Class 12 Chemistry Unit Test Study Guide: Solutions &

Electrochemistry

Most Important Topics for Unit Test

I have listed the important topics to study, for both the chapters–solutions and
electrochemistry—- First, go through these topics understand the concepts, as
mentioned. Second, when you finish understanding go through the last minute
notes below as a form of revision.

Part 1: Solutions
• Concentration Terms:

– Study: Definitions and formulas for Molarity (M ), Molality (m), and Mole Frac-
tion (χ). Understand their units.
– Practice: Simple numerical problems for calculating these concentrations, and
conversions between them (e.g., M to m). Pay attention to temperature depen-
dence (M varies, m does not).
– Problems: Direct calculation problems, or problems requiring conversion before
other calculations (e.g., colligative properties).

• Raoult’s Law & Ideal/Non-Ideal Solutions:

– Study: Statement of Raoult’s Law for volatile and non-volatile solutes. Charac-
teristics of Ideal Solutions (∆Hmixing = 0, ∆Vmixing = 0).
– Practice: Distinguishing between positive and negative deviations (examples,
conditions ∆Hmixing , ∆Vmixing values, and interaction types). Understand Azeotropes
(minimum and maximum boiling).
– Problems: Conceptual questions on ideal/non-ideal solutions and their devia-
tions. Numerical problems involving calculation of vapor pressure using Raoult’s
Law.

• Colligative Properties (Most Crucial):

 – Study: Definitions and formulas for Relative Lowering of Vapor Pressure (∆P/P 0 ),
Elevation in Boiling Point (∆Tb ), Depression in Freezing Point (∆Tf ), and Os-
motic Pressure (Π). Understand the underlying principle (dependence on number
of particles).
– Practice: Extensive numerical problems for all four properties, especially for
calculating molar mass of solute. Understand graphical representations (e.g.,
vapor pressure vs. temperature).
– Problems: Direct numerical calculations, determination of molar mass, concep-
tual questions comparing the magnitude of these properties for different solutions.

• Abnormal Molar Masses & Van’t Hoff Factor (i):

– Study: Concept of association and dissociation. Definition and calculation of

Van’t Hoff factor (i). How i modifies colligative property formulas. Degree of
dissociation/association.
– Practice: Numerical problems involving i to correct colligative property calcu-
lations or to determine i from experimental data.
– Problems: Numerical problems involving solutes that dissociate (e.g., electrolytes)
or associate (e.g., carboxylic acids in non-polar solvents).

Part 2: Electrochemistry
• Electrochemical Cells (Galvanic & Electrolytic):

– Study: Definitions, differences, and components (anode, cathode, salt bridge)

and their functions. Understand the direction of electron flow and current flow.
Cell notation.
– Practice: Be able to draw and label a Daniell cell and write its half-reactions
and overall reaction.
– Problems: Conceptual questions on cell components, distinguishing features,
and basic working.

• Electrode Potential & Standard Electrode Potential:

0 0 0
– Study: Definitions. Role of SHE. Calculation of Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode . Un-
derstand the Electrochemical Series (relative oxidizing/reducing strengths).
– Practice: Using standard reduction potentials to predict spontaneity and identify
anode/cathode.
0
– Problems: Direct calculation of Ecell , conceptual questions on spontaneity and
strength of oxidizing/reducing agents.

• Nernst Equation (Crucial for Numericals):

– Study: The equation and its components for single electrodes and for overall cell
reactions. Relationship with ∆G and Kc .

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 – Practice: Extensive numerical problems calculating electrode potential and cell
potential under non-standard conditions. Calculations involving ∆G0 and Kc .
– Problems: Complex numerical problems using the Nernst equation for various
scenarios.

• Conductance in Electrolytic Solutions:

– Study: Definitions and units of Resistance (R), Conductance (G), Resistivity

(ρ), Conductivity (κ), and Molar Conductivity (Λm ). Understand how κ and Λm
vary with dilution for strong and weak electrolytes (graphs).
– Practice: Basic numerical problems involving these terms.
– Problems: Conceptual questions on variation with dilution, simple calculations.

• Kohlrausch’s Law:

– Study: Statement and applications (calculation of Λ0m for weak electrolytes, de-
gree of dissociation, dissociation constant).
– Practice: Numerical problems applying the law, especially for weak electrolytes.
– Problems: Numerical problems calculating Λ0m for weak electrolytes or dissoci-
ation constant (Ka ).

• Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis:

– Study: Statements of First and Second Laws. Formulas (W = ZIt). Understand

Electrochemical Equivalent (Z).
– Practice: Numerical problems based on these laws, especially mass deposited/liberated
given current and time, or vice-versa.
– Problems: Direct numerical calculations applying Faraday’s laws.

• Batteries & Corrosion:

– Study: Basic working principles and examples of Primary (Dry cell, Mercury cell)
and Secondary (Lead-acid, Ni-Cd) batteries. Advantages of Fuel Cells. Mecha-
nism of Rusting of Iron. Methods of Corrosion prevention.
– Practice: Key reactions for Lead-acid battery (discharge/charge).
– Problems: Conceptual questions, differences between battery types, applica-
tions, prevention methods of corrosion.

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Class 12 Chemistry Unit Test Study Guide
THE REVISION Notes for each chapter

Part 1: Solutions
The chapter on Solutions is fundamental. Pay special attention to colligative properties and
Raoult’s Law.

1. Types of Solutions and Concentration Terms

• Definition of Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more components whose
composition can be varied within certain limits. The component present in the largest
quantity is the solvent, and the other component(s) are solute(s).

• Types of Solutions: Solutions can be solid, liquid, or gaseous, depending on the

physical state of the solvent. (e.g., solid solution: alloys; liquid solution: sugar in
water; gaseous solution: air).

• Concentration Terms (Most Important for Numericals):

Mass of solute
– Mass percentage (w/W ): Mass of solution
× 100
Volume of solute
– Volume percentage (V /V ): Volume of solution
× 100
Mass of solute
– Mass by volume percentage (w/V ): Volume of solution
× 100
– Mole Fraction (χ): Ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total
number of moles of all components present in the solution. For a solution of A
and B: χA = nAn+n
A
B
, χB = nAn+n
B
B
. Note: χA + χB = 1.
– Molarity (M ): Moles of solute dissolved per litre of solution. M = VolumeMoles of solute
of solution in litres
Note: Molarity changes with temperature (due to volume change).
Moles of solute
– Molality (m): Moles of solute dissolved per kilogram of solvent. m = Mass of solvent in kg
Note: Molality is independent of temperature.
Mass of solute
– Parts per Million (ppm): Used for very dilute solutions. ppm = Mass of solution
×
106

2. Solubility
• Solubility: Maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount
of solvent at a specified temperature to form a saturated solution.

• Factors Affecting Solubility:

– Nature of Solute and Solvent: ”Like dissolves like.” Polar solutes dissolve in
polar solvents, and non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents.
– Temperature:

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 ∗ For solids in liquids: Solubility generally increases with temperature (en-
dothermic dissolution).
∗ For gases in liquids: Solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
– Pressure (for gases in liquids - Henry’s Law):
∗ Henry’s Law: The partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p) is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (χ) in the solution. p = KH χ
Where KH is Henry’s Law constant. Higher KH means lower solubility of the
gas at a given pressure.
∗ Applications: Deep sea diving (decompression sickness/bends), soft drinks
(CO2 solubility), functioning of lungs.

3. Raoult’s Law and Vapour Pressure

• Vapour Pressure of a Liquid: The pressure exerted by the vapours in equilibrium
with the liquid at a given temperature.

• Raoult’s Law (for volatile components): For a solution of volatile liquids, the
partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional to
its mole fraction in the solution.

– For component A: PA = PA0 χA

– For component B: PB = PB0 χB
– Where PA0 and PB0 are vapour pressures of pure components A and B respectively.
– Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: Total vapour pressure (Ptotal ) over the
solution is the sum of partial vapour pressures of the components: Ptotal = PA +
PB = PA0 χA + PB0 χB

• Raoult’s Law (for non-volatile solute in a volatile solvent): The relative low-
ering of vapour pressure of a dilute solution containing a non-volatile solute is equal
to the mole fraction of the solute.
P 0 −PS
– P0
= χsolute
– Where P 0 is vapour pressure of pure solvent, PS is vapour pressure of solution.

• Ideal Solutions: Solutions that obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concen-
trations.

– ∆Hmixing = 0 (no heat absorbed or released on mixing)

– ∆Vmixing = 0 (no change in volume on mixing)
– Intermolecular interactions (A-A, B-B) are similar to (A-B).
– Examples: Benzene and Toluene, n-Hexane and n-Heptane.

• Non-Ideal Solutions: Solutions that do not obey Raoult’s Law.

– ∆Hmixing ̸= 0 and ∆Vmixing ̸= 0.

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 – Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law:
∗ PA > PA0 χA and PB > PB0 χB
∗ Total vapour pressure is higher than predicted.
∗ (A-B) interactions are weaker than (A-A) and (B-B) interactions.
∗ ∆Hmixing > 0 (endothermic, heat absorbed)
∗ ∆Vmixing > 0 (volume increases)
∗ Examples: Ethanol and Acetone, Carbon disulfide and Acetone.
∗ Form minimum boiling azeotropes.
– Negative Deviation from Raoult’s Law:
∗ PA < PA0 χA and PB < PB0 χB
∗ Total vapour pressure is lower than predicted.
∗ (A-B) interactions are stronger than (A-A) and (B-B) interactions.
∗ ∆Hmixing < 0 (exothermic, heat released)
∗ ∆Vmixing < 0 (volume decreases)
∗ Examples: Acetone and Chloroform, Nitric acid and Water.
∗ Form maximum boiling azeotropes.

• Azeotropes: Binary mixtures that have the same composition in liquid and vapour
phases and boil at a constant temperature. They cannot be separated by fractional
distillation.

4. Colligative Properties
These properties depend only on the number of solute particles, not on their chemical
identity. Applicable for dilute solutions of non-volatile solutes.

• i. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP):

– Derived from Raoult’s Law for non-volatile solute.

P 0 −PS n2 n2
– P0
= n1 +n2
≈ n1
(for dilute solutions, where n2 << n1 )
P 0 −PS W2 /M2
– P0
= W1 /M1

– Where P 0 = vapour pressure of pure solvent, PS = vapour pressure of solution,

n1 = moles of solvent, n2 = moles of solute, W1 = mass of solvent, W2 = mass of
solute, M1 = molar mass of solvent, M2 = molar mass of solute.

• ii. Elevation in Boiling Point (∆Tb ):

– The boiling point of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is higher than that
of the pure solvent.
– ∆Tb = Tb − Tb0 (where Tb is solution BP, Tb0 is pure solvent BP)
– ∆Tb = Kb · m

6
 – Where Kb is molal elevation constant (Ebullioscopic constant), m is molality.
2
RT 0 M 1
– Kb = 1000∆
b
vap H
(where R is gas constant, M1 is molar mass of solvent in kg/mol,
∆vap H is molar enthalpy of vaporization)
Kb W2 ×1000
– Used to determine molar mass of solute: M2 = ∆Tb W1

• iii. Depression in Freezing Point (∆Tf ):

– The freezing point of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is lower than that
of the pure solvent.
– ∆Tf = Tf0 − Tf (where Tf0 is pure solvent FP, Tf is solution FP)
– ∆Tf = Kf · m
– Where Kf is molal depression constant (Cryoscopic constant), m is molality.
2
RT 0 M1
f
– Kf = 1000∆ f us H
(where R is gas constant, M1 is molar mass of solvent in kg/mol,
∆f us H is molar enthalpy of fusion)
Kf W2 ×1000
– Used to determine molar mass of solute: M2 = ∆Tf W1

• iv. Osmotic Pressure (Π):

– Osmosis: The spontaneous net flow of solvent molecules from a region of lower
solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane.
– Osmotic Pressure (Π): The excess pressure that must be applied to the solution
side to prevent the net flow of solvent into the solution through a semi-permeable
membrane.
– Van’t Hoff Equation: Π = CRT
– Where C is molar concentration (Molarity in mol/L), R is gas constant (0.0821 L atm mol−1 K−1
or 8.314 J K−1 mol−1 ), T is temperature in Kelvin.
n2
– Π= V
RT
– Used to determine molar mass of solute: M2 = WΠV 2 RT
(Osmotic pressure method
is preferred for determining molar mass of macromolecules like proteins and poly-
mers due to large osmotic pressure values even at low concentrations).
– Isotonic Solutions: Solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given tem-
perature. No net osmosis occurs when separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
– Hypotonic Solution: Solution with lower osmotic pressure than another. Cells
placed in hypotonic solution swell and may burst (hemolysis).
– Hypertonic Solution: Solution with higher osmotic pressure than another.
Cells placed in hypertonic solution shrink (plasmolysis).

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5. Abnormal Molar Masses and Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
• Abnormal Molar Mass: When a solute undergoes dissociation or association in a
solution, the number of particles changes, leading to observed colligative properties
different from those predicted for normal behavior. This results in an ”abnormal”
molar mass calculation.

• Van’t Hoff Factor (i): A measure of the extent of dissociation or association of

a solute in a solution. i = Calculated colligativeObserved colligative property
property (assuming no association/dissociation)
i =
Normal molar mass Total number of moles of particles after association/dissociation
Observed molar mass
i= Number of moles of particles before association/dissociation

• Modified Colligative Property Equations (with i):

P 0 −PS
– Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure: P0
= i · χsolute
– Elevation in Boiling Point: ∆Tb = i · Kb · m
– Depression in Freezing Point: ∆Tf = i · Kf · m
– Osmotic Pressure: Π = i · CRT

• For Dissociation: i > 1. (e.g., NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl− , so i ≈ 2 for ideal
dissociation).
i−1
– Degree of dissociation (α): α = n−1
(where n is the number of ions produced per
molecule).

• For Association: i < 1. (e.g., Acetic acid in benzene associates to form a dimer, so
i ≈ 0.5).
i−1
– Degree of association (α): α = 1/n−1
(where n is the number of molecules that
associate).

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Part 2: Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry deals with the relationship between electrical energy and chemical reac-
tions. Focus on electrochemical cells, Nernst equation, conductance, and Faraday’s laws.

1. Electrochemical Cells (Galvanic/Voltaic Cells and Electrolytic Cells)

• Electrochemical Cell: A device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy
(Galvanic cell) or electrical energy into chemical energy (Electrolytic cell).

• Galvanic (Voltaic) Cell:

– Converts chemical energy of spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy.

– Anode: Electrode where oxidation occurs (negative terminal).
– Cathode: Electrode where reduction occurs (positive terminal).
– Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit.
– Current flows from cathode to anode.
– Salt Bridge: A U-tube containing an inert electrolyte (e.g., KCl, KNO3 ) to
maintain electrical neutrality and complete the circuit. It prevents accumulation
of charge in half-cells.
– Cell Notation: Anode ∥ Cathode (e.g., Zn(s) — Zn2+ (aq) ∥ Cu2+ (aq) — Cu(s))
– Example: Daniell Cell: Zn electrode in ZnSO4 solution and Cu electrode in
CuSO4 solution.
∗ Anode (Oxidation): Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
∗ Cathode (Reduction): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
∗ Overall Reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)

• Electrolytic Cell:

– Converts electrical energy into chemical energy (non-spontaneous redox reaction).

– Requires an external power source.
– Anode: Connected to positive terminal of battery (oxidation occurs).
– Cathode: Connected to negative terminal of battery (reduction occurs).
– Example: Electrolysis of molten NaCl (Na deposition at cathode, Cl2 at anode).

2. Electrode Potential and Standard Electrode Potential

• Electrode Potential: The potential difference developed between the electrode and
the electrolyte when a metal is dipped in its own salt solution.

– Tendency of an electrode to lose electrons (oxidation potential) or gain electrons

(reduction potential). By convention, Standard Reduction Potentials are
used.

9
 • Standard Electrode Potential (E 0 ): Electrode potential measured under standard
conditions:

– Temperature = 298 K (25◦ C)

– Concentration of ions = 1 M
– Pressure of gas = 1 bar (or 1 atm)

• Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE): A reference electrode (E 0 = 0.00 V) used

to measure standard electrode potentials of other electrodes.

– Consists of a platinum electrode in 1 M H+ solution, over which H2 gas at 1 bar

pressure is bubbled at 298 K.
– Half-reaction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g)

• Standard Cell Potential (Ecell 0

): The difference between the standard reduction
potentials of the cathode and the anode.
0 0 0
– Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode
0
– A positive Ecell indicates a spontaneous reaction (Galvanic cell).

• Electrochemical Series: A series of elements arranged in increasing order of their

standard reduction potentials.

– Higher reduction potential = Stronger oxidizing agent, greater tendency to get

reduced.
– Lower reduction potential (more negative) = Stronger reducing agent, greater
tendency to get oxidized.

3. Nernst Equation
• Relates electrode potential (or cell potential) to the concentration of ions and temper-
ature. Useful for non-standard conditions.

• For an electrode reaction: M n+ (aq) + ne− → M (s)

RT
0
– EM n+ /M = EM n+ /M − nF
ln [M1n+ ]
– Or, at 298 K, converting natural logarithm to common logarithm (ln x = 2.303 log x):
0.0591
EM n+ /M = EM 0
n+ /M − n
log [M1n+ ] (in Volts)

• For a general cell reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD

0 RT
– Ecell = Ecell − nF
ln Q
[C]c [D]d
– Where Q is the reaction quotient: Q = [A]a [B]b
0 0.0591
– At 298 K: Ecell = Ecell − n
log Q (in Volts)

10
 – Where n is the number of electrons transferred in the balanced reaction, R is gas
constant (8.314 J K−1 mol−1 ), T is temperature in Kelvin, F is Faraday constant
(96485 C mol−1 ).

• Relationship between Gibbs Free Energy and Cell Potential:

– ∆G = −nF Ecell
– At standard conditions: ∆G0 = −nF Ecell
0

– For a spontaneous reaction, ∆G must be negative, so Ecell must be positive.

• Relationship between Equilibrium Constant (Kc ) and Ecell

0
:

– At equilibrium, Ecell = 0 and Q = Kc .

0 RT
– Ecell = nF
ln Kc
0 0.0591
– At 298 K: Ecell = n
log Kc

4. Conductance in Electrolytic Solutions

• Electrical Resistance (R): Opposition to the flow of current. Unit: Ohm (Ω).

• Conductance (G): Reciprocal of resistance. G = 1

R
. Unit: Siemens (S) or Ω−1 .

• Resistivity (ρ): Resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross-section.
R = ρ Al . Unit: Ohm-meter (Ω · m) or Ohm-cm (Ω · cm).

• Conductivity (κ or σ): Reciprocal of resistivity. κ = ρ1 . Unit: Siemens per meter

(S m−1 ) or Siemens per centimeter (S cm−1 ).

– κ = G Al (where l/A is cell constant G∗ )

• Molar Conductivity (Λm ): Conductivity of a solution containing one mole of elec-

trolyte placed between two electrodes of unit distance apart and having a large enough
area of cross-section to contain all the solution.

– Λm = κ×1000
C
(if κ in S cm−1 , C in mol/L)
– Unit: S cm mol−1 .
2

• Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Dilution:

– Conductivity (κ): Decreases with dilution for both strong and weak electrolytes.
This is because the number of ions per unit volume decreases on dilution.
– Molar Conductivity (Λm ): Increases with dilution for both strong and weak
electrolytes.
∗ Strong Electrolytes: The increase is gradual. On dilution, interionic at-
tractions decrease, increasing the mobility of ions.

11
 ∗ Weak Electrolytes: The increase is sharp, especially at high dilution. On
dilution, the degree of dissociation increases significantly, leading to a large
increase in the number of ions.

• Limiting Molar Conductivity (Λ0m or Λ∞ m ): Molar conductivity when the concen-

tration of the electrolyte approaches zero (infinite dilution).

– For√strong electrolytes, Λm can be extrapolated to zero concentration from a Λm

vs C graph.
– For weak electrolytes, extrapolation is not possible.

5. Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions

• Statement: At infinite dilution, when the dissociation is complete, each ion makes a
definite contribution to the total molar conductivity of the electrolyte, irrespective of
the nature of the other ion of the electrolyte.

– Λ0m = λ0+ + λ0−

– Where λ0+ and λ0− are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation and anion
respectively.

• Applications:

– Calculation of limiting molar conductivities of weak electrolytes (e.g., acetic acid:

Λ0m (CH3 COOH) = Λ0m (CH3 COONa) + Λ0m (HCl) − Λ0m (NaCl)).
Λm
– Calculation of degree of dissociation (α) of weak electrolytes: α = Λ0m
(where Λm
is molar conductivity at a given concentration).
Cα2
– Calculation of dissociation constant (Ka ) of weak electrolytes: Ka = 1−α
(using
Ostwald’s dilution law).

6. Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

• Electrolysis: The process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage
of electric current through its molten or dissolved state.

• Faraday’s First Law: The mass of a substance (W ) deposited or liberated at any

electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity (Q) passed through the
electrolyte.

– W ∝Q
– W = ZQ (where Z is the electrochemical equivalent)
– Since Q = I × t (current in Amperes, time in seconds): W = ZIt
– Z= Equivalent mass
F
(where F is Faraday constant, 96485 C mol−1 )
Molar mass
– Equivalent mass = n-factor (valency change)

12
 • Faraday’s Second Law: When the same quantity of electricity is passed through
different electrolytes connected in series, the masses of the substances deposited or
liberated at the electrodes are directly proportional to their equivalent masses.
W1 Equivalent mass1
– W2
= Equivalent mass2

7. Batteries (Primary and Secondary Cells) and Fuel Cells

• Batteries (Cells): Devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical en-
ergy.

• Primary Cells: Non-rechargeable. Chemical reaction stops after reactants are con-
sumed.

– Dry Cell (Leclanche cell): Anode: Zn, Cathode: Carbon rod surrounded
by MnO2 + carbon powder. Electrolyte: Paste of NH4 Cl and ZnCl2 . Uses:
Transistors, radios.
– Mercury Cell: Anode: Zn-Hg amalgam, Cathode: HgO + carbon paste. Elec-
trolyte: Paste of KOH and ZnO. Uses: Hearing aids, watches. Provides constant
voltage throughout its life.

• Secondary Cells: Rechargeable. Can be recharged by passing current in the opposite

direction, reversing the chemical reaction.

– Lead-Acid Battery: Anode: Lead (Pb), Cathode: Lead dioxide (PbO2 ). Elec-
trolyte: 38% H2 SO4 . Uses: Automobiles, inverters.
∗ Discharge: Pb(s) + PbO2 (s) + 2H2 SO4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l)
∗ Recharge: Reverse reaction.
– Nickel-Cadmium Cell (NiCad): Long-life, but cadmium is toxic.

• Fuel Cells: Galvanic cells that convert the energy of combustion of fuels (like H2 ,
CH4 , CH3 OH) directly into electrical energy.

– Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell:

∗ Anode: 2H2 (g) + 4OH− (aq) → 4H2 O(l) + 4e−
∗ Cathode: O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH− (aq)
∗ Overall: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l)
– Advantages: High efficiency (no energy conversion losses), continuous supply of
reactants, pollution-free (product is water for H2 -O2 fuel cell).

8. Corrosion
• Definition: An electrochemical phenomenon that causes deterioration of metals due
to their reaction with air or water (oxidation). Example: Rusting of iron.

• Mechanism of Rusting of Iron:

13
 – Iron acts as an anode, oxygen acts as a cathode.
– At Anode (Iron surface, where stress/impurity exists): Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq)+
2e−
– At Cathode (Other part of iron surface, where oxygen is available):
O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− → 2H2 O(l) (In presence of acid or water)
– Overall redox reaction: 2Fe(s) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) → 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l)
– Further oxidation: Fe2+ ions are further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to Fe3+
ions, which then form hydrated ferric oxide (rust). 4Fe2+ (aq)+O2 (g)+4H2 O(l) →
2Fe2 O3 · nH2 O(s) (Hydrated ferric oxide, rust)

• Prevention of Corrosion:

– Barrier Protection: Painting, oiling, greasing, plastic coating.

– Galvanization: Coating iron with a more reactive metal (zinc). Zinc acts as a
sacrificial anode.
– Sacrificial Protection: Connecting the metal to be protected to a more elec-
tropositive metal (e.g., Mg, Zn) that corrodes preferentially.
– Electrolytic Protection: Applying an external current to make the metal a
cathode.
– Alloying: Stainless steel (Fe, Cr, Ni) is more resistant to corrosion.
– Anti-rust solutions: Phosphates or chromates form a protective layer.

Important Tips for Exam:

• Numericals: Practice numerical problems especially from colligative properties (Solu-
tions) and Nernst equation, Faraday’s laws, and molar conductivity (Electrochemistry).

• Formulas: Memorize all key formulas and their units.

• Definitions: Be clear on definitions of terms like molarity, molality, ideal/non-ideal

solutions, colligative properties, electrode potential, standard cell potential, etc.

• Distinguish: Understand the differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions, pos-
itive and negative deviations, galvanic and electrolytic cells, primary and secondary
batteries.

• Factors Affecting: Know how different factors (temperature, pressure, dilution, na-
ture of solute/solvent) affect solubility, conductivity, and molar conductivity.

• Diagrams: Be familiar with the labelled diagram of a Daniell cell and its working.

14