.
•The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered
in extensive, detailed ornamental carving.
•These include 12 pairs of enormous
wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing
the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in
mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
•The whole temple thus comes to resemble a
colossal processional chariot.
•On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of
Surya carved out of green stones.
•It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out
of a different stone placed on the three temple
walls, each facing different directions.
•The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple
from where the actual rays of the sun would enter
the garbhagriha.
2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:
•It is also located on the eastern coast, at
Puri, Odisha.
•The temple is a part of Char
Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri,
Rameswaram) pilgrimages that a Hindu is
expected to make in one’s lifetime.
•When most of the deities in the temples of
India are made of stone or metal, the idol of
Jagannatha is made of wood which is
ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or
nineteen years by using sacred trees.
•The temple is believed to be constructed in
the 12th century by King Anatavarman
Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga
Dynasty.
•The temple is famous for its annual Ratha
Yatra or Chariot festival.
The Dravida or South Indian
Temple Architecture
PALLAVAS:
•The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were
active in Andhra region from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to
settle in Tamil Nadu.
•Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and
several monuments.
•Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also
survived from the reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced
by the long Buddhist history of the Deccan.
•The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were
structural (structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut
ones being excavated).
•The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I,
contemporary of Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.
•Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the
throne around 640 CE.
1. THE SHORE TEMPLE AT
MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU
•It is a structural temple and was built during the
reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as
Rajasimha.
•The temple is facing east towards the sea and has
three shrines – east and west to Shiva and the
middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
•This is unusual because temples generally have a
single main shrine and not three areas of worship.
This shows that it was probably not originally
conceived like this and different shrine may be
added at different times.
•In the compound, there is an evidence of a water
tank, an early example of a gopuram, and several
other images.
•Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines
the temple walls.
•The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to
erosion by salt water laden air over the centuries.
The Pallava temple architecture can be classified c. Rajasimha Group:
into four groups according to the rulers and the •The group was under Narasimhavarman II who
features of temples they constructed. was also known as Rajasimha.
a. Mahendravarman Group: •He introduced the structural temples and
•Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Gopura style in Pallava architecture.
Mahendravarman I (7th century). •The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore
•They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.
by rock-cut architecture).
•e.g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, d. Nandivaram Group:
etc. •Architecture mainly under the Pallava
b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group: king, Nandivaram Pallava.
•It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which •They also represented structural temples.
started when Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) came to •The temples were generally small compared to
the throne. the other groups.
•The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks. •The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and
•The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mukteswara temple are examples.
Mamallapuram are examples.
•The five rathas are popularly known
as Panchapandava rathas.
Cholas
•The best example of Chola temple
architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at
Tanjore.
•The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara
temple.
•It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja
Chola and is the largest and tallest of all Indian
temples.
•The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana
rises a massive seventy metres, topped by a
monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by
itself is about three metres and eight centimetres
in height.
•The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is
shown as a huge lingam set in a two storeyed
sanctum.
•Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the
walls surrounding the sanctum.
The Vesara or the Deccan
Temple Architecture
Chalukyas
1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:
•The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the
early Chalukya stylewhich is known for its distinct
sculptural style.
•One of the most important sculptures at the site is of
Nataraja, surrounded by a large depiction
of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.

2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:

•The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest
Hindu temples.
•Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya
Dynasty.
•It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples
of the hills except that it is constructed out of stone.
•The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan,
who turned this temple into his residence for a short
period.
Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka
3. Durga Temple at Aihole,
Karnataka:
•The temple is built in between
7th and 8th century.
•The architecture of the temple is
predominantly Dravida with Nagara
style also in certain areas.
•The temple is considered as a
unique and magnificent temple of
the Chalukya period.
•The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is
located to its South.
4.Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:
•There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a
UNESCO world Heritage Site.
•A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.
•Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one
is a Jain temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara
and Dravida styles.
•The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th
•The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-
Sila-Prasad, was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king
Vikramaditya II (733-44).
•It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory
over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
•It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and
elevation.
•It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.
Rashtrakutas
•By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya
control of the Deccan was taken by the
Rashtrakutas.
•Their greatest achievement in architecture is
the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.
•The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built
by Rashtrakutas.
Hoyasalas
•With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into prominence in
south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
•The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and Somanathpuram.
•The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex with so
many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square temple so that the
plan of these temples starts looking like a star.
•As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan.
•They are usually made out of soapstone.

1.Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:

•The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.
•Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.
•Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate
music and dance.
•In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of
elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.
Hoyasaleswara temple.
Indo-Islamic Art
& Architecture
ARCHITECTURE IN
MODERN INDIA
DUTCH ARCHIECTURE

BASTION BANGLOW

MATTANCHERRY PALACE
Circular arches
Chattrapati Shivaji Terminals, Mumbai
Taj Hotel, Mumbai
Chennai High court
Victorian Gothic
Art Deco
BRITISH INFLUENCE:
NEO- Roman Style

•Construction according to Neo-Roman style

•Architecture of New Delhi done by Edwin
Lutyens and Herbert Baker
•Delhi – “Rome of Hindustan”
•Hybrid nature of construction
•Confluence of all styles
•Simplicity ,modernity and utility highly
compromised
•Focus on circular buildings
•Concept of upturned dome
ROMAN STYLE
•ROMAN STYLE
•Large and ornate
•Use of concrete
•Use of all types of column
ROMAN STYLE
ROMAN STYLE
NEO-ROMAN STYLE

•NEO-ROMAN STYLE
•Romanesque
•Simplicity
•Less ornate
•Preference for blank
walls
•Use of cement and
bricks
HERBERT BAKER EDWIN LUTYENS
Rome of Hindustan: Delhi
Rome of Hindustan: Delhi
POST INDEPENDENCE ARCHIECTURE

•After 1947,two schools of architecture emerged:

1. Revivalist
2. Modernist
• But no progress was seen

• LAURIE BAKER
• “Architect of the poor”
• Mass housing concept in Kerala
• Feature:
1. Construction using locally available material
2. Concept of filler slab construction
3. Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangement