Topic 1; Aircraft, frame, and system

1.1 Airframes
Types of Airframes:
● Truss - Steel tubes covered with metal, fabric, or composite materials for aerodynamic purposes. The primary
tubes used are called longerons. Shorter cross-bracing tubes can be called struts and can be run horizontally,
vertically, or diagonally. Stringers can run along the top.
● Semi-Monocoque - A series of formers or bulkheads held together by stringers (360o orientation). The frame is
then wrapped with a stressed skin. This skin takes some of the load.
● Monocoque – Similar to semi-monocoque but does not have stringers. Less rivets, less skin friction.
● Composite – Make use of materials like fiberglass or kevlar. Stronger and lighter than metal and do not have
fatiguing problems.
● Bulkhead – A partition within an airframe used as a divider or barrier.
1.2 Landing gear, breaks, and flaps
Tricycle- these aircrafts have a nose wheel
Conventional-these aircrafts have a tail wheel and are often called taildragger
Advantages of Tricycle Gear:
● Does not nose over as easily. ● Better visibility over the nose while taxiing.
● Better directional stability on the ground. ● Better ground handling.
Advantages of Conventional Gear:
● More propeller clearance. ● Less damage to the plane if the wheel gives
● Less parasite drag from landing gear. out.
● Better on rough and unimproved runways.
Retractable Landing Gear:
● Huge reduction in parasite drag and noise.
● More complicated, and risky that you could be distracted and land with it retracted.
● Operated by electrics, hydraulics, or manually (always has a manual backup).
Types of Main Gear:
● Split Axle: Bungie or oleo.
● Spring Steel Cantilever: Steel or composite, flexes.
● Single Strut: Oleo (almost vertical).
Differential Braking – Brakes can be operated independently (more control, tighter turns).
Heels on floor! Never land with brakes on!!
Flaps:
● Increase the lift and drag of the wing by increasing the camber.
● Can be electric, hydraulic, or manual.
● Types include: Plain, split, slotted, fowler, or combinations thereof.
Tires that are either low pressure and/or large are better on soft or rough airstrips.
Flaperon – Combination aileron and flaps. The pilot has separate controls and mechanical devices to make it work.
Although slightly more complex, it can reduce the weight of an aircraft.
Cowling Flaps – Control the amount of air circulating around the engine for cooling. They are partially or fully closed
during cruise/descent or when less air is needed.
1.3 piston engine pt1. operation
Horizontally Opposed Engine – This is the most common type of reciprocating, air-cooled, four-stroke piston engine
used in GA aircraft. Gives low parasite drag
The ring gear is not what makes your propeller spin. It is only connected to the starter when cranking the engine. The
prop is spun because it is connected to the pistons via the camshaft.
Each cylinder in an aviation piston engine has two spark plugs for redundancy.

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Radial Piston Engine:
● Round shaped, air cooled with an odd number ● Economical to buy, but maintenance intensive.
of cylinders (per bank). ● Guzzles oil, using a dry sump
● High power-to-weight ratio.
Most aviation (and automotive) engines are four-stroke, as opposed to something like a chainsaw or lawn mower, which
are only two-stroke.
Four Stroke Cycle: a cycle to complete the combustion sequence
1. Intake: The intake valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed, which creates a vacuum. Vacuum pulls the
fuel/air mixture into the cylinder through the open intake valve. At this point, the piston is only moving due to
inertia. The camshaft is what opens the intake valve.
2. Compression: Both valves are closed as they move upwards. Compression of the fuel & air allows the mixture
to reach its maximum potency.
3. Power: Both valves are still closed. Prior to the piston reaching the top dead center, the spark plug fires. As the
mixture burns (not explodes) it forces the piston back down.
4. Exhaust: The piston is coming back up. The exhaust valve is open to allow exhaust to leave the cylinder.
Method of cooling Most piston engines are air cooled, although a few are liquid cooled. But liquid cooling is
heavier and more complex, although there is less drag in liquid-cooled.
Magneto – Provides electrical current to the spark plugs (not supplied by the battery). Magnetos are always alive
and are designed to continue operating even after a magneto ground wire failure. Modern aviation piston engines
have two magnetos, cross-wired to each cylinder, as a redundant fail-safe.
- Turning the mag switch OFF causes a short circuit ( called grounding) of the magneto coil that prevents it from
working. The wire that does the grounding is called p-lead. By selecting the RIGHT magneto the left magneto is
grounded and when selecting the LEFT magneto the right is grounded.the run-up checks proves that each
ignition system operates without help from the other one. The BOTH position of the mag switch removes the
ground from both magnetos, and the engine uses the full dual system.
A shroud is often placed around the muffler to provide cabin heat. However, leaks are possible, which can lead to
carbon monoxide poisoning. If you smell exhaust in the cabin, turn off the cabin heat.
No RPM drop during run-up No drop in RPM during run-up could be an indication of a broken P-lead. You check this
yourself by bringing the engine to idle RPM and placing the ignition switch to off momentarily. If the P-leads is broken
the engine will continue to run ( mags are still”LIVE” not grounded when shut down) MUST KNOW if the P-lead are
not good, the engine will begin to quit, placing the mag switch back to BOTH before the props stop turning the engine
will reset and continue to run. Another cause for little or no RPM drop could be improper magneto timing
Dual ignitionTiming is adjusted separately on each magneto so that it fires its spark plugs at exactly the right time. If the
plug fires too early or too late, engine power and engine life can be adversely affected. Look for the difference in RPM
drop between the left and right magnetos, the operating manual will recommend a maximum allowable difference,
typically about 50 RPM
Exhaust system Used to reduce noise and take pollution away from the cabin area, by placing a shroud the muffler can be
used to provide cabin heat. CAUTION due to the possibility of leak in the exhaust system, careful inspections are
required. Carbon monoxide poisoning is possible, if you smell exhaust, turn off the cabin heat
Ancillary controls;
Mixture Control:
● Rich means that it is heavy to fuel.
● The proper ratio of fuel to air is 1:14 or 1:15 by weight, not by volume.
● A lean mix increases engine efficiency and saves fuel. Also runs cleaner (avoids spark plug fouling and
pre-ignition).
The Throttle and Mixture can have varying settings, from all the way “in” to all the way “out,” like a light on a
dimmer switch. Although carb heat has a similar type of “plunger” control, you should only ever do “all the way in”
or “all the way out” for carb heat. Carb heat is either On or Off.
Be aware that when the carb heat is on, your aircraft is ingesting unfiltered air. Turbochargers and Superchargers
compress and increase the density of air. As we climb, the air becomes less dense, so compressing it makes the
engine perform the same way as if it was at a lower altitude.
An aircraft without a carburetor temperature gauge should use carb heat as full ON or OFF. Turn it ON before

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reducing power. Turn it OFF after applying power. Without a carb temp gauge partial use could aid in the
formation of ice, airplanes and helicopters with a carb temp gauge will run carb heat OFF for takeoff or when full
power is needed. Otherwise the pilot will adjust the carb heat lever to keep the carb temp gauge out of the yellow
arcs or red line(S) the air that goes through the carb heat is not filtered and it is best to minimize using carb heat on
the ground, best taxi with carb heat OFF, so that dust does not enter the engine
As we climb the air becomes less dense, this causes a decrease in engine performance- a turbocharger or supercharger can
be used to compress and increase the density of the air, so that the engine will then ‘think’ that it is at a lower altitude.
MUST KNOW turbocharger/supercharger increases the altitude at which full power can be maintained
Turbocharger:
● Powered by the engine exhaust turning the ● Compresses air prior to entering the carb.
turbine. ● Engine is not turbocharged when the
● Lightweight, does not rob power from the waste-gate is open
engine.
● Hot, expensive, maintenance intensive.
Supercharger:
● Powered directly by the engine (gear driven off the crankshaft).
● Reliable, not expensive.
● Compresses fuel/air downstream of the carb.
Wastegate The wastegate regulates the amount of exhaust gas directed to the turbine, in doing this it regulates the speed
of the turbocharger. When the wastegate is open the engine is not turbocharged, the exhaust gas is ported overbored.
When the wastegate is closed the engine is turbocharged. The exhaust is directed through the turbine before being
ported overboard.
Density altitude is the altitude that the aircraft thinks it is operating at.
A “chop and drop” where you have a large power reduction and descend quickly, is hard on the engine due to shock
cooling.
● high temperature(hot), high humidity( moist air), high altitude, low air density ( tin air) = High(er) density
altitude
● low temperature(cold),low humidity( dry air), low altitude, high air density( thick air)=low(er) Density altitude
Engines with temperature gauges should generally not be allowed to cool more than 30oC per minute. Do a partial block
of the engine intake in sub-zero temperatures.
1.4 piston Engine pt.2 engine Instrument
Optional Gauges that you might see on some aircraft include:
● Cylinder head temperature. ● Carb temperature.
● Exhaust gas temperature (EGT). ● Fuel flow/pressure.
Brake Horsepower – The power available after friction and other losses have been accounted for. A landing is nothing
more than a controlled crash. And if you’re worried about landing with the engines out, remember that glider pilots do it
every single time. The camshaft only rotates once for every two rotations of the crankshaft.
Know the difference between a piston and a turbine engine. The piston engine is also known as a reciprocating engine
because the mechanism (piston) moves back and forth. A turbine is based upon a rotary or circular design. A piston
engine can move a large amount of air fairly quickly. A turbine can move a smaller amount of air extremely quickly.
A turboprop is what results when you put a prop onto a turbine engine instead of onto a piston. It is a hybrid
design which gives some advantages to each type of engine. Turbochargers are not associated with turbine
engines, despite the similarity in the names.
1.5 Carburetor
The carburetor (carb) has two purposes. It mixes the fuel and air in the proper ratio by weight, and it regulates
the amount of that fuel/air mix that enters the engine.
Updraft Float Carburetor:
● Mounted under the engine. valve to regulate fuel demands.
● Outside air routed through ducts in the carb. ● As fuel leaves the carb, it is vaporized going
● Fuel/air mix sucked up into the engine. into the piston intake.
● Has a small chamber with fuel and a float

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VenturiThe main air duct of the carburetor is a tubular structure which decreases in diameter near the middle of the duct
and then increases in diameter near the intake manifold of the engine, this is called the venturi, this decrease diameter
creates a vacuum in accordance with the Bernoulli principle. Difference in pressure between the venturi throat and the air
inlets is how it operates, the fuel intake port is located in this section
vaporized fuel A metered amount of fuel is sucked into the carburetor, the fuel vaporizes into fine particles in the intake
airflow. This vaporized fuel and air mixture is of the correct ratio to cause correct burning in the engine
Accelerator Pump – Provides additional fuel for sudden engine acceleration.
Economizer Valve (Idle Jet) – Allows the engine to idle when the throttle is closed.
A rich mixture will lower the engine temperature somewhat.
As an aircraft climbs, the mixture automatically gets richer due to the decreasing density of the intake air.
MUST KNOW if mixture adjustment are not made during high altitude operation, performance will be affected because
of decrease in the weight of the air while the same amount of fuel enters the carburettor, makin for a richer mixture
The EGT gauge, on aircraft that have them, is great for adjusting the fuel/air mixture very accurately. The gauge focuses
on relative temperatures rather than absolute.
● Peak EGT Temperature = Maximum Economy
● Best Power = Maximum Tach = Maximum Airspeed
(This is usually about a 1:12.5 fuel/air ratio, and about 100oF cooler on the rich side).
It is definitely not good for the engine to be running “lean of peak.” You really need a fuel injected engine, and should
have an engine analyzer gauge, if you’re going to do this.
Induction Icing – Impact ice can form on the air induction port when the air temperature is below 0oC. This is most
prevalent around -4oC in air with lots of precipitation or moisture. This type of icing can affect fuel injection system as
well as carburettor system and is also the main type of icing hazard for turbocharged engines MUST KNOW
Carburetor and throttle ice throttle ice occurs most often when the throttle is partially closed and at low power setting
because as the throttle closes it has the effect of a sort of venturi; as the air passes around the edge of the throttle plates it
has to speed up and this again reduces the temperature in this area. Some manufacturers recommend carb heat be used
anytime the power setting is below a certain RPM even if a high atmospheric moisture content is NOt present due to
increase susceptibility to throttle ice at lower power setting, for fixed pitch propeller configuration most aircraft should
use carburetor heat below 2 100 RPM MUST KNOW
Detection and recovery Carburetor ice is usually first detected by a gradual drop in the RPM of a fixed-pitch propeller
airplane or in manifold pressure decrease in a constant-speed propeller airplane. Application of carburetor heat will cause
an additional decrease in power and the engine will start running rough as the ice melts. Once the ice is gone the
original drop in RPM or manifold pressure will be restored, and no engine roughness, and then turning OFF the
carburetor heat will restore proper power. KNOW THIS
carburetor heat enriches mixture If icing is persistent it may be necessary to continuously operate with carburetor heat
ON. This will require the mixture to be leaned, the less dense air results in a richer mixt MUST KNOW
Carb Icing – Occurs inside the carb itself. Carb heat comes from air inside the cowling, which passes through a heat
box. In the event of impact ice on the induction port or air filter, carb heat can be used as an alternate air source.
Any time you see a decrease in RPM’s (or a drop in the manifold pressure gauge in a constant speed prop) and you don’t
know why, always apply carb heat immediately. The engine performance may become even more rough, but don’t take
the carb heat off! That’s the carb ice melting.
MOGAS is more susceptible to carb icing than AVGAS.
Throttle Valve Ice occurs most often with a partially closed throttle, and at low power. Most fixed pitch aircraft should
almost always use carb heat below 2100 rpm.
Understand the differences between carb icing, throttle icing and fuel vaporization icing. Throttle icing is one
type/component of carb icing, and fuel icing is the other component. Carb icing, overall, is caused by a
temperature drops inside the carburetor, which can happen even in conditions where other forms of icing cannot occur
on the exterior of the aircraft. The causes of this temperature drop are two-fold. Fuel vaporization icing is due to the
evaporation of fuel inside the carb, and this fuel icing is generally responsible for about 70% of the temperature drop
inside the carburetor. This icing forms on the walls inside the carb. Throttle icing relates to the temperature loss caused
by the acceleration of air and consequent temperature drop specifically around the throttle valve, with ice forming from
water vapor condensing into the throttle valve. Fuel vaporization icing and throttle icing generally occur at the same
time, and they are known collectively as carb icing.

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 In a long climb run richer Running an engine slightly rich can help cool the engine as the extra fuel acts like a coolant,
the vaporization of the extra fuel cools the hot air. Typically when climbing you want to run the engine a bit rich because
the aircraft is flying at a slower airspeed and this means less air is available to cool the engine. MUST KNOW
Variable Pitch Propeller Aircraft:
● Throttle controls manifold pressure and therefore engine power.
● Propeller control regulates both the engine RPM and the propeller RPM.
● Setting the power of the engine requires adjustment of both of the above controls. When taking off from an
airport at a high elevation, make sure you lean out to the best power for takeoff!
1.6 Fuel Injection Systems
Only subject to throttle icing. No risk of carb icing (fuel vaporization icing) since fuel is not introduced into the venturi
section of the regulator unit. Fuel is vaporized by nozzles, as it is discharged into the air stream entering the intake
manifold. Throttle is connected to a fuel metering valve. More uniform distribution of fuel to each cylinder. Each cylinder
gets its own supply. - More power since it doesn’t need to heat carb air. Carb icing is not possible. Better fuel economy.
Easier starting in cold weather (but harder in hot).
● Advantage MUST KNOW that more uniform distribution to fuel to all the cylinders. There fuel is separately
metered to each cylinder. The more power since the need to heat carburettor air is eliminated. Better cooling,
through the elimination of lean/hot mixtures ro some of the more distant cylinders. Less susceptibility to icing,
only impact and throttle icing. Carburetor icing is eliminated. Saving on fuel through regulated fuel flow. A
faster, more accurate throttle response due to the fuel being directly injected into the cylinder.
Vapor Lock – Bubbles of vaporized fuel in the fuel line of a fuel injected engine.
Unlike a carb, you’ll probably want to start a fuel injected engine as rich-lean-rich.
1.7 electrical system
Aircraft can have either 12v or 24v batteries.
Alternators produce electrical power/current even at low RPM setting MUST KNOW
Alternators can create current with a fairly low RPM, but generators require a high RPM. Piston engines usually use
alternators, while turbine based engines use generators.
The master switch is a linked switch:
● Battery can be on or off, the position of the alternator doesn’t matter.
● Alternator can only be on if the battery is also on. If the battery is off, the alternator also turns off, regardless of
the position of the switch.
Piston aircraft battery types:
1. Lead Acid Flooded Cell.
2. Acid/Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM). This is a sealed battery. Try not to ever let an AGM get below a 50% charge.
A negative charge/deflection on the ammeter may indicate that the alternator is not charging the system, and the
battery is carrying the load.
The alternator often puts out 28v (at 60 amps) even though the battery is only 24v, and this output is regulated
appropriately.
The ammeter shows the rate of flow being produced in the electrical system. A deflection of zero means
there is no charge in the system. On the positive side indicates that the alternator is providing power.
On the negative indicates that the battery is providing power, and the load exceeds that alternator
capacity. A full-scale positive deflection indicates a malfunction of the voltage regulator.
A load meter shows the number of amps being drawn.
A very high positive reading on an ammeter possibly indicates that the battery was heavily discharged, and will go away
after a few minutes as the battery takes up a charge. A positive deflection means that the alternator is providing power, a
negative deflection means that the battery is providing power, and zero means no flow.
Voltage Regulator:
● Prevents the alternator from overloading the electrical system.
● Prevents the battery from being overcharged.
Transports (large commercial aircraft) usually use NiCd nickel cadmium batteries.
The bus bar takes the current that is generated by the alternator and then branches it out to the various electrical
components that are located in the aircraft. Notice that a circuit break can often have several other subsystems on it, also
notice that we have multiple buses. This diagram will typically be found in the POH

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 Almost every aircraft piston powered aircraft has a lead-acid type battery, from there come in 2 further subtypes; flooded
cell, and sealed cell ( sometimes called active glass matt or AGM) transport aircraft tend to use a nickel cadmium ( NiCd)
battery, and those who fly other turbine aircraft are likely to find a mixture of NiCd and lead acid. In the event of an
alternator failure, it will also provide power to the electrical system… for limited times only! One can figure out how long
the power will last by knowing the amp hours of the battery, and then by dividing this by the component load, a typical
light aircraft battery will have 10-35 amp hours. This is why we turn off unnecessary electrical items in the event of an
alternator failure.
1.8 Lubricating System
Reasons for having oil in the engine: KNOW THIS
Lubricating, Cooling, Sealing, and Cleaning
Viscosity – The thickness or resistance to flow of a fluid.
A viscosity is the resistance to flow, high viscosity equals high resistance and low viscosity equals low
resistance to flow. During winter, oil is very cold and does not flow very well, a low viscosity oil should be
used. In summer, oil is warmer and it flows more readily, a high viscosity oil should be used. To eliminate the
need for changing the type of oil a multi-grade oil can be used
Detergent Oil – Normal motor oil, which has additives to keep the engine clean and to keep sludge from forming.
Mineral Oil – A non-detergent oil, normally used to break in a new engine. Often only used during the first fifty hours of
operation.
Oil distribution systems in an engine can either be forced-feed or splash (gravity). If using forced-feed, there are two
types:
● Dry Sump: Uses a separate tank of oil that is forced into and through the crankcase and back by a pump.
● Wet Sump: Oil is contained in the bottom of the crankcase where it is fed through the engine by a pump.
Blow By – A vent for excess oil to be expelled from the engine if it is overfilled or expands too much on heating.
Oil Filters – Only fitted to forced-feed systems. Usually located on the outside of the engine, downstream of the oil
pump.
Pressure Relief – A force fed dry sump has a valve used to help regulate oil pressure in the engine.
A non-congealing oil cooler will prevent overheating by a by-pass that allows the viscous oil to flow and warm up,
then warm up the remaining oil.
1.9 Fuel system and Fuels
Octane Rating Fuel Colors:
Blue: 100LL – low lead. A type of AVGAS.
Green: 100/130 – high lead, rare. A type of AVGAS.
Clear: Jet A. Jet Fuel.
Yellow: Automobile gasoline. MOGAS.
Red;80 (80/87)
Octane Ratings – When you see two numbers, the first is the octane rating at the lean mixture, and the second is at rich.
Using a lower grade fuel gives you more heptane and less octane, and may lead to detonation. MUST
KNOW
Octane doesn’t tend to explode, it burns slowly. Heptane, however, is extremely explosive.
AVGAS at 15oC is 6 pounds/US gallon. Jet fuel at that temperature is 7 pounds/US gallon. Fuel gets denser and
heavier as temperature decreases.
Possible additives:
1. Ethylene Dibromide: A cleaning agent, minimizes oxidation on spark plugs.
2. Anti-Icing: Delays the formation of ice crystals.
3. Lead Tetra-Ethylene: Slows combustion.
Baffles in the fuel tanks keep it from sloshing around too much.
Fuel tank vents allow air to come in slowly to prevent a vacuum situation, but also can act as an overflow.
Drain Valves – Allow checking for water, ice, or other contaminants in fuel, and also to drain such contaminants.
Detonation can be caused by leaning too much, or by low octane fuel.

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Primer – Vaporizes fuel and sprays it directly into the entrance of the cylinder. Minimizes wear and tear on the starter,
and less battery drain.
Never trust fuel gauges. Do a visual check before every flight.
MOGAS can only be used if the engine has been specifically modified to use it.
You should usually fly with fuel tanks set to “both” unless you’re trying to balance the weight in the aircraft.
In the event of an engine failure, one of the first things you should reach for and change is the position of the fuel
selector.
Fuel pumps can be driven to provide fuel pressure during the start. Electric pumps may be used as a backup on low
winged aircraft.
Major jet fuel grades;
Jet A-1, Jet A, Jet B, Prist
1. Jet A-1; kerosine grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engined aircraft. Flash point minimum of +38 º C and
freezing point of -47 º C
2. Jet A; kerosine fuel, used for domestic and international airlines
3. Jet B; is a distillate comprising naphtha and kerosine fraction, used in colder places.
1.10 Other aircraft system
Supplemental oxygen is used in non-pressurized aircraft that go above 10,000 feet. Rebreather masks are simple but
not very efficient. Used in drop-down systems.
Demand O2 Systems:
● O2 flows into the mask only when inhaled.
● Efficient, non rebreather bag.
● Mask must be firmly seated on the face.
In a pressurized piston airplane, the pressurization is provided by the turbocharger. In a turbine aircraft, bleed air from the
compressor is used to pressurize the cabin.
There is usually an outflow valve and also an emergency dump valve in a plane with a pressurization system.
The differential from sea level to 10,000 feet is 4.6 PSI. From sea level to 35,000 feet is 11.2 PSI. Most planes will have
a maximum pressure differential level, ie. King Air is 4.0 PSI, Airbus is 8.0 PSI. The aircraft has an “internal altimeter”
that you set to the desired cabin pressure.
Differential Pressure – Difference in PSI from the inside to the outside of the airplane.
Cabin Altitude – The equivalent altitude that the cabin is pressurized to. Most transport aircraft set the cabin to 8,000
feet.
Vacuum System – Powers the gyros. Usually engine driven, although classic/heritage aircraft may have a venturi. Often
only has a shelf life of 500 hours. Be prepared, because you’ll lose some of your instruments when this happens (ie.
attitude and heading indicators).
De-Icing Systems – These systems remove ice from critical surfaces during flight. Reactive.
Anti-Icing Systems – Prevent ice from forming in the first place. Proactive. Systems can be fluid, electrical, heating
devices, etc.
Control Riggings – Cable (in most small GA aircraft), pushrods, or “fly by wire.”
1.11 Manifold Pressure
Manifold Pressure Gauge – Found on aircraft with a variable pitch propeller (and therefore a fixed RPM). Measures
how much air is allowed to enter the engine for the purpose of combustion. This indicates how much power the engine
might produce, not what it is producing. And it is actually measuring suction, not pressure, because a higher manifold is
lower suction. Measurement is given in terms of inches of mercury. In a constant-speed system the MP gauge is the only
measurement of engine output.
● The throttle lever controls the manifold pressure, the propeller lever controls the RPM, by changing rhe pitch of
the propeller.*note*adjusting the RPM will change the manifold pressure
To check the Manifold Pressure Gauge:
1. Set an altimeter.
2. Subtract 1 inch Hg (mercury) per 1000 feet AGL.
3. The Manifold Pressure gauge should show close to this value (ie. manifold pressure is lower than altimeter).

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Static Manifold Pressure – The pressure before startup. On takeoff, you should see about one inch less of
manifold pressure than static manifold pressure, due to the resistance of the air filter and various bends in the
ductwork.
An engine at full throttle can now draw as much air as it is capable of mixing with fuel and burning, but it will
usually not reach the static manifold pressure value due to intake filter, throttle plate, and ducting bends, etc.
However, it is possible to exceed ambient manifold pressure due to ram air effect.
As long as the engine is running/windmilling, it is sucking air, which is measured as manifold pressure. Manifold
pressure on a dead engine will not drop.
Manifold pressure depends on:
● Ambient pressure.
● Position of the throttle plate.
● Speed of the pistons.
How to detect an induction system leak:
● Engine roughness during ground idle.
● Whistling noise during idle.
● Abnormally high manifold pressure for throttle position.

Topic 2; theory of flight

2.1 Principle of flight
Bernoulli was concerned with conserving the overall energy of the system (fluid). He discovered that the internal
pressure of fluid( weather liquid or gas ) decrease as the fluid increase in velocity
When air is forced through a constriction or venturi in a pipe, an equal amount of air has to be rushing through a small section as is
entering the original ( and larger) opening. In order for this to happen, the air in the venturi must travel faster than the air at the larger
opening.bernoulli also found and the pressure in the venturi section was less than the pressure at the ends of the pipe, the bernoulli
principle basically state that the total amount of energy in any 1 system remains constant. An increase in velocity results in a drop in
pressure.
Newton was concerned with conserving the overall momentum of the system.
Newton’s law as applied to flight would suggest that since the wing is at an angle to the airflow, the airflow pushes the
wing up by reflecting and bouncing off the bottom, thus the wing is reacting by moving in the opposite direction.
A plane rises because it has excess thrust, not lift (technically speaking).
2.2 Force acting on an aircraft
Lift – The component of aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the relative airflow.
Aerofoil – The shape of a wing. The bottom is usually flat and the top is usually curved.
According to the Bernoulli principle the pressure above the wing is less than the pressure of air below it because the air
on the top of the wing is moving faster. Consequently , a pressure difference between the lower and upper surface exists.
The net result is liFT. According to Newton, a wing generates lift by deflecting the air downwards, the amount of lift that
is generated depends on the airfoil design, wing area, air density and the speed of the wing through the air.
Lift Equation: L = (CL x p x V 2 x S) /2
CL – determined experimentally based on airfoil and V – velocity
angle of attack S – surface area
p – air density
Drag is parallel to the relative airflow
The drag equation
is exactly the same, substituting CD for CL and Drag (D) for Lift (L). An increase in lift always results in an increase in
drag.
Parasitic Drag: KNOW THIS
● Caused by parts of the aircraft that do not contribute to lift (antenna, fuselage, struts, landing gear). -
Unwanted resistance.
● Broken down into form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.

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3 type of parasite drag
● Form Drag – Created by the shape of a body. As it resist motion through the air
● Skin Friction – Air flowing over a body, which tends to cling to its surface.
● Interference Drag – Resistance caused by the effect of one part on another.
Induced Drag – Generated by lift.
The amount of induced drag depends on the airfoil design and its camber, along with its speed, angle of attack, and the
conditions of atmosphere. Due to the way air flows across the wing during flight vortices are generated.
Higher pressure air under the wing flows around the wing tip to lower pressure air on the upper side of the wing
producing the vortices at the wings tip which add to the induced drape component.
To control power in an aircraft with a variable pitch propeller, this means adjusting both the throttle and the propeller
pitch control.
Relationship of lift and drag to angle of attackThe amount of lift and drag that a wing generates is a function of its
design( specifically the camber and the wing area), it speeds through the air, air density, and the angle of attack
Constant altitude-how? Maintaining a constant altitude at different airspeeds requires 2 factors; the angle of attack
and the power. The angle of attack is controlled by the position of the elevators and trim. The power is controlled by the
power setting of the engine and propeller, for fixed-pitch propeller, this means adjusting the engine throttle, for a
variable-pitch propeller, this means adjusting both for the throttle and propeller pitch control
pitch and power - The left aircraft, 10 º nose up attitude, with an indicated airspeed of 70 Kt. the center aircraft,
cruise with a 0 º attitude, with an indicated airspeed of 110 kt. The right aircraft is in a slight high speed descent at
minus 3 degree altitude, with an indicated airspeed of 140 kt. The pilots can control the attitude ( pitch) and the power
with equal the performance of the aircraft
Parasite drag increases with speed. Induced drag decreases with speed. The sum of the 2 drags increases with speed.
There is only one airspeed for a given aircraft load that provides minimum total drag.
Lift is approximately equal to the angle of attack multiplied by the velocity.
Minimum drag is L/D'MAX = Best Glide Speed or Maximum Range. In the event of a power failure to the engines, you
need to set the aircraft up for this configuration immediately. Parasite drag increases with speed.
Induced drag decreases with speed.
Equilibrium is when lift balances weight and thrust balances drag, and the aircraft is not at rest. A plane is never at
equilibrium in a turn, when accelerating or decelerating, or ascending/descending at a varying speed.
An airplane that is gliding in a state of equilibrium. The force that balance weight is the component of lift perpendicular
to the flight path MUST KNOW
Load Factor – The total load supported by the wings, divided by the total weight of the airplane. In turn, the weight
of an airplane increases due to centrifugal force.
Sudden movement while in a steep bank angle may cause the load factor to exceed the design limit MUST KNOW
Resultant Load – The load on the wings when the downward weight of the aircraft is mathematically resolved with
the centrifugal force.
Load factor chart:
15o turn = 1.04 G’s 60o turn = 2.00 G’s
o
45 turn = 1.41 G’s 75o turn = 4.00 G’s
An aircraft will descend in a turn unless you pull up and increase the angle of attack.
2.3 Aerofoils
Relative airflow – Always the direction opposite that of the wing’s movement (or aircraft’s movement).
Angle of Attack – Angle between relative airflow and chord line.
Angle of Incidence – Angle at which the wing is mounted to the fuselage. I it measured between the chord line and the
aircraft's longitudinal axis or horizontal datum line
The Center of Gravity (CoG) is typically located ahead of the Center of Pressure (CoP). The horizontal difference
between where these two forces act through the aircraft is important.
As your angle of attack increases, the center of pressure moves forward. When you stall, the center of pressure moves
back behind the center of gravity, and the plane pitches forward.
Downwash – When the air passes over an airfoil, the air is directed downward. It is an upwash going up in front of the

9
 wing.
Stagnation Points – Calm areas for air at the front of the wing and back of the wing. The stagnation point is what
allows a straight or symmetrical wing/airfoil to generate lift, because it pushes airflow in a way that creates camber.
Airflow below the wings is generally diverted out from the center of the aircraft, and airflow above the wings is
generally diverted inward.
The worst wake turbulence is encountered behind a slow, clean, and heavy aircraft. Responsible for induced drag,
Size of wake vortices:
● Two wings span wide and one wing span deep. ● Level off about a thousand feet down.
● Settle below and behind at 300-500 ● Can often trail by 10-16 nautical miles (NM).
feet/minute.
A stalled wing is still generating some lift.
Ground effect: Downwash deflects more parallel to the surface with Wingtip vortices reduced. Induced drag is reduced,
therefore more thrust, Smaller angle of attack required to generate lift. Within a half wingspan of ground. A heavily
loaded airplane may be unable to “push through” the ground effect. Higher density altitude makes the danger greater of
not getting out of ground effect.
Camber – The bend/curve of the top of the wing.
2.4 relationship of speed to angle of attack
AoA increase lift will also increase, induced drag will also increase. Typically we need to increase our angle of attack
with a decrease in airspeed.
Maintain altitude, decrease airspeed and lift will decrease, and induced drag will increase. Slower we fly the greater our
induced drag will become.
Maintain constant altitude, with increase in airspeed, lift will increase and induced drag decrease, but parasite drag will
increase
When climbing AoA increase, airspeed decrease, induced drag will increase
Critical angle of attack is when the aircraft always stall the same angle of attack
When flying at glide speed:
● Increase speed slightly when flying into a headwind to increase glide range.
● Decrease speed slightly when flying into a tailwind to increase glide range. If you are flying at the best glide
speed and feel that you’re coming in short on landing, pulling up will increase the chance of crashing short. You
must fly at best L/D'MAX speed and/or add throttle.
Force Couples – Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, ie. thrust and drag in equal amounts, or lift and weight in
equal amounts.
Points of Action:
● Lift – through the center of pressure.
● Weight – through the center of gravity.
● Thrust – through the propulsion system.
● Drag – through the center of pressure and parallel to the relative airflow.
mach buffet boundariesMach buffet is a function of the speed of the airflow over the wing-not necessarily the speed
of the aircraft. Any time that a big lift demand is made on the wing, whether from too fast an airspeed or from too high an
AOA near the MNO, the “high speed” buffet can occur. A large AOA has the effect of increasing the airflow velocity over
the upper surface of the wing, and this can cause shock waves to develop, creating a buffet similar to that which occurs in
the high speed buffet situations. As mentioned there are also occasions when the buffet can be experienced at much lower
speed known as the “low speed mach buffet” an aircraft flown at a speed too slow for its weight and altitude necessitating
a high AOA is the most likely situation to cause a low speed mach buffet. The AOA of the wing has the effect of inducing
the mach buffet at either the high speed or low speed boundaries for the aircraft. The condition that increase the AOA, the
speed of the airflow over the wing and the chances of mach buffet are;
● High altitude, the higher an aircraft flies, the thinner the air and the greater the AOA require d to
produce the lift needed to maintain level flight.
● heavy weights, the heavier the aircraft, the greater the lift required of the eng, and all other factors being equal,
the greater the AOA.

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 ● G load, an increase in the g load on the aircraft has the same effect as increasing the weight of the
aircraft.weather the increase in g force is cause by turns, rough controls usage, or turbulence, the effect of
increasing the wings AOA is the same
2.5 propeller basic
A propeller is a designed similar to that of an airfoil which produces lift it converts the engines power through the torque
of the crankshaft into thrust MUST KNOW
A coarse angle in a fixed-pitch propeller is one that has the prop blades almost horizontal to the ground.
The number of propeller blades is typically between two and six (two on a Cessna). Twin engine aircraft usually have
three or more blades, which are generally shorter.
Multi-Blade Propellers:
● Higher and less objectionable sound frequency. ● Greater flywheel effect.
● Reduced vibration. ● Improved aircraft performance.
Geometric and effective pitch
Propeller Twist – Change in blade angle from hub to tip, produces even thrust, because prop speed varies across
diameter. There is a direct relationship, in that twice as far out the prop is twice the rotational velocity of that point.
Propeller Slip – Difference between geometric and effective pitch.
Effective pitch- actual distance a propeller will advance in one revolution
Geometric Pitch – The theoretical distance that a propeller should advance in one rotation.
Effective Pitch – The actual distance that a propeller will advance in one rotation.
Prop Efficiency – Ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower.
Fixed Pitch Propellers:
One piece props with two blades at an unchangeable angle the Pitch must be high enough for good cruising
performance, but low enough for acceptable takeoff and climb; props are economical and lightweight. WHich is
Designed to produce maximum thrust near maximum torque from the engine.
Fine Pitch – Good for takeoff/landing. Will consequently revolve at higher speed around its own axis, thereby enabling
the engine to develop greater power. Increasing RPM
Coarse Pitch – Good for cruising. Variable Pitch Propellers are less common than fixed pitch. They have a hub to allow
the blades to change angles. Coarse pitch is also sometimes known as high pitch ( due to the high pitch angle) or as low
RPM or a decrease rPM
Effects of a prop:
1. Torque: The prop in a Cessna spins clockwise from the pilot’s perspective. This causes a left yaw during the
takeoff roll. In flight, helical prop-wash strikes the left side of the tail, which again causes a left yaw.
2. Asymmetric Thrust: In level flight, both blades have the same initial angle of attack. If you pitch the nose up,
the right descending blade pitch angle increases, and the left ascending blade pitch angle decreases. Increase
the angle of attack and you increase thrust.
3. Slipstream: The vertical fin and rudder have been installed at a slight angle to align with the airflow, not with
the axis of the aircraft. Airfoil of the prop creates drag which cause the air to rotate. The helical propwash
strikes the left side of the tail, pushes it to the right which makes the nose go left.
4. Gyroscopic Precession: Prop acts like a gyro. Pitching of the nose causes yaw, and yawing of the nose causes
pitching. A precession force exerted on a spinning mass will caus a reaction 90 º
A power-off descent will need the left rudder, and the initial takeoff roll or slow flight will need the right rudder.
These are especially applicable in tail-draggers.
Always try to minimize high RPM’s when on the ground, for the sake of the propeller. Do not push or pull on
propellers (90o to the disc of rotation) because it can hurt actuating components. Try to clean props by wiping with
oil if operating near salt water.
Blades should be non-reflective flat black on the side facing the pilot, and color-visible on the front.
Variable Pitch Propeller – The pitch is changed hydraulically with engine oil.
1. Constant Speed: Pitch increases with oil pressure. Usually on a single engine.
2. Constant Speed Full Feathering: Pitch decreases with oil pressure.
3. Manifold Pressure plus RPM setting gives power. A coarse pitch is called a low RPM setting, used for cruising,

11
 and has a big bite. A fine pitch is called a high RPM setting, used for takeoff, and has a small bite.
Feather – A pitch used for eliminating propeller drag during an engine failure (essentially horizontally/flat). Beta –
Neutral thrust.
Reversing – Reverse blade angle. Pushes you backwards, good for landing.
Constant Speed (Non Feathered) permits the pilot to select the propeller pitch and engine speed for any situation, to
automatically maintain the RPM. For economy cruising, the pilot can throttle back to the desired manifold pressure for
cruise conditions, which decreases the pitch of the propeller while maintaining the pilot-selected RPM.
The pilot’s prop valve position directs oil flow to govern the propeller pitch.
A fixed pitch propeller will increase or decrease in RPM with an increase or decrease in airspeed, at a fixed throttle
setting. A fixed pitch propeller will increase or decrease in RPM when power (throttle) is increased or decreased at a
constant airspeed.
A constant speed propeller uses a governor to provide constant rPM at the selected setting ( throttle and prop lever), the
blade angle automatically increases or decreases to maintain rPM as power(throttle) is changed. A constant speed
propeller with RPM and power set, the blade angle automatically changed as airspeed increased or decreased to
maintain RPM, the prop lever also changed blade angle to increase or decrease RPM.
On Speed – The RPM automatically stays constant because of oil flow in changing flight conditions.
An overspeed condition results in airspeed increases when the aircraft begins a descent, or when engine power is
increased. If the aircraft begins to climb or engine power is decreased, an underspeed condition results.
Feathering – Achieved through a mechanical linkage that overrides the flyweights and speeder spring.
Unfeathering Accumulator – Permits a feathered propeller to be unfeathered in flight, for air-starting the engine.
Uses compressed nitrogen to keep oil under high pressure during normal flight.
Types of fixed pitch props include cruise, climb, and power (takeoff). With a fixed pitch prop, the RPM will change
in a climb or dive with the initial given power setting:
● Large blade angles will impose a greater load on the engine, slowing it down.
● Small blade angles will unload the engine, allowing it to speed up.
Technically, constant speed and variable pitch are not exactly the same because there are non constant speed props that
can be adjusted in pitch on the ground by hand. But we normally talk about fixed pitch vs. constant speed.
The constant speed prop is now the most common and most efficient prop used in aviation. The pilot will choose a
manifold pressure and prop speed or RPM, the combination of which will give a known power setting. They will then set
it, and let the automation keep it for them.
Flat pitch = Fine pitch = High RPM
Coarse pitch = High pitch = Lower RPM
Governor Failures:
● Single Engine: Moves toward fine pitch.
● Multi Engine: A governor failure or loss of oil pressure causes props to move to feather due to spring and
centrifugal counterweight forces.
When a full feathering prop shuts down, centrifugal latch pins lock the blades in a medium pitch position when RPM’s
drop off, otherwise, it would be hard to start.
Prop Positions when Sitting On Ramp:
1. Single Engine: Full flat pitch, driven by the spring.
2. Twin Engine: Full coarse, but pinned to keep from completely feathering.
3. Free Turbine: Full feather.
Startup:
1. Single Engine: Oil pressure comes up but prop remains in the flat position (prop level fully forward).
2. Twin Engine: Oil pressure comes up and prop blades will be moved to the low-pitch mechanical stops. RPM is
controlled by power.
Run-up:
● Prop lever fully forward.
● RPM 1700-2000.
● Blades will be in full fine (on low pitch stops).
● Prop angle remains constant until prop control is moved back enough to request less than run-up RPM.

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 ● This allows us to check magnetos (mags) without the governor keeping RPM constant. - RPM will fall when the
prop lever is pulled back, due to greater load on the engine.
● Cycling the props allows the governor to be tested, and to circulate fresh oil.
Takeoff:
● Power to full. ● Airflow will eventually take load off the engine
● RPM, manifold pressure, and fuel flow and RPM will increase.
checked on roll. ● Blades will come off low pitch stops and
● Initially, RPM near the redline and blades are maintain selected RPM for takeoff.
fully flat (fine pitch).
Engine Failure in a Twin Engine:
● RPM on a failed engine stays the same as the running engine.
● Most gauges (manifold pressure, RPM, oil pressure, oil temp) except for the EGT will show few changes.
● The windmilling prop is enough to power the governor.
2.6 Design of the wing
Wing Planform – The shape of the wing when viewed from above.
Chord – Imaginary line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
span -distance from wing tip to wing tip
Aspect Ratio = Span divided by chord.
● High ratio: Low induced drag, high parasite drag.
● Low Ratio: High induced drag, low parasite drag.
Camber – The curve of an airfoil. If the lower surface of the airfoil is curved downward, then we would refer to it as
negative camber. When the top surface of the wing is curved away frm the chord line more then bottom surface its a
positive chamber
Boundary layer- the point at which the airflow meets and stick to the wing
Transition point- the point at which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent
Turbulent layer- approaching the center begins to lose speed.
Laminar Flow – Smooth airflow over the wing.
Laminar Flow Wing – A design that moves the transition point further aft, which reduces the drag of the wing (and lift).
Maximum camber is located further back. During a stall, a laminar flow wing won’t pitch forward as well as a regular
wing.
● Normal wing has high lift and high drag, gentle stall characteristic. Max chamber 35%
● Laminar flow wing has low lift and low drag, more abrupt stall characteristic. Max Chamber 50%
Sweepback Wing – Designed for high speed operations to delay the onset of supersonic shock waves. Performs poorly
at low speeds. Swept wings may get slats, slots, and extra flaps.
Dihedral – The “V” look of wings when viewed from the back of the aircraft, ie. the upward angle from the wing root
to the wing tip. Higher dihedral increases lateral stability by helping prevent roll.
Anhedral – Opposite of dihedral, wings are droopy.
Washout – A twisted wing. The angle of incidence at the wingtip is less than it is at the wing root.
Slats – Small airfoils that open in the front of the wing, to smooth airflow over the wing.
Slots – Openings built into the leading edge of the wing that allow the high pressure air to pass through it at a high
angle of attack and increase the lift.
Spoiler – Destroys lift by causing the airflow to separate from the top of the wing. Can assist with braking.
Spoilerons – Spoilers that assist with aileron control.
Reasons for Flaps: KNOW THIS
● Increase lift and drag by increasing camber. ● Reduces stall speed.
● Steeper approach angle without increasing ● Increase in forward visibility.
airspeed.
Vortex Generators – Placed along the span approximately ten percent aft of the leading edge of the wing to create a tiny
vortex in the air stream over the airfoil. This vortex energizes the normally stagnant boundary layer of air on the wing’s
upper surface. Surprisingly, an energized boundary layer is more resistant to flow

13
separation than a stagnant boundary layer, so airflow sticks to the wing longer, permitting flight at lower airspeeds
and a higher angle of attack, and improving control authority.
Winglets – Vertical tabs at wingtips that increase the effective wing span of an airplane by reducing induced drag.
Canard – An aerofoil mounted in front of the wing that produces lift upwards, whereas stabilizers produce a
negative lift. Can be fixed or controllable. An airplane with a canard will not enter a full stall.
2.7 load factor
Load Factor – What our aircraft thinks it weighs.
In straight and level flight the load factor is 1 G, because the weight supported by the wing is equal to the weight of
the loaded aircraft. In a turn where we maintain our altitude, the weight of the aircraft increases due to the addition
of centrifugal force. The bank angle determines the total weight increase.
Centrifugal force- force acting outside of a turn
Centripetal force- force to the inside of a turn and is caused by the horizontal component of lift.
Resultant load- when the downward weight of the aircraft is resolved with the centrifugal force, it is the load on the
wing
Some maneuvers increase a plane’s stalling speed, especially those that somehow accelerate the aircraft.
The best (most efficient) way to increase lift in a turn (to prevent losing altitude) is to pitch up, rather than to add
throttle. Be careful though, because it increases your angle of attack. So add a tiny bit of power in a steeper turn.
Considering and accounting for turns is a critical skill for a pilot. The most important time to do this is in the
circuit.
A late turn to the final, coupled with increased rudder and aileron, can lead to a spin. This is one of the biggest
dangers for private/recreational and other pilots! These accidents occur with a greater frequency with a crosswind
that pushes you past the runway on a turn from base to final.
If you’re slow, especially in slow flight with flaps on, the wind will probably be coming up at you with a high angle
of attack.
Stall speed in turns: V S(turn) = V S x square root of Load Factor (VST)
Negative Load Factor – Caused by upward centrifugal force that decreases the G load to less than one.
Maneuvering Speed (VA) – The maximum speed at which the aircraft can be safely stalled. It will be greater for
increased weights. This is a simple multiplier formula. V A = V S x 1.7
Make sure you memorize this for maximum weight and also for a couple of lower weights.
A combination of flight controls or gust loads created by turbulence should not create an excessive load factor if the
airplane is operated below V A. The aircraft will stall before the acceleration can produce a damaging load.
Gust load- increase with higher weights, higher speed, and wing load. Airplanes should fly in turbulence below the Va to
prevent an excessive load factor from the gust load.
Types of maneuvers;
Load Limit – The load factor that the pilot must keep the aircraft within. Above this load, the aircraft will sustain
damage or failure.
Ultimate Load – The aircraft is designed and certified to withstand 1.5x the load limit.
Maneuvers categories;
● Normal category; max gross weight operation are permitted, certain maneuvers like spins may be prohibited.
Positive limit load of 3.8 G. Negative limit load of 1.52 G
● Utility category; depends on the weight and balance. Positive limit load of 4.4 G. Negative limit load of 1.76 G
● Aerobatic category; positive limit load of 6.0 G or more. Negative limit load of 3.0 G or more
Load Limit Chart:
Normal, + load limit = 3.8G Utility, - load limit = 1.76G
Normal, - load limit = 1.52G Aerobatic, + load limit = 6.0G
Utility, + load limit = 4.4G Aerobatic, - load limit = 3.0G
Types of Operations:
● Standard: Few restrictions, but cannot be used for airline or commuter operations.
● Restricted: One purpose only, no passengers, need a “restricted” and “no passenger” sign, an example
would be an aerial application aircraft.

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 ● Experimental: Used for testing, or homebuilt. Passengers allowed. Need a placard to state that the
aircraft has not gone through a certification process.
2.8 stability
Stability – The ability of an aircraft to remain in a position or attitude during flight and then return to a given position
or attitude following a disturbance.
Types of Stability:
● Positive Stability: Like a ball in a bowl. Always returns to its original position following a
displacement or disturbance.
● Neutral Stability: When displaced, it remains in its new position.
● Negative Stability: Like a ball on an upside down bowl. The slightest displacement will cause it
to continue to move in that direction, sometimes at an accelerating rate.
Static Stability – Initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its original position directly.
Dynamic Stability – The overall tendency of the aircraft to return to its original position following a series of
oscillations.
Stability Around an Axis : KNOW THIS
● This is a bit confusing, so memorize it ● Lateral stability is around the longitudinal axis.
● Longitudinal stability is around the lateral axis. ● Directional stability is around the normal axis.
Longitudinal Stability:
● Affected by the size and position of the horizontal stabilizer and the position of the center of gravity. -
● An aircraft that is nose-heavy is more stable.
● This is also known as pitch stability (because it is around the lateral axis).
Lateral Stability:
● Trainers are positive, aerobatic planes are neutral or negative.
● Best lateral stability is achieved by dihedral, sweepback, keel effect, and proper distribution of weight.
● Also known as roll stability (because it is around the longitudinal axis).
Directional Stability:
● Stability around the vertical axis.
● Achieved by tail surfaces, fin and rudder, keel effect, and sweepback.
● Also known as yaw stability (because it is around the normal axis).
2.9 flight controls
Elevators pitch control- control the pitch attitude, nose up, nose down movement of the aircraft is about the lateral axis
KNOW THIS
● Extends from the wingtip to wing tip. Y axis
Ailerons roll control - controls the bank altitude by causing a roll to the left or right.. Movement of the aircraft is about
the longitudinal axis. KNOW THIS
● Extends lengthwise through the fuselage. The X axis
Rudders yaw control- move the nose of the aircraft left or right. Movement of the aircraft is about the vertical or
normal axis KNOW THIS
● Passes vertically through the center of gravity. Z axis
Stabilator – When the entire stabilizer moves in response to elevator control pressure.
Aileron Drag – Created because of the greater drag of the down-going aileron causing yaw in the direction opposite of
roll. This is one type of adverse yaw.
Frise Aileron – Has an offset hinge, is used to reduce aileron drag. The leading edge of the up-going ailerons moves into
the oncoming airflow below the wing. The lower lip catches the airflow. It also forms a slot, making it effective at low
airspeeds.
Differential Ailerons – The up-going aileron is moved higher than the down-going aileron. It is used to reduce
aileron drag. Are used to assist in moving the controls KNOW THIS
Dynamic Balance Controls – Allow the pilot to move the controls more easily.
Mass Balance – Used to counteract flutter by positioning a weight ahead of the hinge. Mounted either internally
or externally on the airplane’s control surface.

15
Static Balance – When, in a situation with no airflow, the control surface’s center of gravity is in the
manufacturer’s specified location.
When flaps go down, the nose goes up!
The more a pilot uses trim, the better the pilot. All airplanes have elevator trim, but some also have rudder and
aileron trim.
Balancing Tab – Similar to a trim tab, coupled to the control surface. When the control surface is moved, the
balancing tab is automatically moved in the opposite direction
Servo Tab – Used on large airplanes. The tab is moved directly by the pilot, then the force of the airflow on the
servo tab moves the control surface.
Antiservo Tab- they move in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator. Decreasing the sensitivity.

Topic 3; Flight operations & Aircrafts performance

3.1 Flight operation
Don’t use strobe lights while taxiing or during flight in clouds.
Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI):
● CRFI of 1.0 is the maximum runway coefficient, ie. bare and dry. Perfect braking.
● A low CRFI of 0.1 to 0.3 would probably indicate an ice-covered, slippery runway.
● Obtained from ATIS, NOTAMs, FSS.
● The “increase in landing distance” chart can be very useful.
Runway numbering bases on direction of the runaway and rounded off to the nearest 10 º these
numbers are giver in relation to magnetic north in the southern domestic airspace ( SDA) and true
north in northern domestic airspace ( NDA)
VASIS – Visual Approach Slope Indicator System.
PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator.
A good approach slope is three degrees.
These are lights on the edge of a runway, 1000 ft. from the threshold, which indicates if the aircraft is descending on the
proper approach slope. A good approach is typically 3 º
There are three main types of runway lighting:
● Two bar VASI: Good when you have red over white.
● Three bar VASI: “White over white, fly all night … red over red, you’re dead.”
● PAPI: The better modern system.
If you’re looking at a three-bar VASI system and you’re in a small GA aircraft, ignore the top row of lights and pretend
that the bottom two rows are a standard two-bar VASI system. Only large jets use all three (or use just the top two rows).
PAPI System – Uses four bars, horizontally. The same rhyme works as for 3-bar VASI. A perfect approach is two white
and two red bars, side by side. This system is currently replacing VASI systems.
Minimum runway requirements at night:
● White X’s on a runway mean that it is closed (white for visibility, instead of red). -
Yellow chevrons on a runway indicate that it is non load-bearing, do not use.
● White arrows mean displaced threshold, land further up past the threshold.
Towers (not ATC Control) affecting cross-country navigation:
● Under 1000 feet have steady red lights.
● Above 1000 feet have white strobes.
● Check NOTAMs and the flight planning section in the CFS.
Memorize your marshaling signals. Can probably be found in “From The Ground Up.”
Wheelbarrowing – Landing on the nose wheel because you’re coming in too fast.
Porpoising – Aircraft bounces alternatively off main wheels then nose/tailwheel. Use back pressure to get a proper
landing attitude.
Rotating tires hydroplane at up to 9x the square root of the tire pressure in PSI.
Non-rotating tires hydroplane at up to 7.7x the square root of the tire pressure in PSI.
To recover from wind shear, prompt action is required. Use full power, and pitch up to maximum angle of attack.
3.2 General Knowledge aircraft performance

16
 High density altitude probably means low pressure.
Four factors affecting the density of air include: KNOW THIS
● Barometric pressure. ● Temperature.
● Altitude. ● Humidity.
Humidity is not good for air density (lighter) because the molecular weight of vaporized H2O is less than that of O2 or
N2. Air density decreases with barometric pressure decrease, but also
with increases in air temperature, altitude, or humidity.
Service ceilings, absolute ceilings, and leaning settings for aircraft are all given in terms of density altitudes.
Lower air density causes:
● Less engine power.
● Less propeller thrust.
● Less lift produced by wings.
….Results in a longer take off run, pooper climb performance, longer landing distance
Ground effect reduces the amount of induced drag. MUST KNOW
VX is the Best Angle of Climbing: KNOW THIS
● Best used for takeoffs over obstacles.
● This speed changes with altitude, and increases as the altitude increases.
● Equal to L/D at the aircraft’s ceiling.
VY is the Best Rate of Climbing: KNOW THIS
● Changes with altitude, becoming smaller (IAS) as we climb.
● At the aircraft’s ceiling, it is the same as the L/D speed.
When an aircraft is at its absolute ceiling, then:
Best L/D = V X = V Y = VG
VA is the Maneuvering speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is safe to use full deflection of the controls.
KNOW THIS The aircraft will sustain structural damage if operated at speeds above V A, due to increased load factor.
This speed varies with weight; it is higher when the aircraft is heavier. Always operate below VA during turbulence.
Vno -max continuous operating airspeed. No turbulence or sudden attitude change top of green arc
VNE – Never exceed this speed. If you do, your aircraft automatically becomes non-airworthy until inspected by an AME.
VFE – Maximum flaps extended speed. Indicated by the top of the white arc on the airspeed indicator.
VSO – Stalling speed with flaps fully extended. This is the bottom of the white arc on the airspeed indicator.
Indicated vs. True stalling speed:
● Indicated stalling speed always stays the same.
● True stalling speed increases with altitude.
● Indicated and true stalling speeds are equivalent at sea level.
Although you don’t have to do a spin dive recovery on your flight test, you may have to verbalize how to recover.
The faster the speed of the aircraft, the steeper the bank angle required to maintain a standard rate turn.
Indicated stall speed ALWAYS stays the same. However, true stall speed ALWAYS increase with altitude
Indicate and true stall speed is the same at sea level, indicated airspeed would be less then the true stall speed at 10 000 ft.
ASL
As the density altitude increase, the indicated airspeed will stay the same, nut the true airspeed and out landing distance
will increase KNOW THIS
The only thing that changes our indicated stall speed is the load factor.
Bank and speed v. Rate and radius of turn
Operating at the same angle bank;
● The faster aircraft will have a smaller rate of turn and larger radius of turn
● The slower aircraft will have a greater rate of turn and smaller radius of turn
Therefore faster the aircraft the steeper the bank angle required to maintain a standard rate turn.
Nose-heavy forward center of gravity:MUST KNOW
● Needs more trim. stabilizer.
● Is more stable.
● Flies slightly slower.
● More drag, due to more tail pressure on the

17
 ● An aft-heavy center of gravity would be the opposite of all of the above.
A few millimeters of ice can increase the stalling speed by as much as 20%.
3.3 Use of performance Chart
The Coefficient of Lift (CL) is based upon the angle of attack and the shape of the airfoil. Performance charts are obtained
by pilots in brand new aircraft.
Types of chart
1. Takeoff distance.
2. Cruise.
3. Fuel burn.
4. Climb.
5. Wind component and CRFI.
Always remember to read conditions/notes and to apply corrections in order. Takeoff distances are longer than landing
distances. Getting in safely is fine, but getting back out is what is ultimately most important.
Short Field Technique – Use full throttle prior to releasing your brakes.
Almost all performance charts require using pressure altitude equivalents.
Pressure altitude is extremely important. It is used to determine density altitude, true altitude, and true airspeed. One
method of calculating the pressure altitude is to physically set the altimeter to 29.92 and then read the pressure altitude
right off the dial. The second method, which would be useful during an exam when you don’t have access to an
altimeter, is:
1. Subtract the current altimeter setting from 29.92.
2. Multiply by 1000.
3. If positive, add the number to the actual elevation. If negative, subtract the absolute value from the elevation.
3.4 Weight and Balance pt. 1 Definitions
Problems with an overloaded aircraft include:
● Higher takeoff speed, longer takeoff run. ● Reduced maneuverability.
● Reduced rate of climb. ● Higher stalling speed.
● Decreased range. ● Higher approach/landing speed.
● Reduced cruising speed. ● Longer landing roll/stopping.
Standard Empty Weight – The weight of the airplane plus oil and unusable fuel, without equipment.
Basic Empty Weight – The standard empty weight plus equipment.
Maximum Takeoff Weight – The heaviest that a fully loaded plane can weigh, including fuel, cargo, pilot and
passengers, and equipment.
Maximum gross weight - permissible weight of the airplane
Useful Load – Maximum takeoff weight less basic empty weight.
Maximum Ramp Weight – This might be a few pounds heavier than the maximum takeoff weight, to allow for an extra
gallon or so of fuel that will be burned off by taxiing before takeoff.
Important Fuel Weights:
● AVGAS is 6 pounds per US gallon. MUST KNOW
● OIL(65) is 7.5 pounds per US gallon.
A US gallon is 3.785 liters.
Zero Fuel Weight – Basic empty weight, crew, passengers, cargo, oil, and unusable fuel. But no usable fuel.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight – Max weight before the rest must be fuel.
Datum Line – An arbitrarily selected point (set by the manufacturer) from which all horizontal distances are measured
for weight and balance reports. This point is not the same as the fulcrum.
Moment = Weight x Arm (inch-pounds).
The moment is often listed in the 1000's on charts, including on Cessna charts.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) – The center of gravity is often expressed as a percentage of the average chord of
the wing. Usually used for large commercial aircraft.

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3.5 Weight and Balance pt.2 method of computing
Methods of Determining Weight & Balance:
● Center of Gravity calculations. ● Center of Gravity charts.
● Center of Gravity graphs. ● Loading Schedules (placards).
For center of gravity calculations, add up all the weights and moments, then divide moments by weights.
Arms that are “aft” of (behind) the datum point are considered positive, and if they are “fore” (ahead) of the datum point
they are negative.
CG Calculation; MUST KNOW
1. Add up all weights, including the basic empty weights of the aircraft
2. Multiply each weight by itself corresponding moment arm in inches to get the movement for that item
WEIGHT X ARM = MOVEMENT
3. Add up all the movements

➗
4. Divide the sum of the movement by the total weight to get the CG
SUM OF MOVEMENT TOTAL WEIGHT = CG
Moment Loading Envelope – A graphical depiction to see if the moment arm falls within acceptable limits.
Center of Gravity Envelope – A graphical representation which shows the center of gravity in terms of inches aft of the
datum line. Anything outside of the limits on the left side of the graph means that the center of gravity is too far forward,
and outside on the right is too far aft. Do not fly with your center of gravity outside of the envelope. It is very risky and
potentially fatal.
If tail nose heavy You’ll need a nose-down trim, It will be less stable More susceptible to gusts. It will cruise faster.
Always calculate two weight and balance reports for each flight, one for takeoff and one for landing. You’ll burn fuel
during the flight, which will slowly shift the location of the center of gravity. As a pilot, you should know whether the
center of gravity moves forward or aft as the fuel is burned.
LEMAC – Leading Edge MAC
TEMAC – Trailing Edge MAC
A percentage MAC position is the distance that the center of gravity is located behind the LEMAC in comparison to the
TEMAC. Usually between about 10% to 30%, and 25% is a common measurement.
The fulcrum is located at the center of the lift.
3.6 Wake Turbulence
Weight Turbulence Categories:
● Light is less than 15,500 pounds.
● Medium is 15,500 to 300,000 pounds.
● It weighs more than 300,000 pounds.
3.7 Rule of thumb MUST KNOW
● Takeoff distance increases 15% for each 1000' ● A headwind of 10% takeoff speed will reduce
Density altitude above sea level. ground roll by 20%. A tailwind of 10% takeoff
● Rotation speed Vr is equal to approximately speed will increase takeoff roll by 20%.
1.15 time Vs. ● A 10% change in aircraft weight will result in
● A 1° C change in temperature from ISA will a 20% change in takeoff distance.
increase or decrease the takeoff ground roll ● Abort the takeoff if 70% of takeoff speed is not
10% reached within 50% of the available runway.
● Best rate of climb IAS will decrease ● The maximum crosswind component is
approximately 1 knot per thousand feet approximately equal to 0.2 x V S1.
● To reduce the effects of a headwind climb, ● A soft field or deep grass can increase takeoff
climb at cruise climb airspeed. distance by 50%. Wet snow or slush can
● To take advantage of a tailwind climb at V y double takeoff distance or make it impossible
(best rate of climb).

19
 Topic 4; Flight Instruments
4.1 Pitot-static System
Three instruments are connected to the
Pitot-Static System:
● Altimeter (ALT)
● Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
● Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Pitot Tube – Uses ram air, and is usually heated. This is to prevent icing, not specifically to heat the air. The ASI is the
only instrument directly linked to this tube. The pitot tube must be heated for IFR flight.
Static Port – Needs normal (not forced) air. Attached to ALT, VSI, ASI. If the static port becomes blocked, the ALT and
VSI will freeze. The ASI will read incorrectly. Airspeed will under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent.
If the pitot tube becomes blocked, the effect depends on whether the blockage is partial or complete.
Complete pitot blockage:
● Airspeed reads high in a climb.
● Airspeed reads low in a descent.
● ASI acts like an altimeter.
Partial pitot blockage:
● ASI will decrease to zero. MUST KNOW altimeter will stop moving
4.2 Airspeed Indicator
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) – Speed through the air. The airplane knows this, not how fast the ground is going underneath.
Variations include MIAS for mph, and KIAS for knots/hour.
Ground Speed – Indicated airspeed plus a wind component.
Airspeed Indicator – Measures the difference between the dynamic (pitot) and static pressure. This is read as indicated
airspeed on the instrument. Contains a diaphragm which is connected to the IAS needle through a system of pulleys and
levers.
Possible airspeed indicator errors:
● Positional error. ● Density error.
● Compressibility error. ● Ice or water blocking the pitot tube.
The speed that we read directly off the dial of the airspeed indicator is known as the indicated airspeed ( IAS) MUST
KNOW
If we correct ISA for positional and instrument error we get ..
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) – Accounts for positional error.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) – Takes into account compressibility. Only encountered in aircraft that travel at very high
airspeeds, over 250 knots.
True Airspeed (TAS) – Accounts for density errors, which are caused by changes in air density (affected by altitude and
temperature). A rule of thumb is to add 2% to IAS for every thousand feet of pressure altitude. Involves using a flight
computer, rule of thumb, or true airspeed indicator.
Positional Error:
● Caused by the position of the pitot. pitot error.
● Pitot needs to be placed as far as possible ● When the IAS is corrected for positional error,
ahead of the wing’s leading edge. we get the CAS.
● Angle of air hitting the pitot leads to addition
Density Error MUST KNOW
This error is caused by a change in altitude and temp. Airspeed indicators are initially calibrated for the ICAO standard
atmosphere ( ISA), at sea level ISA equals TAS. As our altitude increases above sea level the air becomes less dense, so
for certain TAS the ISA will be lower. The rule of thumb is to add 2% to ISA for every 1000 feet of pressure altitude
increase.
Cruise Standard – Having the aircraft at “cruise” altitude, plus the throttle set at 2200 RPM’s, probably gives you about

20
90 knots in a Cessna 172.
Approach Standard – Having the aircraft at the “approach” attitude plus 1500 RPM is probably going to give you about
65 knots in a Cessna 172 descending at 500 feet/minute.
Pilot system blockage-with a locked pilot the ASI will read incorrectly. MUST KNOW
● Airspeed will increase ( overread) in a climb
● Airspeed will decrease ( underread) in a descent
Static system Blockage- airspeed will decrease ( underread) in a climb. Airspeed will increase ( overread) in a descent.
Most dangerous as this could lead a pilot into thinking they are approaching too fast, slowing could equal stall MUST
KNOW
Partial blockage- if the drain hole is left open this will allow the air pressure to slowly leak out and the ASI will decrease
to zero MUST KNOW
Airspeed Indicator Markings: MUST KNOW
The “top” of any arc means the fastest recommended or permitted airspeed, and the “bottom” of an arc means the
slowest. The white arc is associated with flaps usage.
● VSO is the stall speed with flaps fully extended.
● VS1 is the stall speed with no flaps.
● VFE is the maximum speed with flaps extended.
● The green arc is the recommended safe airspeed range.
● The yellow arc is the caution range for velocity, which you should only use if absolutely necessary, and only in
calm, non-turbulent conditions.
● VNO is the maximum recommended IAS for normal operations.
● VNE is the “never exceed” speed (the red line).
● Blue lines are found on multi-engine aircraft. Associated with the best single-engine rate of climb speed (V YSE)
which should be maintained in the event of an engine failure.
Airspeed can be in MPH, km/hr, or Knots. Probably MPH in a Cessna. Metrics (km/hr) are very uncommon.
Think of “iced tea” when moving between airspeed conversions: I-C-E-T
Indicated Airspeed 🡪 Calibrated (POH) 🡪 Equivalent (if >250 KT) 🡪 True Airspeed
Our true airspeed at the stall is always higher at high altitudes or high temperatures. It only matches the IAS at sea
level and at standard temperature.
Tape Type Airspeed Indicator (TAA) – Found on more advanced Garmin or Avidine flight panels. On a TAA, “G”
stands for general cruising speed and “R” stands for rotation speed. If you see a pink vector bar on the side, it shows
what your speed will be in six seconds. MFD – Multi Function Display.
Other important velocities:
● VR – Rotation speed.
● VA – Maneuvering speed. Changes with weight! Increases as weight increases. This is the maximum speed
at which we can exert full controls without damaging the airplane. You do not want to exceed your
maximum load factor.
● VDIVE – Speed at which things start to shake, and maybe fall apart. V NE = V DIVE x 0.9, V NE makes an aircraft
non-airworthy.
● VLE – Maximum speed with retractable flaps extended.
● VLO – Maximum speed at which you can extend or retract the gear. It is always slower than V LE by
necessity.
● VS – This changes with changes in the center of gravity.
The “dirty” configuration means flaps are down/extended. Clean means flaps are up/retracted.
Indicated stalling speed- the TAS stalling speed at 10 000 ft ASL is greater than the TAS stalling speed at sea level;,
higher altitude the same ISA, generated the same amount of lift. MUST KNOW
4.3 Vertical speed indicator
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) – Connected to the static port. Similar to the altimeter. Contains a small calibrated hole
in the instrument case that allows the pressure to slowly leak out. Possible errors in the VSI:
● Lag Error: Largest error. The VSI is a trend instrument, not an instantaneous one. It usually lags by about six

21
 to eight seconds. Large and abrupt pitch change and turbulence can extend the lag period and cause erratic and
unstable rate indication MUST KNOW
● Reversal Error: A sharp and sudden pitch change will temporarily show the opposite of what the airplane is
doing.
The ideal descent rate for approach on landing is 500 feet/minute in a small GA aircraft
4.4 Altimeter .
In an altimeter, the pressure in the sealed aneroid is at 29.92” Hg. This is “inches of mercury” and is known as
Standard Pressure. An altimeter is an aneroid barometer. It is connected only to the static port.
The large needle indicated change in hundred of feet. The small needle indicated change in thousands of feet. The
smallest needle indicated change in ten thousand feet.
A common type in a small GA aircraft has three hands, similar to the concept of hands on a clock, and is called a
Three Point Altimeter.
Drum Altimeter – Has an analogue dial rather than sweep hands, so it looks like an odometer.
Kollsman Window – The altimeter setting window on a pressure altimeter.
The altimeter only works correctly under these conditions: MUST KNOW
● Must be at sea level. ● Temperature must be 15oC.
● Air must be dry (no humidity). ● Temperature decreases at 1.98oC per 1000 feet.
● Barometric Pressure must be 29.92”. ● We lose 1” of pressure per 1000 feet.
If you don’t have an outside pressure reading, you can set the altimeter to whatever reading gives you the proper
elevation of the field.
ISA – Standard Atmosphere
If flying into a high or low pressure system, remember the following: “From high to low, look out below.” MUST
KNOW
If you’re doing cross-country, you need to keep getting local pressure setting and making adjustments to the altimeter.
An altimeter setting that is too high will give a reading that is too high.
Low systems have counter-clockwise flows.
The highest setting on most altimeters is 31.00” Hg. However, actual pressure can certainly be higher. Just set it to
31.00” Hg. You’ll be Ok because this error is in the “safe” direction, and you won’t fly into the ground accidentally. For
the same change in pressure, warm air will have a greater vertical depth (spread) than cold air.
Cold Correction Chart – Shows us how incorrect our indicated altitude can be in very cold conditions.
Mountain Effect – Due to Bernoulli’s Principle, air that is deflected around mountains will increase in speed and
decrease in local pressure. It will give an altitude reading that is too high! This is dangerous.
Mountain wave winds can extend for as much as 700 miles downwind of mountains. They can feature low pressure and
severe downdrafts! They are most severe near the summit of the mountain. Downdrafts can run at more than 5000
feet/minute vertically.
Any time you fly in the mountains, you should fly much higher than you think you need to be.
MUST KNOW
Indicated Altitude – What we see on the instrument. It depends on the accuracy of the Kollsman value.
Pressure Altitude – What is indicated when the Kollsman is set to 29.92, or Standard Atmosphere. This is
extremely important, and is used to determine things like density altitude and true airspeed. MUST KNOW
True Altitude – The exact height above means sea level. True altitude corrections need to include a correction for
non-standard temperatures, and true altitude is important when we are trying to figure out if we have enough
obstacle clearance. To calculate true altitude, use the left side of the E6B, then line up the outside air temperature
and pressure altitude.
Absolute Altitude – The actual height above ground surface (AGL) with the altimeter correctly set and non standard
variations in temperature taken into consideration. To calculate the absolute altitude, find the true altitude, then subtract
the height of the terrain below.
Density Altitude – Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature. Our aircraft performs as if it is at this
level. Density altitude gives us the density of the air. Therefore, it tells us how the aircraft will perform. All service
ceilings and absolute ceilings are given in terms of density altitudes. MUST KNOW
A lot of people get confused by Density Altitude, and think that a higher density altitude means that the air has a higher

22
density. However, when you think of the phrase “high density altitude,” don’t be tricked by the fact that “high” and
“density” are together. In a “high density altitude,” the “high” refers to the “altitude,” and of course at higher altitudes,
the air is thinner. Encoding Altimeter:
● Linked to transponder. ● Known as Mode C.
● Allows ATC to know pressure altitude as well ● Controller sees a pressure altitude.
as position.
4.5 Compass
The magnetic compass is the only basic instrument (ignoring GPS) that helps determine the direction of flight.
Cardinal Points – North, South, East, West. numbers are given in a 30 º increment. Long vertical mark are given in 10 º
increment short vertical marks are given at every 5 º increment
The Magnetic Compass case is filled with white kerosene. This dampens vibrations or oscillations. The center of
buoyancy is above the center of gravity to minimize dip at higher latitudes. This dip occurs because magnetic lines of
force are fairly horizontal at the equator and fairly vertical at the poles. MUST KNOW
Lubber Line – Direction marker line (vertical) on the magnetic compass.
Isogonic Lines – Lines of equal magnetic variation.
Agonic Line – The isogonic line of 0o variation. This currently passes in a north/south orientation just west of Thunder
Bay.
Deviation – Error for a compass installed in an aircraft versus what it would read if outside the aircraft, caused by metal
and RF instruments in the aircraft. Deviation errors are usually only a couple degrees, but you should still take them into
account for navigation. MUST KNOW
Variation – The difference between magnetic north and true north. This is also sometimes called Magnetic Declination,
but be careful that you don’t confuse declination with deviation. It’s better for aviators to use variance instead of
declination variation at any given location on the earth's location on earth's surface is the difference between true north
and magnetic lines. MUST KNOW
The west side of Canada has an easterly variation, and the east side has a westerly variation. We need to correct for
variations in our navigation logs.
Converting from True to Magnetic – Subtract easterly from true to get magnetic, or add if westerly. Remember this
phrase, “East is least, west is best.”
To convert from True to Magnetic to Compass:
1. Start at True, and adjust for winds if necessary.
2. Come up with Magnetic by accounting for variation.
3. Come up with a Compass by accounting for deviation.
Remember that a magnetic compass reads “backwards,” ie. higher numbers on the left.
Northerly Turning Error – On turns from the north, the compass will lag, and on turns from the south, the compass will
lead. Also, from the north, the compass will initially turn in the wrong direction before correcting. This of it this way: A
compass normally “wants” to point north. That is also its tendency during the turn. This northerly turning error is caused
by magnetic dip. KNOW THIS
Acceleration/Deceleration Errors – If flying east or west, accelerating the aircraft will cause the compass to register a
turn to the north. Deceleration registers a false turn to the south. Again, you can remember this by thinking about the
compass being “excited” by acceleration and wanting to turn north.
Only when traveling east or west.. East and west heading- acceleration north deceleration south
The magnetic compass only gives you a correct reading when in a wings-level attitude at a constant airspeed. Note that it
can be accurate in a constant speed wings-level climb or descent. The altitude does not have to remain constant, as long
as there is no acceleration or deceleration in the climb/descent. KNOW THIS
4.6 Gyroscope
Gyroscope – Any rotor, disc, or wheel spinning at high speed. Even automobile wheels are an example.
Gimbal – A universal mounting device for a gyro that allows its axis to be pointed in any direction.
When a gyro is rotating, it resists changes in direction. It has two predominant characteristics: rigidity in space, and
precession.
Rigidity in Space – Once set into motion and spinning, gyroscopes resist turning. When gimbaled (in one, two, or

23
three dimensions) any surface such as an instrument dial attached to that gyro assembly will also remain “rigid” in
space.
Precession – The deflection of a spinning wheel 90o to the plane of rotation, when a deflective force is applied at
the rim.
Gyro instruments can be vacuum or electrically driven. They include:
● Turn coordinator: usually electric.
● Attitude indicator: usually vacuum.
● Heading indicator: usually vacuum.
Vacuum driven systems generally need 4-6 inches of mercury to operate. They can be engine or venturi driven.
There is probably a little red flag in the turn coordinator (and other instruments) that is visible only when there is no
power, so this acts as a warning if the electrical fails.
The attitude indicator is the primary instrument in instrument flying.
4.7 Heading Indicator
Heading Indicator (HDI): KNOW THIS
Sometimes known as the Directional Gyro. Only valid when set by magnetic compass. Needs to be set at the start of
each flight, and approximately every fifteen minutes thereafter in regular, non-accelerated flights. Vacuum powered
gyroscope used in the principle of rigidity in space. Unaffected by acceleration, deceleration, or turns. Need to adjust for
both apparent precession and frictional precession. Check the HDI again the runway number as you line up. Frictional
precession relates to friction in the gimbal bearings. Apparent precession occurs because even though you might feel that
you’re flying in a straight line, you’re actually traveling in an arc over the earth’s surface. You may see an error of up to
fifteen degrees per hour of flight.
Every card is also numbered every 30 º there graduation are divided by long marking every 10 º and short marks at 5 º
intervals
Tumbling – When the HDI loses its gyroscopic characteristics after being subjected to severe maneuvers. Can often
happen after exceeding 55o of either pitch or bank.
Glass Panel HDI – Can show a 360o circle or a 140o arc. Options to show GPS, VOR, ADF, and ILS info are possible.
Relies on an AHRS system. Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) – Gyroscope is replaced by lasers,
accelerometers, and magnetometers.
4.8 Attitude Indicator
Attitude Indicator (ATT):
● Vacuum driven gyroscope.
● Can be electrically driven.
● Gimbal mounted on a vertical axis.
VY in a Cessna 152/172 is typically very close to eight degrees pitch.
Most descents in light GA aircraft are between 3o and 5o pitch down.
Pull To Cage – A setting that locks a gyro into place and prevents tumbling during aerobatics, etc.
Attitude Indicator errors:
● Acceleration will indicate a climb.
● Deceleration will indicate a descent.
Vacuum driven- generally require 4 to 6 inches of mercury to operate. There are 2 types of vacuum system; engine
driven vacuum and venturi driven vacuum. Engine driven vacuum sucks air into the system driving the gyros. Venturi
driven vacuum. The airflow moving through the constriction of the venturi create a partial vacuum which drives the gyros
Electrically driven- this current will be provided by the alternators or generators
4.9 Turn and bank indicator / turn coordinator
Turn & Bank Indicator:
Older style of instrument, usually replaced nowadays with a Turn Coordinator. Uses an indicator needle with a
left/right deflection instead of the visual representation of a small airplane that you’d see in a turn coordinator. Can
only identify yaw, but not rolling.
● Lags slightly (by about one second).

24
 ● Two components: turn needle and doghouse.
● Doghouse has a mark on either side of the center that represents a standard rate turn.
Turn Coordinator:
Two parts, the visual silhouette of the aircraft, and the “ball” (inclinometer). The purpose is to indicate the rate of turn
and the quality of the turn. Can identify both yawing and rolling motions. (Usually electrically powered. ) No lag. Red
flag appears if it loses electrical power. It takes 2 minutes to turn a 360 º
Inclinometer: Glass level containing a black ball. Provides the pilot with a measure of the turn quality. The ball should
stay centered during both straight & level flight, and during turns! Otherwise, you are slipping or skidding.
Skid;Too much rudder for a given bank angle. The tail end of the plane swings to the outside, The ball is on the opposite
side to the lowered wing. “Step on the ball” is the catchphrase, although you might need to release the opposite rudder.
Slip A turn where insufficient rudder is being applied. The ball is on the same side as the lowered wing (or needle). Also
too much bank/aileron for the current amount of rudder. You can fix this by applying additional rudder OR reducing the
bank angle.
In a turn coordinator, the gyro spins up and away from you. The gyro spin axis is angled or canted 30o to the horizontal.
This makes it capable of responding to both yaw and roll.
Standard Rate Turn:
● If your airspeed is faster, your bank angle needs to be higher in order to complete the turn in time. - The
rule of thumb for bank angle is (KIAS/10) + 7, ie. 120 KTS = 19o bank.
● For MPH, use (MIAS/10) + 5, ie. 140 MPH = 19o bank.
4.10 instrument flying
While learning to fly, learn to fly by looking outside, and by knowing your attitudes. Pay some attention to the instrument
panel, but not too much!
Attitude + power = performance
The three fundamental skills are Scan, Interpret, and Control.
Scanning Instruments – Do continuous cross-checking. Common errors include fixation, omission, or over
emphasizing one instrument’s indication.
Partial Panel – When you’re flying without all six of your instruments. Usually, your vacuum system is the most
likely system to fail, so you’re probably flying without your attitude indicator and heading indicator when flying a
partial panel.
Unusual Attitudes – Any unexpected rate or instrument indication contrary to what you would have expected.
Nose Up AND Nose Down Recovery Considerations:
● Use ASI and TC as your primary instruments.
● Pay attention to the trend of the ASI.
● The ATT and HDI may have toppled, so they may be unreliable.
● The ALT and VSI may be unreliable due to lag

To effect a Nose Up recovery:

1. Go to full power. 3. Level wings based on TC.
2. Put the nose down until the ASI stops 4. Reduce power to cruise.
decreasing. 5. Cross check the instruments.
To effect a Nose Down recovery:
1. Power off. 3. Nose up until the ASI stops increasing.
2. Level wings based on TC. 4. Add throttle to return to cruise power.
5. Cross check the instruments.

25
 Topic 5; Meteorology
5.1 the Earth's atmosphere
The atmosphere is thicker at the equator than at the poles.
Air flows from areas of high pressure to low pressure (wind). The strength of the wind depends mostly on the pressure
differential between the two areas, and partly on the temperature differential. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen
(N2), 21% oxygen (O2), and 1% trace gasses.
Permanent trace gasses include Argon (A R), Neon (NE), Helium (HE), Hydrogen (H2), Krypton (KR), and Xenon (XE).
Variable trace gasses include carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), methane (CH4), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and water
vapor (H2O).
Atmospheric layers:
1. Troposphere: Up to 20,000 feet, although this height often varies significantly. Temperature decreases
with height, +20 oC to -70 oC. Average height overall is 36 000 ft throughout the globe ( 7 miles or 11
km) KNOW THIS
2. Stratosphere: 20,000 to 160,000 feet. Temperature increases with height, -70 oC to zero. 3.
Mesosphere: 160,000 to 280,000 feet. Temperature decreases with height, zero to -100 oC. 4.
Thermosphere: 280,000 feet (50 miles) up to 350 miles or 500 km. Temperature increases with height,
-100 oC to over 1000oC.
3. Exosphere.
Area surround the planet is divided into several concentric spherical layers or “ strata” its separated by a narrow
transition zone known as “ ____ pause”
The transition zones found between the strata are where there is a change in the lapse rate. “Space” starts about 50
miles or 80 kilometers above the Earth’s surface (at the beginning of the thermosphere). This is a slightly vague
definition.
About 99% of the atmosphere is found within the first forty kilometers above the surface. Half of this is located within
the first 5km, in other words, more than half of the total volume of the atmosphere is found within the troposphere.
Lapse Rate – The temperature changes with height. The defined Standard Lapse Rate is 1.98oC per 1000’ (in the
troposphere).
Most “weather” takes place in the troposphere. About 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere is found within the
troposphere.
Troposphere: Means “region of mixing,” has vigorous air currents. Temperature and water vapor decrease rapidly with
altitude. Average temperature is -56 oC. Although we defined the upper boundary of the troposphere to be around 20,000
feet, it can actually be quite a bit higher, depending on the season and the location on earth. The height varies seasonally,
and it is higher in the summer than in the winter. The tropopause is the boundary layer between the troposphere and the
stratosphere above it.
Stratosphere: Temperatures increase as altitude increases, up to zero. Because the air temperature increases, it does not
permit convection, so weather that transits through the tropopause cannot rise any further. This lack of convection has a
stabilizing effect on thunderstorms. The stratopause (formerly mesopeak) is the boundary layer between the stratosphere
and the mesosphere above it.
Mesosphere: Temperature decreases as altitude increases. Concentrations of ozone and water vapor are
negligible. The chemical composition of gasses at any given altitude depends strongly on altitude. Gasses start to
form into layers according to their molecular mass, so lighter glasses settle at higher layers than heavier glasses.
The mesopause is the boundary layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it.
Thermosphere:The temperature increases significantly with the altitude, very rapidly. Temperatures can get well
over 1000oC. These temperatures are caused by intense solar radiation. This is the layer which hosts the northern
lights. The thermopause is the boundary layer between the thermosphere and the exosphere above it.
Exosphere: Starts at about 500 km. The upper boundary is undefined. Perhaps between 1,000 and 10,000km, depending
on whom you ask. Pressure is little more than a vacuum.
At an altitude of approximately 150km, you start to enter the altitude for satellites, and aerodynamic lift can no longer be
used for maintaining height.

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Definition of Standard Atmosphere: KNOW THIS
● At sea level. ● 29.92” Hg or 1013.25 millibars/hectopascals.
● +15oC. ● 1” drop in mercury per 1000’ increase.
● Change of 1.98oC per 1000’ (the standard lapse ● Dry air, no humidity.
rate).
5.2 Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure measurements:
● Aviators use pressure of mercury (Hg) in inches.
● Meteorologists use millibars.
29.92” Hg = 1.0 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 mb
Station Pressure – The weight of air pushing down on a station, then the station “adds” an imaginary column of air
between the station and sea level, which translates the physical reading to a theoretical reading that estimates sea level
pressure at the station.
Mean sea level pressure MSL - is station pressure reduced to sea level using the average temperature of the past 12
hours. MSL pressure is expressed as Hectopascals.
With respect to temperature, the average surface temperature of the station over the past twelve hours is what is used.
Isobars – Lines on a weather chart that connect areas of equal pressure. Isobars are correct for sea level pressure. The
standard is to have them 4 millibars apart. Widely spaced isobars mean a shallower pressure gradient and relatively light
winds.
The standard airflow tends to be counterclockwise/upwards/inward around a low pressure system, and
clockwise/down/outwards around a high pressure system.
Pressure Gradient – The change in pressure over a given distance.
Although warm air usually creates a low, and cool air usually creates a high, remember that you always have to think in
relative rather than absolute terms, in comparison to nearby air. Also, other factors can come into play.
Pressure Systems include highs, lows, troughs, ridges, and cols.
High Pressure Center: Air is sinking. In the northern hemisphere, air rotates clockwise and gently flows outward and
downward. Also known as an anticyclone. Large blue “H” on a weather map. In general, it is a region of subsiding air.
Suppresses the upward motion that is needed to support the development of clouds and precipitation. Commonly
associated with fair weather and light winds. Can remain stationary for days at a time. In high pressure system the air is
diverging and descending MUST KNOW
Low Pressure Center: Rising air rotating counterclockwise. This flow tends to increase as you move toward the center of
a low. Strong inward and upward flow. Also known as a cyclone. On a weather map, it is a red “L”. Air rises and
becomes less dense as it rises. Rising motions favor the development of clouds and precipitation. The air is converging
and ascending MUST KNOW
● Lows usually tend to move quickly, perhaps 500 miles/day in summer and 700 miles/day in winter.
Trough: Elongated area of low pressure. Symbol is a long purple line. Likely to bring about a wind shift at the surface. A
trough can act like a weak front.
Ridge: Sawtooth pattern on a weather map, although it is quite rare. Area of elongated high pressure.
Cols; A neutral region between two highs and two lows. Weather at a col tends to be unsettled. In the winter, expect fog.
In the summer, expect showers and thunderstorms.
Boyle’s Law – At a given pressure, warm air will take up a greater volume than cold air. This greater volume will
typically exert itself by moving vertically upwards.
5.3 Meteorological Aspect of Altimetry
On cold winter days, when flying IFR, we need to factor cold weather corrections into altitude calculations.
At a given altimeter setting, an airplane will be much closer to a ground obstacle in the winter than it would be in the
summer.
Turning the altimeter subscale down results in a lower altitude. REMEMBER
If you set the altimeter (on the ground) in the Kollsman window and it shows a difference of more than 75 feet from
aerodrome elevation, you need to re-calibrate it.
As you progress cross-country and keep adjusting your altimeter, try to always use a setting from a station within 100

27
miles of your position.
Altimeter setting which uses standard temperature, MSL uses the average temperature over the past 12 hours KNOW
THE DIFFERENCE
When flying towards a low KNOW THIS, if maintaining what appears to be a constant altitude on the altimeter, the
aircraft will gradually descend unless an altimeter correction is made. From high to low, look out below!
The altimeter does not compensate for non-standard temperatures! If terrain or obstacle clearance is a factor, a
conservative higher altitude should be flown to ensure adequate clearance. “From hot to cold, don’t be bold, or you
won’t grow old.”
When the air temperature is above standard, density altitude will be higher than pressure altitude. Remember that
higher density altitude means “air is less dense,” so the aircraft will not perform as well at that higher temperature.
True altitude is our exact height above sea level. Cold temperatures cause the pressure level to compress. Our
indicated altitude must be corrected for temperatures, especially for IFR or obstacle clearance! Use the left
window in the E6B for calculations of true altitude.
In flying from different pressure; actual altimeter setting set to 29.94. Proper altimeter setting is 29.69. Remember
1 inch equal 1000 ft. therefore, 29.94 - 29.69 = .25 x1 000 = 250 fett difference. Below the proper circuit altitude of
1300 feet
Calculating pressure altitude; KNOW THIS
Remember that 1 inch of mercury is equal to 1000 ft of altitude
1. Take 29.92 ( SA) and subtract the current altimeter setting
2. Then multiply by 1000
3. If the number is positive it will add to the elevation. If the number is negative it will subtract from the
elevation
Density altitude- for nonstandard temp variation. The height of the aircraft is above sea level, which affects the
performance. High density means the aircraft feels like it is at a high altitude, poorer performance
Rule of thumb for True Altitude calculations:
Multiply temperature variation from ISA (15oC) by 4 feet per 1000.’
5.4 Temperature
The two main ways that the atmosphere is heated are radiation (terrestrial, not solar) and convection. The atmosphere is
heated from the bottom up!
Solar radiation is shortwave. It hits the earth and is reflected back as long wave radiation. Long waves are then absorbed
by water vapor as latent heat. The longwave radiation is also often referred to as terrestrial radiation
Rising warm air at the equator creates a low. It then travels to the poles where it cools and sinks, creating highs.
Variations in Heating:
● Diurnal variation: Day and night. This cause the surface wind to increase in speed, veer in direction, becomes
gusty KNOW THIS
● Seasonal variation: Due to the axial tilt of the Earth. A shallow lighting angle in winter results in less heating,
but there is a steeper lighting angle in summer. Also, there are more hours of daylight in summer.
● Latitude: Closely related to seasonal variation, although of course this is a constant factor rather than a cyclical
one.
● Topography: Land absorbs radiation faster than water, and also releases heat more quickly at night. Items such
as vegetation, soil type, slope, and aspect can significantly affect the amount of heating.
Methods of Heat Transfer:
1. Convection: Air near a warm surface is heated, and rises due to its buoyancy. Different surfaces (water,
trees, and buildings) convect heat differently. Convection transports heat in the vertical sense quite
efficiently. It also forms in winter, when cold air moves over open water KNOW THIS
2. Advection: Air is carried from one region to another by wind. Air is then warmed by the surface below.
This moves heat laterally.
3. Conduction: Heats layers of air that are in immediate contact with the Earth’s surface.
4. Latent Heat: Heat energy that is stored in water vapor. When water vapor rises and condenses, the heat in
the water vapor is released during condensation.

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 5. Compression: When a large parcel of air sinks, it is compressed. Pressure increases, and the temperature
increases.
6. Turbulent Mixing: Turbulence that is caused by friction between the air and ground will create eddies
with vertical components. This will allow warm air near the surface to be lofted into the atmosphere.
Atmospheric cooling causes things like clouds, fog, and precipitation. This can happen through radiation,
advection, and adiabatic cooling.
Radiation Cooling:
● After the sun sets, the surface continues to radiate heat.
● This causes the ground to cool, then air in contact with the ground is cooled through conduction (heat passing
from the air to the colder ground surface).
● Radiation cooling rarely has an effect beyond the first few thousand feet above the Earth’s surface.
Advection Cooling:
● Air is carried from a warm area to a cooler area.
Adiabatic Cooling:
● Rising air starts to expand, and this leads to cooling.
● This can happen near mountains, near fronts, and in areas with a lot of convection. - This cooling occurs at
different rates depending on whether the air is saturated (with humidity) or not.
● Unsaturated air will cool at the dry adiabatic rate of 3oC per 1000’.
● Once saturated, it cools at 1.5oC per 1000’.
● Air with some humidity, if not yet saturated, is still subject to the “dry” adiabatic rate.
Environmental Lapse Rate – This is the observed actual change in temperature with a change in altitude. This changes
over time and is not a constant value. It changes from day to day, and even throughout the day.
Inversion: Occurs when temperature increases as altitude increases. Air is very stable. Acts as a barrier to vertical
movement of air.
A common cause of surface based inversion is radiation cooling from the surface on cool nights. - During a low level
inversion, if the relative humidity is high, expect smooth air and poor visibility due to haze, fog, and stratus clouds.
Isotherm – A line on a chart connecting areas of equal temperature. Usually dashed. May be darker for an important
isotherm such as 0oC.
Isothermal Layers – When the temperature remains the same at different altitudes. Like an inversion, it gives rise to
very stable air.
5.5 Moisture
Transpiration – Moisture (water vapor) that is released by plants.
Sublimation – When a substance changes directly from a solid to a gas. This is how dry ice and snow forms.
Deposition – When a substance changes directly from a gas to a solid. This is how hoar frost is formed.
Dew Point – The temperature that air must be cooled to in order to reach 100% saturation. Knowing the dew point
also gives us a measure of how much water the atmosphere is currently holding. When the temperature is close to
the dew point, humidity is high. Also, the higher the dew point, the greater the amount of moisture present.
As air warms up, it can hold more water vapor.
Relative Humidity – The percentage of saturation of a parcel of air at that given temperature. Adding moisture to
the air (by evaporation or sublimation) increases the relative humidity and the dew point.
An adiabatic parcel will not add or remove heat from the surrounding atmosphere. When such a parcel rises, it
expands and cools. When it sinks, it will be compressed and warm.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Theoretical, can be calculated. If a dry parcel of air does not mix with the surrounding air,
then it can be considered adiabatic.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) – 3oC per 1000’.
The change in dew point temperature:
● The dew point also falls as the column of unsaturated air rises.
● The decrease in dew point temperature is 0.5oC per 1000’.
● Therefore, in a rising parcel of unsaturated air, the temperature and dew point converge at a rate of 2.5oC per
1000’.

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 ● Use this for calculations of cloud base.
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR):
● Accounts for latent heat released as water condenses.
● Once air has cooled to the dew point and starts condensing, the air parcel cools more slowly because
condensation releases energy.
● 1.5oC per 1000’.
Freezing level in feet above cloud base:
Freezing Level = (1000 x Dew point) / 1.5
Note that the dew point changes with altitude. A new dew point must be calculated at the freezing level by decreasing the
surface dew point by 0.5oC per 1000’ AGL.
Steep lapse rates lead to instability.
Precipitation - Occurs when condensing water droplets become large and heavy enough to overcome lifting agents such
as fronts & updrafts.
Icing is worse near the top of a cumulus cloud.
Three types of rainfall:
Frontal Rainfall: Also known as convergent or cyclonic rainfall. Caused by the convergence of two air masses (fronts).
Warm front rainfall tends to be steady. Cold front rainfall tends to be showery.
Relief Rainfall: Also known as orographic rainfall. Warm moist air is forced to rise over an obstacle such as a mountain
range. This cooling causes condensation, forming clouds and rain. Most of the rain is on the windward side of the
mountain. Mountains will also cause air streams to converge and funnel through valleys. Rainfall totals will increase
when mountains are parallel to the coast.
Convectional Rainfall: The ground surface is locally heated, adjacent air expands and rises, convection rainfall occurs. -
This heating occurs daily in summer. Large cumulonimbus clouds are likely to form. Rain cools the air as it falls, because
some of it evaporates as it falls.The unstable conditions, possibly helped by frontal or orographic uplift, force the air to
rise in a strong vertical updraft or chimney. The updraft is maintained by energy released through latent heat as water
vapor condenses then freezes. The top of the cloud is characterized by ice crystals in an anvil shape. The top of the cloud
is flattened by reaching the temperature at the troposphere. - When the ice crystals and frozen water droplets (hail)
become large enough they fall in a downdraft. - This downdraft reduces the warm air supply to the “chimney” and will
limit the lifetime of the storm. These storms are usually accompanied by thunder and lightning.
● Ice crystals have a positive charge. Snow forms under the same conditions as rain except that the dew point
temperatures are below freezing so the vapor condenses straight to a solid (deposition).
Snow:
● Ice crystals will form if there are small particles present for them to form onto. These may aggregate to form
snowflakes.
● Since warm air holds more moisture than cold air, snowfalls are heaviest when the air temperature is just below
freezing.
Sleet:
● Starts off as ice/snow when upper air is below freezing.
● A lower air temperature as it is falling allows it to partially melt.
● Then it goes through another cold layer and refreezes before it hits the ground.
Freezing Rain:
● Droplets stay in liquid form as they fall but are very close to freezing.
● They then hit frozen objects or ground, and freeze on contact.
Hail:
● Frozen raindrops that are more than 5mm in diameter. \
● Hail keeps circulating up and down through a frozen layer until it is heavy enough to punch downwards, form a
downdraft, and fall to the ground.
● Can occur anytime, but is most likely to occur during summer and in cold fronts.

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5.6 Stability and Instability
Stable Air – A small change will be resisted and the system returns to its previous state.
Unstable Air – A small change initiates a bigger change, and so on. Lifting actions in the atmosphere
decrease stability.
A rising (isolated) adiabatic parcel of air can only cool at one of two rates:
● Dry (unsaturated) adiabatic rate: 3oC per 1000’
● Saturated (wet) adiabatic rate: 1.5oC per 1000’.
Stable Air: KNOW THESE
● Smooth flying. ● Layer cloud (stratus).
● Poor visibility. ● Ultimately it ends in fog.
● Steady precipitation.
Unstable Air: KNOW THESE
● Bumpy flying. ● Cumulus cloud.
● Good visibility. ● Ultimately ends in a thunderstorm.
● Showery precipitation.
If the layers of air closest to the surface are cooled, we increase the stability of the atmosphere. This can happen by
radiation at night, or by influx of cold air (cold advection).
Stability can also be increased by warming air at higher altitudes:
● Radiation cooling.
● Warm advection aloft.
● Large scale sinking of air.
Subsidence Inversion: Air mass sinks and compresses. Upper part of the layer sinks/compresses more (relatively) than
the bottom. Upper part therefore increases in temperature more than the air at the bottom. Common in winter.
Things that enhance unstable conditions:
Daytime radiation. Warm air moving into a region (surface warm advection). Surface cold advection also. If cold air is
warmed by a warm surface, then it emulates the same behavior as if it had been warm air advection. Effects are enhanced
if there is moist air near the ground, and dry air aloft.
Dark earth absorbs more heat (solar radiation) than lightly colored earth.
Cooling of the upper atmosphere:
● Also causes instability, If cold air moves into higher altitudes and causes temperatures to cool faster than at the
surface.
Different lapse rates:
● steep: Temperature decreases rapidly with altitude (leads to instability).
● Shallow: Temperature decreases slowly with altitude, fairly stable.
● Inversion: Temperature increases with altitude, stable.
● Isothermal layer: Temperature stays constant, stable.
If the environmental lapse rate is less than the DALR or the SALR, stability is favored. In this case, a parcel of air that
attempts to rise will end up cooler than the air around it.
Ways to cause heating of air near surface: KNOW THESE
● Radiation: Long wave from ground.
● Conduction: Warm air contacting cold.
● Advection: Horizontal movement of air.
● Convection: Unequal surface heating.
Lifting processes that can cause instability: KNOW THESE
● Convection: This happens due to unequal surface heating.
● Convergence: Excess air rises as pressure systems meet.
● Mechanical Turbulence: Surface friction.
● Orographic Lift: Air moving up hills/mountains (anabatic/katabatic).
● Frontal Lift: Advancing air being pushed up by cold air on the bottom.

31
Four types of stability:
● Absolute Stability: DALR and SALR are steeper than ELR.
● Conditional Stability: ELR is between DALR and SALR.
● Absolute Instability: ELR is steeper than both the DALR and SALR.
● Potential Instability: Instability would depend on some sort of a trigger mechanism, such as lift. An example
would be when the air is initially stable and unsaturated, but after becoming saturated, the lapse rate changes
and “adds” heat. This situation somewhat resembles conditional instability. Another scenario would be an ELR
that becomes steeper with altitude.
5.7 The seasons
Layers of the sun:
● Photosphere (main mass).
● Chromosphere (similar to Earth’s atmosphere).
● Corona (all the stuff well above the surface).
Solar Wind – Charged atomic particles coming from the corona, moving quickly enough to escape the sun’s gravity.
These solar particles interact with the Earth’s magnetic field and with other particles in the upper atmosphere (aurora
borealis or aurora australis).
Sunspots:
● Operates on an eleven year cycle (but varies from nine to fourteen years).
● Tied to the sun’s periodic/variable energy output.
Solar Flare:
● Occurs when the area above a sunspot brightens and releases huge amounts of energy in the forms of
ultraviolet, x-ray, and radio electromagnetic radiation, and high speed solar particles. Can yield spectacular
auroras, interfere with radio and television reception, and knock out satellites and power grids.
Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5o with respect to Earth’s orbital motion.
The equator is equidistant from each pole at every point along the equator.
Summer Solstice – Has the most hours of daylight of any day of the year, usually around June 21st. Winter Solstice –
Has the least hours of daylight, usually around December 21st.
Equinox – There are two of them, usually around March 21st and September 21st. On these two days, the sun is directly
“over” the equator. Spring is the vernal equinox, and fall is the autumnal equinox.
At the two solstices, the sun is above 23.5o latitude. One of the poles will experience 24 hour daylight, and the opposite
will experience 24 hour darkness (this 24 hour darkness/light actually lasts for several days).
Atmospheric Scattering – As sunlight and radiation passes through the atmosphere, particles of gas and dust are able to
scatter it. At the equator, there is not much scattering, as light and radiation passes straight through the atmosphere’s
normal depth. However, light and radiation reaching the poles does so obliquely, passing through the equivalent depth of
many atmospheres.
5.8 Clouds
Cloud – A visible aggregate of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals. Air must be saturated for clouds to form.
Air can be saturated in three ways:
1. By lowering the air temperature to the dew point temperature.
2. By adding water vapor into the air.
3. By mixing warm moist air to cold air.
Steam Fog – When you have a parcel of air that has some water vapor, and you evaporate more water into it, that
becomes a clouds
Cloud Coverage; KNOW THIS ● SCT: 3/8th or 4/8th, scattered.
● Okta – One eighth of the celestial dome. ● BKN: 5/8th to 7/8th, broken.
● SKC: Clear sky. ● OVC: Overcast, 8/8th, completely covered.
● FEW: 1/8 or 2/8 .
th th

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Ceiling:
Occurs with BKN or OVC, ie. more than half. VFR pilots are not allowed to fly over BKN or OVC, unless you have a
VFR OTT rating. - Ceiling is VV, vertical visibility, on the TAF or METAR. Example: VV003 = 300 feet. Has a scalloped
border on the GFA.
Clouds are classified into four families based on altitude and vertical development/appearance: - High: Above 20,000
feet, with a top usually around FL400 in Canada but it can be higher in other parts of the world. Includes cirrus,
cirrocumulus, cirrostratus.
● High from 20000 ft and 40000, include cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumlulus
● Middle: From 6,500’ to 20,000’, includes altostratus, altocumulus.
● Low: Below 6,500’, includes stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus, nimbostratus, stratus fractus, and cumulus
fractus.
● Vertical Development: Pass through two or all three of the above categories, including cumulus,
altocumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus.
Cumulus clouds are always puffy or pillowy, and often feature showery/inconstant precipitation. Cumulus clouds
frequently have roughly the same diameter, no matter what their altitude.
Stratus clouds are flat clouds that feature constant precipitation.
Nimbo clouds generate rain.
Cirrus (CI): High and wispy. Generally above 20,000’. Sometimes called mares’ tails. Made of ice crystals.
Generally appear in high pressure systems, warm weather, and ahead of warm fronts. - Point in the direction of air
movement at their elevation.
Cirrostratus (CS): Really good at producing halos. Sheet-like, high level, composed of ice crystals.
Tend to thicken as a warm front approaches, signifying an increased production of ice crystals.
Cirrocumulus (CC): Appear as a white sheet with a pebbly pattern. Somewhat rare.
Altocumulus (AC): Puffy, cotton ball. On a warm, humid summer morning, they may be followed by thunderstorms as
the day progresses.
Altostratus (AS); Layer cloud with no definite pattern. Steely or bluish in color. Sometimes the sun or moon can be seen
dimly throughout. Seems to make the sun look like it is behind heavily frosted glass.
Stratus (ST): Low layer cloud. Resembles fog but does not rest on the ground. No waves or patterns, gray.
Alto Cumulus Castellanus (ACC): Created from instability associated with air flows having marked vertical shear and
weak thermal stratification. Can produce heavy precipitation.
Nimbostratus (NS): Dark, low level clouds accompanied by light to moderate precipitation. Mostly water droplets, not
ice crystals.
Stratocumulus (SC): Low, lumpy layer of clouds. Sometimes accompanied by weak intensity precipitation.
Stratocumulus on the windward side of a mountain range may be supercooled and may lead to icing.
Stratus Fractus (SF): Stratus cloud that has been torn by wind into fragments. May release drizzle.
Cumulus Fractus (CF): Stratocumulus torn by wind. Can be differentiated from stratus fractus by their more rounded
tops.
Cumulus (CU): Fair weather. Appearance of floating cotton. Have a lifetime of 5-40 minutes. Given suitable conditions,
can develop into towering cumulus and then cumulonimbus.
Towering Cumulus (TCU): Growing cumulus clouds. On the way to becoming a cumulonimbus. Like a giant
cauliflower in the sky.
Cumulonimbus (CB): Much larger and more vertically developed than fair weather cumulus. Fuelled by vigorous
convective updrafts that are at times in excess of fifty knots.Depending on the height of the troposphere and the buoyancy
of the updraft, the tops of cumulonimbus clouds can reach up to 60,000’.
Mammatus:
Powerful cumulonimbus clouds that may have appendages protruding from the base. Indicate that the
atmosphere is extremely unstable. Severe weather is possibly imminent.
Mountain Wave Clouds:
● Top: Moist layer of air, lenticular clouds.
● Middle: Dry layer of air.
● Bottom: Cap cloud, rotor clouds.

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Orographic Clouds - Associated with mountains, develop when air is forced to rise by the Earth’s topography. This can
happen either prior to encountering a ridge, or after.
Lenticular Clouds – Form in the wave crest, very high and hundreds of miles long. Can look like a tortoise shell or like
a stack of pancakes.
Rotor Clouds (roll clouds) – Form downward and below each wave crest. They are dissipating and forming at the same
time due to the rotation of air.
Cap Cloud – Lie over the top of the mountain and extend partially down the leeward slopes, indicating an extremely
strong downdraft.
Contrails:
Cloud formed by the water vapor contained in the exhaust of jet engines. At high enough altitudes, the vapor turns
immediately to ice crystals. Resemble a long thin line of cirrus.

Topic 6; Meteorology pt. 2

6.1 Mountain waves
Mountain Waves:
Oscillations on the lee (downward) side of a mountain caused by disturbances in the horizontal air flow due to the
impending terrain. Can have speeds in excess of 5000 feet/second. About 150 NM in length is common, and can be
much longer. Most severe near the mountain or mountain ridges, and at about the same height as the top of the
summit. Significant horizontal and vertical shear may exist. Average wave length is 8 NM. A standing mountain wave
is fairly stationary as it propagates horizontally.
Conditions conducive to forming a mountain wave:
● Wind direction must be within 30o knots or more.
perpendicular to the mountains. ● Winds aloft increase with height.
● Wind velocity on the leeward side must be 25 ● Stable air mass layer aloft or an isothermal
layer or inversion near the mountain top.
Factors affecting wavelength:
● Stability: Higher stability makes shorter wavelengths.
wavelengths. ● Lateral Positioning of Ridges: Ridge spacing
● Wind Speed: Higher wind speed equals longer can also change the wavelength.
● Ridges will need to be 5 km apart.
Amplitude: Half the vertical distance from the wave trough to the crest. Varies with height above the ground. Smaller
amplitudes near the surface and near the tropopause. Larger amplitudes between 3000’ to 6000’ above the ridge.
Generally, the greater the amplitude, the shorter the wavelength.
Factors affecting amplitude: Lower stability produces lower amplitudes. Larger mountains produce greater amplitudes.
Ridges with widths similar to typically formed wavelengths will produce greater amplitudes.
A sharp lee slope will produce greater amplitudes. Drops of greater than 3,000’ tend to produce the largest amplitudes.
There must be sufficient moisture for clouds to form, so lack of clouds does not always mean that it will not be turbulent.
Clouds that might indicate the formation of mountain waves include lenticular, rotor, cap, and banner;.
Lenticular clouds: Typically from 20,000’ to 40,000’. As the air in a mountain wave rises, it cools by expansion and
condenses out moisture to form the leading edge of the lenticular cloud. After air flows over the crest, it continues
downward. Due to compression, the moisture evaporates and is absorbed. The associated winds extend to the
troposphere, making it difficult to avoid by simply flying over it. - Lenticulars form in the crests of waves, and can be
hundreds of miles long. In a PIREP or METAR, it will be reported as either Alto Cumulus Standing Lenticular (ACSL) or
Cirrocumulus Standing Lenticular (CCSL). Cirro means ice crystals.
Rotor Clouds: MUST KNOW
Indicate the presence of mountain waves. Possess the greatest amounts of turbulence. Avoid flying through, between, or
below rotors! Will form downward from each wave crest, land within the lower turbulent zone. Can be dissipating and
forming at the same time due to the rotation of the air. Diameter between 600’ and two miles. Center of rotation typically
near the ridgeline. The first rotor will be the most intense.
If you must pass through an area with rotors, the best choice is above them, and the second best option is around them.
Never fly under them if there is any alternative at all.

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When flying downward into mountain wave turbulence, your aircraft will hit the turbulence faster and more violently.
Configure the aircraft for turbulence penetration.
Altimeter effects from a mountain wave:
● The drop in pressure associated with an increase in wind speeds will cause the altimeter to read incorrectly.
● This, coupled with non-standard temperatures, may result in an altimeter over-reading by as much as 3,000’
feet.
Four types of winds in mountain terrain include anabatic, katabatic, glacier winds, and funneling.
Anabatic: Formed as the sunward side of a mountain slope heats up. Warm air starts to rise up the slope, creating an
upwards flow on the mountain. Pockets of turbulence are possible as the mountain slope heats up at different rates.
Katabatic: Flows downslope. Can happen in areas that are shaded, although they are typically more
powerful at night when radiation cooling starts to happen. Wind will then flow down mountain
valleys.
Glacier Wind: Extreme type of katabatic wind. Cools over the glacier, starts to rush downhill, sometimes faster than 80
knots.
Funneling: Flows perhaps between two ridges, or around a single peak. Speeds up, pressure drops abnormally. Very
dangerous.
To limit exposure to mountain winds: When crossing ridges from downwind, do it at a 45o angle and with a minimum
clearance of 3000’ when strong winds are present. If caught in a downdraft, speed up to get out of it rather than pitching
for V Y to attempt to outperform it. Check AIRMETs and PIREPs.
6.2 Turbulence
Types of Turbulence: KNOW THIS
Convective Turbulence:
Caused by uneven heating of the earth’s surface. Darker areas such as soil, rocks, or sand heat up faster than lighter
areas such as grass or water. - Warm air will rise and be replaced by cooler sinking air. Indications include fair weather
cumulus, TCU’s, ACC’s, and CB’s. If possible, fly above clouds to avoid convective turbulence.
Mechanical Turbulence: Caused by friction between air and ground. Created when wind encounters terrain like trees, or
man-made objects/buildings. - The GFA shows heights that MECH will be based at, along with maximum height. - From
the surface, it usually extends to between 2000’ and 5000’ AGL. Only shown on forecast if expected to be moderate or
worse.
Frontal Turbulence:Caused by friction between two opposing air masses. More commonly associated with cold fronts
than with warm fronts, although it can be either.
Orographic Turbulence: Caused by friction in air currents through mountainous regions. Airplanes approaching hills or
mountains from the windward side are helped by rising currents. - Aircraft approaching from the leeward side encounter
descending currents.
Mountain Wave Turbulence: The fact that mountain waves are stationary means that the effects of turbulence on
an aircraft are different when flying downwind than when flying upwind.
Shear Turbulence: Also known as wind shear. A change in wind speed and/or wind direction in a short distance. Can
exist in a horizontal or vertical direction. The greater the speed/direction change, the greater the severity. Some forms
include microbursts and virga.
Low Level Wind Shear: There are six different types: Microbursts, virga, rotor winds, low level nocturnal inversions,
low level jets, and funnel winds. Can present a significant hazard to aircraft during takeoff/landing/climbing/descent. -
Defined as a significant, non-convective wind shear that could adversely affect aircraft operation within 1500’ over an
aerodrome. On the TAF/METAR, the height of the top is given first, followed by wind speed and direction at that height.
To a large extent, wind shear is an element that cannot be satisfactorily observed from the ground. Aircraft reports and
radiosonde reports are often the only ways that we can determine its possible presence. The main effect is rapid gain/loss
of airspeed. On a chart, WS indicates strong non-convective low-level wind shear expected within 1500’ AGL.
Wind shear reporting guidelines:
● Change in wind speed of greater than 25 knots within 500’ AGL.
● Change in wind speed of greater than 40 knots within 1000’ AGL.
● Change in wind speed of greater than 50 knots within 1500’ AGL.
● Pilot reporting gain or loss of indicated airspeed of greater than 20 knots within 1500’ AGL.

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Radiosonde – A battery-powered telemetry instrument package/probe carried into the atmosphere (usually by a weather
balloon), which measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver.
Low Level Jets: Often associated with a frontal system. A powerful jet of air following a front can produce significant
turbulence. Represented by a double-line black arrow on the charts.
Nocturnal Inversion: As night falls, winds aloft become decoupled with surface winds.
Microbursts: Formed by cold dense air and rain shafts as they rapidly descend.
Virga: Similar to a microburst. Rain that falls, dragging cold dense air along with it. Should this rain fall into a layer of
drier air below, it will evaporate. The cold air that was falling with it will continue downwards, but without any rain that
would be a visual indicator of a strong downdraft.
Funnel Winds: Gently blowing winds can be forced into valleys, where they will speed up and create an area of
shear.
Clear Air turbulence (CAT): Frequently associated with a jet stream aloft. Can also be caused by a sharp
temperature gradient, mountain waves, or wind profiles that vary significantly.
Turbulence Reporting:
● Light: Slight changes in attitude/altitude.
● Moderate: Greater intensity, aircraft under control.
● Severe: Large abrupt changes, temporarily out of control.
● Extreme: Airplanes are violently tossed, control is impossible.
● Chop: Intermittent turbulence.
6.3 Wind
…. Wind is the movement of air in the atmosphere horizontally, caused by horizontal pressure difference MUST KNOW
The Coriolis force always makes things appear (to an observer in the northern hemisphere) to curve to the right.
In the upper troposphere, the air is unaffected by friction and we can see that there is a balance between the Pressure
Gradient Force and the Coriolis force.
Pressure gradient- if the isobar are close together then the pressure gradient is steep producing strong wind MUST
KNOW
Resultant Wind – Thanks to the balance between the pressure gradient wind and the Coriolis force, the geostrophic
wind blows parallel to the isobars. However, it is also slightly modified by friction from the surface which reduces the
Coriolis force and causes the wind to blow at a slight angle to the isobars.
Buys Ballot’s Law:
If you stand with your back to the wind (in the northern hemisphere), the low is always on the left and the high is
always on the right. Determining the highs and lows tells you the direction that the pressure gradient wind is blowing.
- Coriolis force is always in the opposite direction to the pressure gradient force.
Tri-Cellular Model:
Warm air rising at the equator, then moving to the poles and sinking, is just one aspect to consider. The earth’s
rotation, uneven distribution of its land masses, and the oceans all play a part in air circulation. This all means that
there is more than one cell responsible for recirculating the air through the atmosphere.
Latitude Regions:
● Polar: From 60o latitude to the poles, known as the polar cell, easterly winds.
● Mid Latitude: From 30o to 60o latitude, known as the Ferrel cell, warm southwesterlies.
● Tropical: From the equator to 30o, known as the Hadley cell, northeast trade winds.
There is generally HIGH pressure at the Poles and at 30o latitudes.
There is generally LOW pressure at the Equator and at 60o latitudes.
Doldrums – Low pressure, light wind area near the equator.
The equator is also known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
The areas at 30o latitude (which are generally high pressure areas) usually have clear skies and stable conditions.
The areas at 60o latitude (called the polar front) usually have low pressure, unstable conditions, and cyclonic rainfall.
Veering: Wind direction changing clockwise.
Backing: Wind direction changing counter-clockwise.
A calm ocean surface is smooth and has little effect on the wind. A city has a great effect on the wind speed and
direction.

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 Winds usually veer and increase during a climb out, and usually back and decrease during an approach. This is just the
way things generally work when you’re changing altitude. Non-standard winds frequently indicate warm fronts.
Gust – A brief rapid change of wind direction and/or speed.
Squall – A prolonged change of wind direction and/or speed. Be careful, as another separate definition of a squall is a
long line of thunderstorms.
Diurnal Effects:
During the day, vertical currents are formed that link the upper and lower winds, making them similar. At night,
a nocturnal inversion develops and there is no link between upper and lower surface winds; they back and
decrease. There can be a large difference between upper and lower winds. Winds at the surface can be stronger
and gustier during the day.
Sea Breezes:
A high develops over water (in the day) and a low over land. Air flows from highs to lows, ie. a cool breeze will be
coming off the ocean towards the land (during the day). The reverse (a land breeze) happens at night, with winds blowing
out to the ocean.
Types of Wind Shear:
1. Speed: Wind is blowing at different speeds at different altitudes.
2. Directional: Wind is blowing in different directions at different altitudes.
3. Increased Performance: An increasing headwind or decreasing tailwind.
4. Decreased Performance: A decreasing headwind or increasing tailwind.
Rossby Waves – Very strong winds in the upper troposphere, organized into wave patterns. They are the result of
temperature variations and the rotation of the earth. Depending on the season and circulation, there can be anywhere
from three to seven existing at any given time.
Jet Streams:
● Blow in excess of 230 km/hr. world within a week.
● Rapid transfer of energy around the globe. ● Usually at least 60 knots.
● Can distribute debris from eruptions around the
Main Jet Streams:
● Polar Front (PFJS): From about 40o to about 60o latitude.
● Subtropical (STJS): At around 25 o to 30o latitude.
● Easterly Equatorial (EEJS): At the equator.
Polar Front jet stream (PFTS): When it moves south, it brings cold air, which gives us dry and stable conditions with
high pressures. When warmed, it moves northward, giving strong winds and heavy rainfall. As winter approaches, it
becomes stronger and plunges far to the south. The wind speed is greater in winter, due to large temperature differences
between the Polar and Ferrel cells. During summer, it moves northward and wind speeds usually decrease.
Subtropical (STJS): Found on the boundary between the Ferrel and Hadley cells. Weaker than the polar front jet stream
due to lower temperature variations between cells.
Easterly Equatorial jet stream (EEJS): Tends to form aloft along the ITCZ (equator). Fairly seasonal, associated with
summer monsoons in India.
Gentle jet stream.
6.4 Air masses
Air Mass: A large body of air (usually at least 1000 miles across) that has similar properties of temperature and
moisture throughout. KNOW THESE. The most likely source region is a large flat area where air can be stagnant long
enough to take on the characteristics of the surface below. The source region is always an area of high pressure. Slowly
moving highs are the best. Wind varies little with height. Usually named based on temperature and humidity, which of
course is determined by the source region. The name will be two parts, with the first part identifying the moisture region
and the second part identifying the temperature region.
Moisture Regions: Continental (dry) or maritime (moist).
Temperature Regions: Arctic (coldest), polar (mid-temp), or tropical (warmest).
Canada doesn’t have many continental-polar air masses because we’re actually a source for them. We don’t have many
continental-tropical air masses either. That leaves CA, MA, MP, MT: Continental Arctic, Maritime Arctic, Maritime
Polar, and Maritime Tropical.

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KNOW THESE
● Continental arctic - winter cold and dry originates north of the arctic circle
● Maritime arctic - summer and winter, cold and moist there will thaw during the summer months pumping the air
masses full of moisture and warmth. KNOW THIS
● Maritime polar - summer and winter
● Maritime tropical - summer
Air masses are generally modified by either warming or cooling from below:
● An air mass being warmed from below results in instability and convection.
● An air mass being cooled from below results in an inversion and stability.
Fronts cause abrupt changes in temperature, wind, and stability.
6.5 Fonts
Frontal weather is determined by:
● Stability and moisture content of warm air.
● Speed of cold air.
● The slope.
A front is named after the advancing air mass.
Symbols for fronts on maps: Warm fronts are red semi-circles, cold fronts are blue triangles, and occluded fronts are a
mix of each.
Types of fronts:
Cold Front: Transition zone where cold air is replacing warmth. Tends to move more quickly than a warm front. Tends to
undercut a warm air mass. Tends to produce CU, CB, and TCU clouds. Isobars make a V-shape in the vicinity of the
front. Maybe 500 miles wide.
Warm Front: Warm air mass replacing cold. Slower than a cold front, overrides cold air. Slopes are very shallow,
typically one half of one degree.Maybe 200-250 miles wide.
Occluded Front: When a cold front associated with a low “catches up” to the warm front, overtaking and undercutting
it. Does a wrap-around, disconnecting the warm air from the surface. Usually shown on a weather chart as alternating
purple half circles and triangles.
Trowal: Used in Canada as another name for an occlusion. Stands for “trough of warm air aloft.” Usually
a blue line with red quadrilaterals on a weather chart. Can vary significantly depending on moisture
content of warm air, ie. anything from dry to heavy precipitation. Generally resembles a warm front ahead
of the trowal, and a cold front trailing. - In relation to the associated low, maximum precipitation, icing,
and convective activity will typically be in the northeast sector.
At a trowal/occlusion, remember that there are three air masses present: cold air, cool partially mixed air, and warm
air.
Stationary Front: Not moving, neither air mass is replacing the other. Noticeable temperature change and/or change in
wind direction is common when crossing from one side to the other. Winds will be blowing parallel to the front.
Frontogenesis – Occurs when the temperature gradient becomes sharper.
Frontolysis – A dissipating front.
Upper Fronts: Can happen when air is trapped on the surface and the frontal weather is pushed aloft. There will be few
indications of the frontal passage to a ground observer. No wind shift and no temperature change. However, precipitation
is still likely to fall. Upper fronts have empty symbols on a weather chart.
Frontal Fog – Associated with weather fronts, particularly warm fronts. Caused when frontal precipitation falling into
the colder air ahead of the warm front causes the air to become saturated through evaporation.
Stable frontal waves - wind speed 15 to 20 knots can be up to 40 - 50 knots
Unstable fontal waves- lead to the occlusion
With the passage of a cold front, the surface wind usually veers and increases with speed.
6.6 Aircraft icing
Airframe Ice – Forms when supercooled water droplets strike an airframe that is at a temperature of less than zero
degrees. The three main types are rime, clear, and mixed.

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Rime Ice: MUST KNOW
Likes to form in layered clouds, like stratus. Rough, milky, opaque. Lots of air pockets, like what you see when you
open your freezer. Freezes instantly.
Clear Ice: MUST KNOW
Larger drops, may be cumuliform. Smooth and transparent. Hits the leading edges, does not freeze instantly. Flows a
bit, filling in cracks and pockets, then freezes. Larger accumulations are characterized by upper and lower horns.
Extremely dangerous.
Always do everything possible to stay out of freezing precipitation. It is one of the most dangerous things out there for
pilots.
Factors having an effect on the rate of ice accumulation: KNOW THIS
1. Shape: Thinnest surfaces collect the most ice.
2. Speed: Higher airspeeds result in greater rates of ice accumulation.
3. Droplet size: Large droplets are more likely to strike the wing than a smaller droplet.
Icing Intensity comes in four levels: trace, light, moderate, and severe.
Trace icing: Ice becomes perceptible. The rate of accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of
sublimation. Generally not hazardous unless you’re in it for a while (well over an hour). There is no
symbol on the weather charts for trace icing.
Light icing: The rate of accumulation will create a problem if the flight is prolonged (over an hour). - There is no symbol
on the weather charts for light icing.
Moderate icing: Even short encounters are potentially hazardous.Has a symbol on the weather charts.
De-icing or anti-icing equipment will be required to clear it, and a diversion may be necessary.
Severe icing: The rate of accumulation is fast enough to render de-icing or anti-icing equipment useless. - An immediate
diversion is necessary.
When icing is encountered:
1. Make an immediate decision.
2. Climb, descend, or go back.
3. Activate de-icing or anti-icing equipment, if available.
4. Turn on pitot heat and cabin heat.
Dangers of icing: MUST KNOW
1. Poor aerodynamics.
2. Increased drag and weight.
3. Decreased lift and thrust.
Effects:
Aircraft’s performance will decrease. Increase in drag caused by rough surfaces. Decrease in power due to intake
blockages. Engine failure due to carb icing or blocked air intake. Engine foreign object damage (FOD) is likely for
turbine engines. Ice alters the wing shape, you become a test pilot. The angle of attack decreases, perhaps low enough to
happen before the stall alarm sounds. - Deteriorating trim effectiveness. Asymmetric shuddering and vibrations if one
prop blade sheds ice. Control surfaces may freeze in place. Flaps can be damaged during extension/retraction.
Landing gear may freeze in place or be damaged. Fuel vents may become blocked, which can lead to fuel starvation.
Pitot tube blockages will lead to airspeed errors. Obscured cockpit visibility. Antenna problems, poor radio reception.
Bank angles greater than 5o can cause a stall.
How to deal with potential icing:
Consider climbing through ice more quickly, if you’re stuck in it. File a PIREP. On landing approach, use more power
and higher airspeed. Clear ice tends to form in cumuliform clouds, try to avoid them whatever the season. The worst icing
in these clouds is between -10oC and 0oC. Rime ice tends to form in stratiform clouds. Accumulation is greatest between
-10oC and -20oC.
De-Icing and Anti-Icing equipment: MUST KNOW
● Balloons.
● Heaters.
● Jets may use bleed air from engines.
Weeping Wing systems (also known as TKS) may pump fluid through mesh screens on the leading edges of the
wing and tail.

39
 Frost forms on the aircraft when the surface temperature of the aircraft is below the dew point and below 0oC.
Frost can reduce wing lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%.
Cold Soaking – Typical when an aircraft comes down from the flight levels (where it is cold) and into warmer air
below. Warm moist air will then condense and freeze as it comes into contact with the cold portions of the wings.
If you start losing power, impact ice may be causing a problem. Select carb heat or alternate heat. Lean the mixture if
carb heat is used continuously. MUST KNOW
How to Avoid:
1. Stay out of clouds and visible moisture when the outside air temperature (OAT) is below freezing.
2. Fronts and low pressure systems are often associated with clouds.
3. If you must fly through a front, do it directly instead of at an angle.
4. A warm winter front is terribly dangerous.
Carry extra fuel, in case a diversion is needed!
Tail Stall: Tail can collect ice a lot faster than the wing. Horizontal stabilizer produces a down force that keeps the nose
up. If the tail stalls due to excessive icing, we would have a sudden and violent pitching of the nose down. This would be
preceded by oscillations in the control column, as opposed to the sensation of wing buffeting.
Recognition of a Tail Stall:
Can lead to abnormal pitch forces when flaps are extended, so don’t extend. A buffeting may be felt in the control
column(s), instead of in the airframe. A pilot induced oscillation may be an early indication.
Recovery:
● Raise flaps to the previous setting immediately.
● Pull back on the yoke, and reduce power if altitude permits.
● Do not increase airspeed unless necessary to avoid a wing stall.
If you suspect tail icing:
● Approach at the proper speed for your ● Keep small bank angles for turning.
configuration. ● Avoid abrupt pitch-down movements and
● Keep the flaps retracted. thrust changes.
Hoar Frost: Caused by cooling on clear/calm nights. The Dew point of surrounding air is below zero. Water vapor turns
directly to ice (deposition). Frost color is white and opaque. Melts quickly.
6.7 thunderstorm
Thunderstorm Development Requirements: KNOW THIS
● High moisture content.
● Steep lapse rate.
● A lifting agent.
Development Stages:
1. Cumulus/developing stage: Updraft dominated.
2. Mature stage: Updrafts and downdrafts.
3. Dissipating stage: Downdraft dominated.
Cumulus Stage: Warm moist unstable air is forced to rise. Moisture rapidly cools into liquid drops of water due to the
cooler temperatures at high altitude, which appears as cumulus clouds. As this water vapor condenses into liquid, latent
heat is released. This warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding dry air. Upward growth rate of
5 to 20 m/s, which is 10 to 45 mph. The updraft holds all the water droplets and ice crystals, so the rain is unable to fall. -
Usually, there is no precipitation at this stage.
Mature Stage: (Air Mass Storm) MUST KNOWWarmed air continues to rise until it reaches
existing air which is warmer, then the air can rise no further. This cap is often the tropopause. Air is
forced to spread out, giving it an anvil shape. Water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets
and freeze into ice particles. As they fall, they melt into rain. The cloud may have already reached a
height of 60,000’ and the updraft may be traveling at more than 6,000 feet/minute. While updrafts
are still present, falling rain also creates downdrafts. There will be strong downdrafts in areas of the
heaviest precipitation. The heavy rain cools and drags down the air with it, at speeds of up to 2000’
per minute.
Precipitation/turbulence/thunder/lightning are at their most intense. Turbulence is high due to the opposite rushing

40
air currents at the middle level. Updrafts continue to dominate the inner portions. Most of the downdrafts form on
the outside edges. Typically lasts fifteen minutes, but can last for an hour.
Dissipative Stage: As heavy precipitation falls through the cloud, the cloud cools, and then downdrafts dominate the
base of the cloud.
If atmospheric conditions do not support “supercell” or “squall” development, this stage occurs rather quickly.
The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground, and spread out, causing a microburst.
This cooling causes the cloud to lose energy and the rainfall gradually ceases. Cool air carried to the ground by the
downdrafts cuts off the inflow, so the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate.
Methods of Lift that create thunderstorms:
1. Orographic (Air Mass thunderstorm) – Form in mountains, created as air moves up a steep slope
2. Convection (Air Mass thunderstorm) – Rising hot air creates the energy source. Often seen on a summer
afternoon. Can even be triggered by wildfires.
3. Frontal – Created by frontal lift. Fast moving cold fronts can create energetic storms (known as Steady
State thunderstorms).
Squall Line: A line of thunderstorms moving in unison. Frequently found well ahead of a fast moving cold front.
Exercise extreme caution when close. Leading edge will be where updrafts and downdrafts are most severe. If you
have to pass through, penetrate the lightest areas.
Do not mistake a shelf cloud for a tornado. This happens commonly.
Lightning: Air has an electrical resistance. When the electric potential or difference is large enough to break down this
resistance, the electrons flow to the positive charge, forming lightning. There can be lightning from clouds to the air, to
the ground, or to other clouds. - The greatest likelihood of lightning hitting an aircraft is between -5oC and +5oC.
Lightning can strike an aircraft flying in clear air in the vicinity of a thunderstorm. - Lightning may or may not cause
problems if it hits an aircraft.
There is no useful correlation between the external visual appearance of a thunderstorm and the
severity or amount of turbulence or hail in it. The visible thunderstorm is just a portion of a
violent system of updrafts and downdrafts that often extend far beyond. Severe turbulence may
extend up to 20 NM from severe thunderstorms. No flight path through an area of strong or very
strong radar echoes that is separated by less than 40 NM can be considered to be free of severe
turbulence.
Engine Water Ingestion – The strength and velocity of updrafts in a thunderstorm are strong,
and heavy concentrations of water collect in clouds. This moisture may exceed the amount that a
turbine engine can ingest, and the engine can flame out, so turn on the igniters if you’re in a
turbine.
The pressure ahead of a thunderstorm falls rapidly, then rises abruptly after the rain starts.
Whenever possible, do not take off or land when a thunderstorm is approaching. They can have
gusts exceeding 50 KTS, and wind direction can reverse in seconds.
If flying over a thunderstorm, clear the top by at least 1000’ for each 10 knots of wind speed at
cloud top. Hurricane – A huge destructive cyclonic storm originating in tropical waters. Often
100 miles across.
Tornado: Rotating funnel shaped clouds linking the ground to a large thunderstorm. The funnel cloud does not become a
tornado until it touches down. Diameter is often only around thirty feet, but can be up to half a mile. Usually happens in
spring/summer. Average forward speed is 50 km/hr. wind speeds within the tornado can range from 65 km/hr to 450
km/hr. The path of destruction is usually three to four kilometers long.
Waterspouts – Funnel clouds that touch water, usually slightly less powerful than tornadoes. Put your airplane into a
hanger before a storm, if you have one!

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6.8 Surface Based layers
Fog is not associated with convection.
Dashed brown line on the weather chart is usually fog.
Fog formation requirements:
1. High humidity.
2. Condensation nuclei.
3. Very light surface winds.
4. A process to either cool or to add moisture, to get the condensation going.
A temperature to dew point spread of 3oC or less and dropping will probably lead to fog. Six fog types include radiation,
advection, upslope, frontal, steam, and ice.
KNOW THESE
Radiation fog: Formed by radiation cooling on clear nights where relative humidity is high and light winds are present.
Most likely to be present shortly after sunrise. KNOWTHIS
Advection fog: Formed by the horizontal movement of warm moist air over a cool surface. The thickest advection fog
will usually form at night with low winds. Common during winter warm-ups and early spring thaws. Typically dense and
can last for several days.
Upslope fog: Moist air moves up rising terrain. Easterly wind blowing across the plains can cause upslope fog.
Frontal fog: Precipitation from a warm front or cold front falls into colder air below it and ends up saturating it. More
typical with a warm front. Also known as precipitation fog.
Steam fog: Also known as arctic sea smoke. Typical over a lake/river/pond at sunset or sunrise. The process begins when
cold dry air blows over warm water. Water evaporates into the lower layers of the air, saturating it. As the excess water
vapor condenses, fog/mist forms.
Ice fog:
● Sometimes it forms when temperatures are significantly below zero.
● Often created by exhaust from engines or factories on cold winter days.

Topic 7; Weather Service

Naming conventions: Called Mist (BR) if visibility meets or exceeds 5/8ths mile. Called Fog (FG) if visibility is less than
5/8ths of a mile.
Haze - Forms on days with high temperatures and high humidity.
7.1 Aviation Weather Service
Each region in Canada has a FIC, eight in total: Whitehorse, Kamloops, Edmonton, Winnipeg, North Bay, London,
Quebec City, and Halifax. You usually contact a FIC by calling 1-866-WXBRIEF.
FSS’s are sub-locations that coordinate with the FIC. We normally contact them by radio while en route. They are
referred to as “Radio” and their service is Flight Information Services Enroute (FISE).
Sometimes, a FSS will be responsible for overseeing the control of a Class E control zone, and FISE will be done
by the nearest FIC via VHF repeater. Usually 122.5 or 123.XXX MHz.
Direct User Access Terminal (DUAT) – Can legally be used as the sole source of pre-flight planning info.
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) – A short, pre-recorded audio summary of the current weather at
an airport, which plays on constant repeat. Reduces radio congestion.
7.2 Aviation weather Reports
VOMET:
● Weather info via high frequency (shortwave).
● Used for North Atlantic crossings.
● Frequencies are found in the CFS.
PBS – Pilot Briefing Service
TWB – Transcribed Weather Broadcasts
CAVOK – Stands for Ceiling & Visibility OK. This means visibility is greater than or equal to 6 SM, ceiling is greater
than or equal to 5000’, and no cumulonimbus, precipitation, thunderstorms, fog, or drifting snow are present.
Understand the difference between current reports (METARs, AWOS, PIREPs) and forecasts (TAF’s and GFA’s).

42
Current reports are measurements, and forecasts are estimates.
METAR: MUST KNOW
● Winds are knots true.
● Cloud heights are AGL.
● Visibility is in SM.
● Times are in UTC/Zulu.
You must know how to decode a METAR, and know all of the abbreviations. Memorize them. METAR includes: The type
of report, airport identifier, date/time, wind direction and velocity, visibility, runway visual range, weather phenomena,
sky coverage, temperature/dew point, altimeter setting, remarks.
SPECI – Special METAR report
RVR – Runway Visual Range
The RVR is always followed with either /D or /U or /N to represent downward, upward, or no change.
An Automated Weather Observation Station (AWOS) is noted by AUTO in the METAR. Use these observations with
caution! Heavy rain or blowing snow can cause incorrect readings.
If filing a PIREP, go through these nine items in order:
1. Location and time. 6. Wind direction and speed.
2. Altitude. 7. Turbulence.
3. Aircraft type. 8. Icing.
4. Cloud (base, amount, top). 9. Remarks.
5. Temperature.
Mandatory PIREP codes:
UA: Normal PIREP.
UUA: Urgent PIREP.
/OV: Location of the PIREP, in relation to a NAVAID, an aerodrome, or geographical coordinates. /TM:
Time the PIREP was received from the pilot, in UTC.
/FL: Flight level, essential for turbulence and icing reports.
/TP: Aircraft type, essential for turbulence and icing reports.
Optional PIREP codes: (at least one is required)
/SK: Sky cover. Used to report the cloud layer amounts and the height of the cloud base. /TA:
Ambient temperature, important for icing reports.
/WV: Wind velocity referenced in terms of True north (magnetic north in US).
/TB: Turbulence intensity, whether it occurred in or near clouds, and duration.
/IC: Icing, reported by type and intensity or rate of accretion.
/RM: Remarks, any other weather conditions that are not covered already.
/WX: Flight visibility and weather.
Identifiers:
● 2 letters are NDB’s.
● 3 letters are VOR’s.
● 4 letters are airports.
● 5 letters are intersections.
You need to be able to completely decode all weather products for your written exam and flight test.
7.3 NOTAM
Notice To Airmen (NOTAM) – Contains info concerning “stuff that’s happening” which might affect pilots or normal
flight operations. Usually distributed at least five but no more than 48 hours in advance.
NOTAMs are tailored by locations and by who is affected. There are about 210 files (location indicators) for Canada.
NOTAM Categories:
● Aerodrome: Anything within 25 NM of an aerodrome.
● Flight Info Region: Of general interest throughout the FIR.
● National (CYHQ): Affects the entire country.

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Types of NOTAMS:
N – New.
C – Canceling.
R – Replacing.
J – Runway Surface Condition Report.
Q – Query or Response NOTAM.
The reason why the RSC report is identified by a J is because it stands for the James Brake Index. Always check the
NOTAMS!
7.4 Graphical Area Forecast
Graphical Area Forecast (GFA): Clouds and weather. Icing, freezing, and turbulence levels. Two sets of maps. Depicts
the most probable meteorological conditions expected to occur below the 400 Mb or 24,000’ level. Designed to meet en
route weather forecasting and pre-flight planning requirements of general aviation and regional air carriers. Issued four
times daily, about half an hour before the beginning of the forecast period. Valid for six hour periods starting 0000, 0600,
1200, and 1800 UTC. Seven different coverage regions.
What is included in the GFA: Six charts total for each six hour issue. Three for clouds and weather (CLDS/WX). Three
for turbulence and freezing level conditions (ICG/TURBO/FRIV). For each of these sets of three, a near term forecast, a
6hr forecast, and a 12hr forecast are depicted individually. Note that the 12hr CLDS/WX chart also includes an IFR
outlook for an additional 12-hour period, so it’s good for 24 hours. Speeds are in knots, and heights are ASL. Horizontal
visibility is in SM.
Times are UTC/Zulu. You will be asked to interpret a GFA on your exam. The scale on the map is in NM. Memorize all
of the standard abbreviations that are found in the AIM meteorology section.
Category Ceiling Visibility:
● IFR: Less than 1000’ AGL, and less than 3 SM visibility.
● MVFR: 1000’ to 3000’ AGL, and 3 to 5 SM visibility.
● VFR: Greater than 3000’ AGL, and greater than 5 SM visibility.
Synoptic Features – Weather features that are generally at least a thousand kilometers across, ie. very large. Planetary
features are larger, and mesoscale features are smaller.
Mesoscale Levels:
1. Mesoscale Alpha: From 1000 km across down to 200 km.
2. Mesoscale Beta: From 200 km across down to 20 km.
3. Mesoscale Gamma: From 20 km across down to 2km.
If a synoptic feature is forecast to be moving at five knots or faster, there will be an arrow and a speed value. For speeds
of less than 5 KTS, use the letters QS for quasi-stationary.
Clouds on GFA: Bases and tops between the surface and 24,000’ are indicated. The tops of convective clouds (TCU,
ACC, CB) are indicated even if they extend above 24,000’ ASL.Cirrus clouds are not depicted. Cloud types will be
indicated if considered significant. A scalloped border indicates a ceiling where the sky is BKN or OVC. If the visibility
is greater than 6 SM, and the sky is SKC/FEW/SCT, then a scalloped border is not used. - When multiple layers are
forecast, the amount of cloud at each layer is based on the amount at that level, not overall. Bases and tops of each layer
are indicated. CIG stands for Ceiling, and implies AGL. Visibility of greater than 6 SM is listed as P6SM. A dashed green
boundary with an interior of solid slanted bars is used to enclose areas of intermittent or showery precipitation. A solid
green line with a dotted interior is used to enclose areas of continuous precipitation.
Convective storm clouds:
ISOLD – Isolated – less than 25%.
SCT – Scattered – 25% to 50%.
NMRS – Numerous – Greater than 50%.
Surface Based Layer:
● Referred to as OBSCD.
● Fog or Mist.
● VV into surface based layers is AGL.

44
Obstructions to Vision (enclosed within a dashed orange line):
LCL – Local – Less than 25%.
PTCHY – Patchy – 25% to 50%.
XTNSV – Extensive – Greater than 50%.
Wind barbs: Used if the sustained speed is 20 KTS or more. Show speed and direction. The “feathers” on the barb
correlate to the numerical wind speed. G stands for gusting. Uses true wind direction.
Icing on Charts: Icing is depicted in blue whenever moderate or severe icing is forecast. Areas of light icing are described
in the comments box.
Turbulence on Charts: Depicted in red. Depicted whenever moderate or severe turbulence is forecast. The base and top
of each layer are shown. If turbulence is due to any of the following five conditions, the cause will be identified with the
appropriate abbreviation: MECH (mechanical), LLWS (low level wind shear), LEE WV (mountain wave), LLJ (low level
jet), and CAT (clear air turbulence).
Freezing level:
Contours are abbreviated by dashed lines. Height is measured ASL. Contour lines are at 2500’ ASL levels, starting at the
surface.
GFA Amendments:
Automatically amended by AIRMET’s. Happens if there are significant deviations from the forecast. The GFA is
automatically amended by SIGMET bulletins, even though that is not explicitly stated in the SIGMET itself. A chart will
be reissued with comments if necessary.
AIRMET – Airman’s Meteorological Event.
SIGMET – Significant Meteorological Event.
7.5 Aviation weather forecast
Look at the GFA first, then the TAF, then the METAR. This lets you look at the big picture first, then a five mile region,
then a point analysis.
Terminal Area Forecast (TAF):
Weather expected within 5 NM of the airport. Cloud heights are AGL. Wind degrees are true. Typically issued 4 times
daily, for either 12, 24, or 30 hour periods. To add a forecast for low-level non-convective wind shear, an example is:
WS018/34045KT, which means that the surface to 1800’ AGL has shear, and at 1800’ the wind is 340 o True at 45 knots.
Wind shear below 1500’ AGL, if expected to be significant, is always included in the TAF.
Sky Cover in a TAF:
● Cloud layers forecast as per METAR.
● Only CB will be specifically identified in the forecast.
For a TEMPO notation, in order to be legal, the forecast “temporary” conditions cannot be expected to last more than
50% of the total duration of the TEMPO, and none of the intermittent occurrences can last for more than one hour.
FM – From, permanent change.
BECM – Becoming, permanent but gradual change.
PROB XX – Probability of XX%. Must be less than 50%.
Remarks on TAF:
● RMK then details.
● Unique to Canadian TAF’s.
Upper Winds and Temperatures: Referred to as the FD charts. Forecasts of wind direction and velocity, as well as
expected air temperatures at specific heights. - Forecasts are prepared every twelve hours. It is rare that these forecasts are
completely accurate. In flight, be prepared to use your ten degree drift lines. Wind direction is True, the speeds are in
KTS. Code of 9900 stands for light and variable winds, no wind corrections are required for the Nav Log. - Unlike many
other areas, a code of a minus sign does mean below zero degrees. If all temps are below 0o at higher levels, then the
minus sign will be omitted, so you have to look at other parts of the chart to verify. Field elevations above 1500’ will not
report a 3000’ FD. Temps are not reported on a 3000’ FD. Different format: ie. 1921+14 means wind direction 190 o,
speed 21 knots, temperature +14oC. - If the wind direction is between 51 and 86, subtract 50 to get the wind track, and
also add 100 knots to the wind speed. For example, 731960 means 230oT because (73-50)=23, x10=230, and wind speed
is 119 knots, and the temperature is minus sixty.
Airman’s Meteorological Advisory (AIRMET) - Short term weather advisory, designed to highlight weather that is

45
 not described in the current GFA. Can be issued for:
● Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). ● Moderate turbulence.
● Freezing precipitation (unless it is in a ● Isolated thunderstorms.
SIGMET). ● Wind varies by greater than 60o direction from
● Moderate icing. forecast.
SIGMETS are more severe, and might be issued for severe thunderstorms, squall line, hail, volcanic ash, hurricanes,
tornadoes, severe icing, marked mountain waves, widespread sand or dust storms, and low level wind shear.
In-flight SIGMETS will be broadcast on 126.7 MHz, and you can get more info on the FISE frequency. Weather Charts:
Surface charts and upper level charts (constant pressure charts). Most charts have pressures reduced to sea level. The
upper level charts do not. They are very different!
Surface Analysis Charts: Actual observed information.
Surface Prognostic Charts: Forecast info.
Surface Analysis Charts:
Actual weather as observed from the surface to 3000’ AGL. Information can be a few hours old since it can take up to
three hours to create a map. - Info is based on observations taken at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z. Allows you to see how the
weather has been developing over time. Most symbols are the same as the ones used in the GFA. Black location dot is
overcast. Barbs on a wind flag are 10 knots for each long barb, and less for shorter barbs. Wind always veers at the front.
7.6 Weather maps and Prognostic chart
Surface Prognostic Chart:
● Looks similar to the SAC. Don’t confuse them! Check the title.
● Issued 48 and 36 hours before the standard validity times of 00Z and 12Z.
Upper Level Charts:
Issued by the weather office at 00Z and 12Z. Can give us a 3D view of the weather. Analysis, not prognostic! Levels used
(standard) are 850 mB, 700 mB, 500 mB, and 250 mB. If you’re doing commercial or ATPL, you might use a fifth chart,
the 400 mB. There are also two prognostic charts: the Significant Weather Prognostic chart and the Significant Weather
Prognostic High Level chart (there are actually more, but these are the two commonly used in Canada).
When we are looking at a constant pressure chart, we are actually looking at the height of the air for a given pressure at
a given location.
Average altitudes for these pressure levels:
850 mB – 5,000’ ASL – 150 dM (decameters)
700 mB – 10,000’ ASL – 300 dM
500 mB – 18,000’ ASL – 570 dM
250 mB – 34,000’ ASL – 1050 dM
An airplane that is flying through different temperature columns of air up in the Flight Levels will have its True altitude
constantly changing. This does not matter! All the other airplanes will have their altimeters set to 29.92, and they will
also rise and fall with the changes.
Contour Lines – Lines connecting similar heights (of air pressure levels). Therefore, lines on a CPC are not isobars!
The whole horizontal plane of the map is an isobar, except in two dimensions as a layer, not as a single line. It is still
important to note that tightly packed contour lines are still indicators of high wind speeds.
7.7 Satellite Imagery
Satellite imagery is a good complement to (not a replacement for) other information.
Geostationary Satellites:
● Placed in orbit above the equator at an altitude of about 36,000 kms.
● The satellite’s motion through space matches the pace of the earth’s rotation.
● An observer on the ground sees the satellite as motionless in relation to the stars and earth behind. - The satellite
still completes one rotation of the earth per day.
The National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) uses three geostationary satellites for imagery: GOES
West, East, and South. These normally each see one half of the earth, a disc which depends on their orbital parking
spot. They produce a full image every thirty minutes, although they can be tasked to “rapidly scan” smaller areas

46
more quickly. However, because they are in orbit over the equator, they don’t provide accurate information at latitudes
over 60oN.
Polar Orbiting Satellites: Orbit at an altitude of about 850km. They complete an orbit every 105 minutes, or 14
times/day. Because the earth rotates beneath them, they “appear” to move west by about two time zones per orbit.
Over any given time zone, there are about two passes per day, which averages to about one pass per day during visual
daylight hours. Currently, there are two NOAA satellites working, one on each side of the planet. Together, they
provide images once every six hours.
They can provide images at very high resolution since they’re so low.
Image types can be visible or IR. Depending on the wavelengths used, IR can tell us surface temps, cloud top temps, or
moisture content of the atmosphere. For white temperature labels, the coldest temperatures are bright whites. On color
temperature labels, green/purple are warm and down to orange/yellow/red are very cold. These are the Environment
Canada standard colors.
For visible satellite images, they use a white albedo style. IR images use a temperature scale.
Infrared Images: Fog, which can be quite shallow, can be hard to pick out if it is the same temperature as the ground
below it. In an inversion, where temperatures aloft can be even higher than the ground, clouds can even appear as dark
objects. The typical resolution on IR images is about 4 km at the equator and deteriorates further north, especially past
60o latitude.
Visible Images: Need to be taken during daylight hours. Appearance changes throughout the day as the angle of
incident light changes. - Clouds are generally defined better than on IR. Banks of fog and large cumuliform clouds
are easy to see. Resolutions are around 2 km at the equator and deteriorate further north, especially past 60o
latitude.
Water Vapor Imagery: Starting to become more common. Does not tell us where clouds are, but does tell us
where there is a lot of moisture in the air. - Areas of high moisture content will be bright white, while areas that
are relatively dry will be a dark shade, or black.

Topic 8; Navigation 1; flight training

8.1 Definitions
Meridian – Semi circles that run from north to south and join at the Earth’s true poles. A meridian is half of a great
circle by covering 180 º each but one will be west and the other one will be the east.
Prime Meridian – Zero degrees longitude, passes through Greenwich. The international date line is located at 180 º of
longitude opposite to the prime meridian
Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels)
The Equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the poles of the Earth. Circles parallel to the Equator (lines running
east and west)are parallels of latitude. They are used to measure degrees of latitude north or south of the Equator. The
angular distance from the Equator to the pole is one-fourth of a circle or 90°. The 48 conterminous states of the United
States are located between 25° and 49° N. latitude. The arrows in figure 8-2 labeled “LATITUDE” point to lines of
latitude.
Longitude - There are 60 minutes to a º and 60 seconds to a minute. Remember that these are angular measures, NOT
times, that said one hour of time is also equal to 15 º of longitude, the earth rotates 15 º in an hour, one time zero.
Latitude - 1 minute latitude is equal to 1 NM, 60 minutes latitude equals 1 degree , 60 seconds equal 1 minute of
latitude
Vertical meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the Equator.
The “Prime Meridian” which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero line from which measurements are
made in degrees east and west to 180°. The Prime Meridian is located at Greenwich because that is the location of the
British Naval Academy that invented longitude and latitude for navigation. The arrows in figure 8-2 labeled
“LONGITUDE” point to parallel lines of longitude. Any specific geographical point can
thus be located by reference to its longitude and latitude. Toronto, for example, is approximately 44° N. latitude, 79° W.
longitude. Winnipeg, is approximately 50° N. latitude, 97° W. Longitude.
The difference between latitude and longitude;
● Latitude is not the same as longitude turned over 90 º

47
 ● Longitude measured from prime meridian an axis that passes through the true poles. Latitude measure from the
equator based on the center of earth
● Meridian of longitude converge at the pole, lines of latitude never converge which is why they are parallel
● Minutes of latitude equal 1 NM, minutes of longitude don't have a constant length
International Date Line – Located at 180o longitude, opposite the prime meridian. This is where the date changes.
● One hour (of time) is equivalent to 15o of longitude in rotation.
The equator, at 0o latitude, is both a great circle and a rhumb line.
Azimuth – An angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. The vector from an observer (origin) to a point of
interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle between the projected vector and a reference
vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth. An example is the position of a star in the sky. The star is the point of
interest, the reference plane is the horizon or the surface of the sea, and the reference vector points north. The azimuth is
the angle between the north vector and the
perpendicular projection of the star down onto the horizon.
Great Circle – Any circle that cuts a sphere (such as the Earth) in half. A great circle represents the shortest distance
between two points.
Small Circle – Any circle slicing a sphere that isn’t a great circle.
A great circle does not cross meridians of longitude at a constant angle, so an aircraft’s heading must be changed
frequently to follow a track that is a great circle.
Rhumb Lines:
A curved line on the earth that cuts all meridians through which it passes at the same angle. All parallels of
latitude (including the equator) are rhumb lines. They offer navigators the advantage of following a constant
heading, with the disadvantage of not being the shortest distance between two points.
Magnetic Variation (declination) – The angle between magnetic meridians and true meridians.
To convert True to Magnetic, you subtract easterly variation (east is least, west is best). This is what you will do for
your navigation log. You might have to go in the opposite direction (M to T) on the written exam. KNOW THIS
Isogonic Lines – Represent constant magnetic variation. Dashed on a map. They can occasionally have minor bends,
due to local disturbances (ie. lots of iron ore in an area).
Agonic Line – The line of 0o variation. There is one in each of the eastern and western hemispheres.
Magnetic Deviation – Induced by metal and radio equipment in the aircraft the angle through which the compass needle
is deflected from the magnetic meridian is called deviation. KNOW THIS
Swinging the Compass – When a compass is fitted with correction magnets that are adjusted to correct the deviation.
Compass Deviation Card – Notates results after someone “swings the aircraft.” The same “east is least, west is best”
applies to deviation.
Track:
● A straight line as it has been drawn on a flat map (well, depending on the projection used on the map).
● Tracks are typically True, on the VNC and VTA charts.
● Be aware that a Lo chart compensates for variance, so the track will be magnetic. - A second definition is
possible: a track can also be described as the path that the aircraft travels across the ground.
● A GPS can be set to either true or magnetic, but true is typical.
Heading:
● The direction that the aircraft’s nose is pointed in.
● In a navigation log, you usually start out as true, then correct to magnetic (by correcting for variation).
● The heading can be substantially different from the track, depending on wind speed and direction. True airspeed
must be calculated based on positional error, altitude, and temperature. Ground speed must be calculated based
on wind speed and direction.
Bearing – An object’s position as measured clockwise from a meridian.
Drift – When the wind blows from the side and causes an aircraft to move away from its intended track.
Air Position – The theoretical position of an aircraft or missile at a given moment, assuming it to have been
unaffected in flight by wind. Also known as a no-wind position. KNOW THIS

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8.2 Aeronautical Chart
Types of charts include: VNC, VTA, CFS, WAS, DASH, LO, HI, and CAP.
VFR Navigation Chart (VNC):
This is the VFR chart for low to medium altitudes, the most important en route chart for small GA aircraft. Easiest
to navigate at altitudes of up to around 7500’ AGL. Created by Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. Lines drawn
on this map are great circles. Scale is 1:500,000, or one inch equals 8 SM. VNC are usually updated approximately
once every two years, whenever significant updates are needed. Straight lines drawn on the map are great circles
KNOW THIS
VFR Terminal Area (VTA):
This is the VFR chart for low altitudes, the most important “close to aerodrome” chart for small GA aircraft
operating out of airports that are large enough to have such a chart. Created by Mercator Transverse Projection. A line
drawn on these charts will be a rhumb line. Scale is 1:250,000, so one inch equals 4 SM. Valid times are based on
changes. This chart is updated approximately every two years, based on whenever significant updates are needed.
There are VTA charts for Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver, Winnipeg, and half a dozen other
airports.
Standard Parallel:
● The line of latitude in a conic or cylindrical projection in a normal aspect where the projection surface touches
the globe.
● The projection shows no distortion at the standard parallel (which visualizes as a ring through a flat map).
● It is possible for a standard parallel to touch the surface of the cone once (tangent conic) or twice (secant conic).
Lambert Conformal Conical projection:
● A conic map projection used for aeronautical charts.
● Used on VNC charts.
Transverse Mercator projection:
● A cylindrical map projection which is the standard for nautical navigation because of its ability to represent
lines of constant course (rhumb lines) as straight segments that conserve the angle with the meridians.
● On a world map, the areas at the poles are extremely distorted.
● Used for VTA charts.
Verification Order for charts:
● Make sure the VNC/VTA charts are valid.
● Next, check the “Flight Planning” section in the CFS.
● Finally, check the NOTAM’s.
● The updating sequence is NOTAM 🡪 CFS 🡪 VNC/VTA.
Lo & High charts:
For IFR. Below 18,000’ is Lo, and at/above 18,000’ is High. Uses lambert conformal conic projection (great circles).The
scale varies from chart to chart. Depict radio aids, airports, and other points of interest to aviation, but no topographical
features. Valid for 56 days, dates of validity on the front page. Ten different coverage areas for Lo charts. Six different
coverage areas for High charts. Charts are smaller in areas of high population and aviation density.
Canada Flight Supplement (CFS):
● Joint civil/military publication.
● Information about all Canadian and North Atlantic registered and certified aerodromes. - Revised and updated
every 56 days.
● includes a general section, aerodrome directory, flight planning, radio navigation and communications, military,
and emergency.
Canada Air Pilot (CAP):
● Amended and republished every 56 days.
● For IFR: Standard instrument approach procedures, and noise abatement procedures. -
Contains SID’s and STAR’s.
● Different versions for each region. Seven volumes in total, plus CAP GEN which has general
pages for all volumes, plus a French version for Quebec.

49
Water Aerodrome Supplement (WAS):
● Has a directory of all aerodromes shown on VFR charts.
● Revised and reissued annually.
Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH):
● Lists all the airspace and classes in Canada.
● Not well known, but very valuable.
● Contains contact info for CYA’s and CYR’s.
8.3 Map Legends
For the exam, know your chart legends:
● VFR charts: VNC and VTA.
● IFR charts: High and Lo.
● CFS.
The Longest Runway Distance (LRD) is listed to the nearest one hundred feet, but the split for rounding up or down is
not in the middle, in order to be conservative in a safety sense. It is actually at the 69.5 foot mark of each hundred feet of
runway. For example, LRD 53 means a runway length between 5270 and 5369 feet in length.
PNR – Prior Notice Required
PPR – Prior Permission Required
CYD – Airspace, Dangerous
Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF):
● Large digit is thousands of feet, a small number is hundreds.
● Feet ASL, rounded up to the nearest 100 for safety.
● Denotes height of the highest feature in each quadrangle, including terrain and obstructions.
Hypsometric Tints – Shadings that illustrate approximate elevations on a chart. The scale will show the highest point,
obstacle or terrain in feet.
Non-Perennial Lake – May be dry at certain times of the year, similar to an ephemeral stream.
8.4 Canada Flight Supplement
CFS Sections:
● General Section: Legends for VNC/VTA/VTPC charts, explanation of the A&F directory.
● Aerodrome & Facility Directory: Alphabetical listing with comprehensive facility information about all
registered land aerodromes in Canada.
● Planning Section: This is a how-to guide for flight plans/itineraries, position reports, PIREP’s, equipment code
list, transponder operation information, airspace summary, cruising altitude order, weather minima, Koch chart,
VFR chart updates.
● Radio Navigation/Communications: Info about various navigation and communication aids. - Military Flight
Data & Procedures: Info for military.
● Emergency Section: Transponder codes, light signals, ELT use, communications failure, intercept procedures.
8.5 Time and Longitude
Obstacle Clearance Circle:
● Lists the highest obstacle altitude above sea level and 1000’ rounded up to the nearest 100’
increment.
● The radius of the area of the control zone is specified on the outer ring of the OCC. Midnight can be
2400 on the 24hr system.
● 12 AM = 2400 or 0000
● 6 AM = 0600
● 12 PM = 1200
● 6 PM = 1800
Isf “PM” add 12 hours to the time, if “AM” and before 10 A< them add a 0 before the time
Mean Solar Day – The interval between two successive passes of the sun over a given meridian of longitude.
The terms longitude and mean time are interchangeable:

50
 ● One Time Zone = One Hour of the Earth’s rotation = 15o of Longitude.
● One minute of the Earth’s rotation = 15’ longitude.
● One second of the Earth’s rotation = 15” longitude.
Local Mean Time (LMT) – The specific time at a particular meridian. Someone even ten feet away will have a different
LMT (unless they are N/S on the same meridian).
True Track – The number of degrees between the direction of flight and True North, as measured clockwise from a
longitude line. Also known as True Course (TC).
Time zones - all meridiam within a specific 15 º arc of longitude would be considered to be in the same zone of time. A
standard time zone is 15 º wide MUST KNOW
Conversion of UTC to local and vice Versa;
It also happened to be the local mean time at the prime meridian in Greenwich, england.
● From EST to UTC add 5 hours
● Frome CST to UTC add 6 hours
● From MST to UTC add 7 hours
● From PST to UTC add 8 hours
East of the prime meridian are ahead of UTV, set ahead one hour. West of the prime meridian are behind UTC, turn back
one hour every time zone crossed
Civil Twilight - morning the center of the sun disc is 6 º below the horizon and is ascending, and ends at sunrise
approximately 25 mins later. MUST KNOW evenings begin at sunset, ending when the center of the sun's disc is 6 º
below the horizon and descending approximately 25 mins later. MUST KNOW
Nautical twilight occurs geometrical center of the sun between 6 º and 12 º below the horizon
Astronomical Twilight occur when the sun is between 12 º and 18 º below the horizon
The length of the twilight depends on the latitude; equatorial and tropical regions tend to have shorter lengths of twilight
than locations at higher latitude.
Morning and Evening Twilight Chart;
1. Start at the top or bottom of the scale with the appropriate date and move vertically down or up tp the curve of
the observer's latitude
2. From the intersection move horizontally and read the local time
3. To find the exact zone or standard time, ADD 4 minutes for each degree west of the standard meridian, or
SUBTRACT 4 minutes for each degree west of standard meridian.
4. The standard meridian in canada are; AST-60W; EST-75W; CST-90W; MST-105W; PST-120W MUST
KNOW8
8.6 Pilot Navigation
Three ways to depart on a cross country:
1. Overhead departure.
2. Set heading.
3. Direct method.
Set Heading Point:
Use a point other than the airport. Useful because you can’t always predict traffic and active runways. Gives us the time
and distance we may need to get completely organized. Pick a point along the track within 15 miles of departure.
Direct Method:
Pilot turns to the heading and goes. Preferred departure method for commercial students. Assume this method for all
calculations on the written exam.
Overhead Method:
Climb to cruise altitude while circling over the departure aerodrome, then set appropriate heading while crossing over
the airport.
Check Points:
Before takeoff, study the map and circle/mark a log of prominent landmarks that can help pinpoint position. Set up
checkpoints for ground speed checks. Note distances between checkpoints and also remaining distance to destination.
Using Position Lines to obtain a fix:
1. Visualize drawing a line through the center of the heading indicator to the landmarks.

51
 2. Draw these heading lines on a map from the checkpoints.
3. Where these lines cross is your position.
Ground Speed Checks:
1. Before takeoff, find two prominent checkpoints and measure the distance between them.
2. While in flight, use a stopwatch to get the time between the two checkpoints. Be sure to use the minutes
and seconds to be as accurate as possible.
3. Divide the time by distance to get a revised ground speed.
4. Use ground speed to calculate the remaining time.
Variation - is the difference true north and magnetic north, this is found by looking for the isogonal lines on the map
MUST KNOW
Deviation - is the compass error caused by an aircraft.
True Track: Apply wind speed to get True Heading.
True Heading: Correction for variation to get Magnetic Heading, then for deviation to get Compass Heading.
A heading is something that we have corrected for the wind. A track/course is something that has NOT been corrected
for winds.
Always go from True to Magnetic to Compass, whether you are working with tracks or headings: True Track - Magnetic
Track - Compass Track
True Heading - Magnetic Heading - Compass Heading.
For cruising altitudes, you fly the compass heading, but for picking your altitude, you need to use a magnetic track.
WCA – Wind Correction Angle.
The Double Cross Chart, which looks similar to a tic-tac-toe board, is an effective way of figuring out
true/magnetic/compass tracks and headings.
Determining Drift with ten degree lines:
● It is a good idea to draw two lines from both the point of departure and the destination at a 10o angle on
either side of the track.
● This practice is very helpful in correcting for wind drift.
● They correct for upper winds, which cannot always be forecast accurately.
Diversion to an alternate aerodrome:
You need to be able to quickly estimate a new heading towards a new destination. Calculating magnetic heading,
distance to be traveled, and new estimated arrival time all require the same fundamental operations that were used before
the flight. Due to space/time limitations (and flying), the pilot must simplify the calculations. To draw the selected route
while in flight, do a rough freehand. The magnetic track can be calculated by using a compass rose from a VOR. The
distance may be calculated by latitude lines or by the 10-mile ticks along the original track. - If you have to divert, make
a decision to do it ASAP. Your decision may be influenced by fuel, convenience, or easiest navigation. Safety must be a
priority. Choose carefully when visibility is reduced or when a ceiling makes low altitude navigation necessary.
Reciprocal Track Diversion:
● Essentially, turn around and go back.
● A standard rate turn will take sixty seconds to do a 180o turn.
● Remember to apply your wind correction in the opposite direction!
Low level navigation:
● Watch out for power lines, towers, and terrain.
● Keep a finger on the map.
● Fly and trust a constant heading.
Deduced/Dead Reckoning:
● Once you know what you’re supposed to be tracking across the ground, look at it and go. - Used a lot
in aviation’s early days, before charts or electronic navigation aids were available.
● Based on time, direction, distance only.
● Pilots must know magnetic heading, distance, and rough winds.
● Write down times for each checkpoint passed.
● A calculate position with due allowance for possible win effect MUST KNOW
MUST KNOW THESE

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IAS – Read off the instrument.
CAS – Corrected for instrument/position errors.
TAS – Corrected for temperature/pressure (there is a chart in the POH).
8.7 1:60 Rule
One In Sixty Rule – If you fly one degree off course for 60 NM, then you end up 1 NM off course.
Opening Angle (OA) = (Distance off course / Distance flown) x 60. KNOW THIS
Closing Angle (CA) = (Distance off course / Distance remaining) x 60.
Total Course Correction = OA + CA
Three methods of getting back on track:
Visual Alteration Method:
● Just fly whatever heading you feel like until you are at a point over your original intended track. At that
point, start flying again but include a correction that will offset the angle error you originally noticed.
Double Track Error:
● You must be good at timekeeping. Must write down your departure time.
● Take your angle error, double it, and fly that new heading for the same amount of time as your departure to the
start of the correction. This will put you back on track.
● Cut your course correction in half at this point. KNOW THESE
1. Estimate the number of º that you are off course
2. Double the amount of degrees you are off course and then correct the heading by this amount
back towards the desire track
- If you to the left, subtract
- If you to the right, add
3. Fly this new heading by the same amount of time that it took to get off track, then you should be
back on track.
4. Once you regain track, reduce the heading change by half or by the amount that you had drifted
off
Opening and Closing Angle:
● Works anywhere along the track.
● Will not re-intercept the track, as the new heading sends you directly to the destination.
● This is the one-in-sixty rule in disguise.
Instead our new heading sends us directly to our destinations MUST KNOW
8.8 Triangle of velocity
Pilotage – Flying to a destination by hedge shopping or sightseeing, ie. visual landmark references.
Air Position: KNOW THIS
● The location of the aircraft after a period of time based only on the course (track) and TAS. - Would
be the same position as a no-wind, so ignore the effects of wind.
Solving for a course with winds:
● Using a wind triangle.
● E6B calculations.
● Flight computer.
Wind Triangle:
● Air Vector: Heading and TAS, dead reckoning position.
● Wind Vector: Wind velocity and direction, the fix.
● Ground Vector: Track and ground speed, air position.
Components of a wind Triangle;
● True track ( course) and ground speed
● Wind direction and wind speed
● True heading and true airspeed

Rule of thumb;

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Time, Distance and Ground Speed Formulas: ● To Find ETE Using Minutes per Nautical Mile:
Where: D = Distance Example: Distance on chart = 20 NM
GS = Ground Speed TAS = 100 knots
T = Time Minute/NM = .6
● To Find Distance: D = GS x T 20 x .6 = 12 minutes
Example: GS = 90 knots ● One finger equals approximately 5 NM on the
T = 30 minutes (.5 hours) Sectional Aeronautical Chart.
D = 90 x .5 = 45 NM To quickly estimate time to a point on the chart, count
● To Find Time: T = D/GS the number of fingers, then use Minutes/NM.
Example: D = 30 NM Example: Distance on chart = 4 fingers (20 NM)
GS = 100 knots TAS = 100 kts
T = 30/100 Minutes/NM = .6
T = .3 Hours .6 x 20 NM = 12 minutes ETE
(.1 hour = 6 minutes) ● To Determine Fuel Burn (Gallons Per Hour):
.3 x 6 minutes = 18 minutes Gallons Per Hour = Gallons used / Hours Flown
● To Find Ground Speed: GS = D/T Example: Duration of Flight = 2 hours
Example: D = 50 NM Gallons Used = 18 gallons
T = 25 minutes 18/2 = 9 gallons per hour
GS = 50/25 = 2 NM per minute It is a good idea to check the actual fuel burn of the
2 NM per minute x 60 minutes = aircraft you are flying and compare it with the AFM!
120 NM per hour ● To Determine Aircraft Endurance:
● Nautical Miles Per Minute (NM/Minute): Endurance = Usable Fuel / Fuel Burn
NM/Minute = True Airspeed/60 Example: Usable Fuel = 40 gallons
Example: TAS = 120 KTS Fuel Burn = 8 gallons per hour
120/60 = 2 NM per Minute 40/8 = 5 hours endurance (no reserve)
● To quickly determine NM per minute, round ● To Determine Time Remaining:
your airspeed to the nearest 10, drop the zero Time Remaining = Fuel remaining / Fuel Burn
and divide by 6. Example: Fuel Remaining = 24 gallons
Example: TAS = 178 KTS ≈ 180 KTS Fuel Burn = 8 GPH
Drop the zero and divide by 6: 24/8 = 3 hours remaining
18/6 = 3 NM per minute ● To Calculate NM Per Gallon:
● To Find Distance Using NM Per Minute: NM/Gallon = NM Flown / Gallons used
Example: Time since last checkpoint = 12 min Example: Distance Flown = 200 NM
TAS (no wind) = 180 knots Gallons Used = 25
NM per minute = 3 MPG = 200/25 = 8 NM per gallon
12 minutes x 3 = 36 NM ● To Determine Fuel Required:Fuel Required =
● Minutes per Nautical Mile: Time En route x Fuel Burn
Minutes per NM=60/TAS Example: Time En route = 2 hours
Example: TAS = 100 kts Fuel Burn = 8 gallons per hour
Minutes/NM = 60/100 = .6 8 x 2 = 16 gallons required (plus reserves)

Topic 9; Navigation pt. 2; Practical Navigation

9.1 Navigations Computer E6B
Using the E6B:
● Front Outer scale: Miles traveled, miles per hour, gallons used, gallons/hour, true airspeed.

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 ● Front Middle scale: Time in minutes, indicated airspeed in mph or knots.
● Front Inner scale: Time.
● Numbers on the outer and middle scales can have their decimal places shifted. This cannot be done
with the inner scale (time).
● The black triangle on the middle scale represents one hour.
Time/Distance/Speed Calculations - To figure out time to travel a certain distance, line the black triangle on
the speed in knots, and under the corresponding number of nautical miles you’ll see the number of minutes
required. You can also do this with mph and statute miles.
Short Time & Distance – Use the small arrow at 36 (says “seconds”) to represent our pointer. The middle scale is then
represented by seconds instead of minutes. The inner scale is then represented by minutes instead of hours.
Fuel Consumption – Same as time and distance, just replace mph with gallons per hour, and miles with gallons.
Density Altitude – To figure out the true airspeed, you must know the pressure altitude, the temperature you’re flying
at, and the indicated airspeed. Use the right windows, line up the CAS (from the IAS) on the middle scale, and you’ll
see TAS on the outer scale. Density altitude can then be seen in the labeled window.
For True Altitude – Use the air temperature and pressure altitude in the left window. The outer scale will read the true
altitude and the inner scale will read the calibrated altitude.
Distance Conversion – This is quite simple, and is done entirely on the outer scale. There are arrows for nautical
miles, statute miles, and kilometers.
Correcting for Drift – See the E6B manual, or read the instructions printed on the E6B. On the back side of the E6B, the
inner wheel is the spinning azimuth, and the outer wheel is the true index.
E6B Flight Computer:
● Outer front ring: Speed & distance.
● Middle front ring: Minutes.
● Inner front ring: Hours.
● Left window: Air temperature.
● Right window: Density altitude (inner) and Pressure altitude (outer).
● Black “10” square: Unit index.
● Black “60” triangle: Speed index.
Changing values – You need to carefully watch the changing values of the numerical graduations. The decimal point can
be free floating.
The Calculator Site lets you calculate time & distance, short time & distance, fuel consumption, true airspeed, true
altitude, density altitude, and simple multiplication and division.
For short time and distance, remember to use the 36 “seconds” marker instead of the black triangle.
On the Wind side of the E6B:
● The center point represents the ground speed.
● The outer ring is the True Index.
● The inner ring is the Rotating Azimuth.
Sliding Grid:
● Represents part of a large graduated circle.
● Lines projecting from the center of the grid and radiating outward represent degrees right or left of the
centerline.
● Lines that form the arcs around the center of the circle represent the distance from the center and are labeled in
miles.
To determine the total effect of wind on a flight, the true course, true airspeed, and wind velocity must be known.
Altitudes:
● Pressure Altitude: What the altimeter reads when set to 29.92 and is correct for standard
atmosphere.
● Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for temperature. This number tells us how the aircraft
will perform.
- True Altitude: Corrected for temperature compression errors. This number tells us how high we are.
Airspeeds:

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 1. Indicated: What you see on the dial.
2. Calibrated: Corrected for position errors.
3. True: Corrected for temperature and altitude.
EET – Estimated Elapsed Time
ETE – Estimated Time Enroute
ETA – Estimated Time of Arrival
9.2 Pre- flight Preparation
Factors affecting the choice of route:
● Planning on the ground is better than doing it in the air.
● The most direct route is not always the best.
● You may need to go around water, high ground, or restricted areas.
● Weather and safety are major concerns.
● Remember that the cruising altitude orders start at 3000’ AGL.
● Make sure you have current charts.
Map Preparation:
● Don’t block out important underlying details.
● Don’t use red lines if flying at night.
● Include 10o drift lines (from both directions if your trip will include a return component). - Mark interval
indicators at maybe five or ten mile intervals.
● Include check points for both navigation and foreground speed checks (should be within about 50 NM or thirty
minutes flight time in a small GA aircraft).
Do weight and balance reports for both takeoff and landing.
Commercial aircraft must have an approved Minimum Equipment List (MEL) in place.
Snag – A problem found with the aircraft, which gets recorded in the log book. The aircraft needs to remain
grounded until the snag is deferred or rectified by an AME.
Conversions:
1 US gallon = 3.78 liters
1 NM = 1.15 SM
1 meter = 3.28 feet
You need to understand how to refer to Cruise Performance Charts (from the POH) to get TAS, fuel burn, and brake
horsepower.
When calculating climb data, remember that you are probably not starting from sea level.

Topic 10; Navigation pt.3; Radio Navigation

10.1 Emergency Locator Transmitter
Emergency Locator Transmitters:
● Broadcast on 121.5, 243.0, and 406 MHz.
● The new ones are 406’s. Satellites don’t pick up 121.5 broadcasts anymore, although a 406 still broadcasts on
121.5 MHz.
● Old ELT’s had a 25 mW signal, but the new 406’s have a 5 watt signal (much stronger). - If the 406 is GPS
enabled, it sends out a burst of data every fifty seconds including a serial number, latitude, and longitude.
● The 406 ELT’s are mandatory in all new/changed registrations subsequent to February 1st, 2009.
Types of ELT:
● A/AD: Automatic Ejection or Deployment.
● F/AF: Automatic Fixed.
● AP: Automatic Portable.
● W: Water Activated.
● S: Survival.
ELT’s are mandatory for any aircraft more than 25 NM from home base, except for gliders, balloons, airships, ultralights,
gyros, and commercial transports.

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Testing an old style ELT:
● Only permitted during the first five minutes of any UTC hour, for no longer than five seconds.
● Check 121.5 MHz before shutting down.
● An activated ELT may be strong enough to wash over other frequencies in the aircraft.
Testing a 406 ELT:
● Follow the manufacturer’s instructions. satellites.
● Can have an on/off/reset switch in the cockpit. ● Do not test for more than fifty seconds or
● Monitored by COSPAS-SARSAT geo JRCC will interpret it as a real emergency.
Possible toggle switch settings on an ELT: KNOW THIS
● OFF: Will not activate.
● ARM: Will activate upon high impact (4 G’s).
● ON: Transmitting.
You may encounter a variety of switches on ELT’s, with some switches having only two positions and some having
three. It’s also possible to have slightly different labeling, depending on the unit.
If you’re about to “crash” and have a cockpit switch, and you’re worried that it might not activate, you could always
activate it just a few seconds before impact, then if things go well and you don’t need assistance, you have about fifty
seconds to disarm it before SAR is activated.
If the ELT can be placed in a high and non-secluded location, SAR will be able to find it more easily. Also, during
winter, the battery will last longer if the ELT is kept warm.
If you have an accidental ELT activation, report it ASAP, including the time, location, and duration of transmission.
10.2 Basic Radio Theory
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Aviation radio waves (in the MHz) have much lower frequencies than microwave (GHz), infrared (THz), visible
light, and above.
Low Frequency;
10 MHz to 30 MHz low frequency radio waves operate from 30 KHz to 3 000 KHz. Long wavelength = low
frequency. Low frequency = low energy. LF/ MF frequencies; 190 to 415 and 520 to 535 KHz are used by NDBs, 550 to
1 750 KHz are used by AM radios
High frequency
HF is from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The High frequency range operates from 3 000 to 30 000 KHz. ham radio operators
call their frequencies “shortwave”. This is mainly used for long range air and ground communication, Oceanic crossing
and operating in the high North. Range is dependent upon condition in the ionosphere, good to remember “ sun up
frequency up, sun down frequency down. 5 680 KHz is used frequently in north canada where VHF communication
cannot be established. HF is also utilized on transatlantic flights.
Very High frequency
Are used extensively for navigation aid and communication. VHF is 30 MHz to 300 MHz.
Ultra High frequency
UHF is 300 MHz to 3000 MHz. mostly used for by military and government, however, DME is also found in the range
MF is from 30 KHz to 3 MHz.
AM radio broadcasts (600 KHz to 1.6 MHz) are in the MF frequency range.
NDB’s are from 200-600 KHz, surrounded by a bunch of dots on the charts.
FM radio is in a narrow segment of VHF.
VHF Frequency Bands: KNOW THESE
● TV: 50.00 to 88.00 MHz.
● FM Radio: 88.1 to 107.9 MHz.
● VOR: 108.00 to 117.95 MHz.
● ILS: 108.10 to 111.95 MHz (overlaps a portion of the VOR range).
● Voice (aviation): 118 to 136 MHz.
Ground Waves – Radio waves that follow the surface of the Earth. Able to diffract or bend around obstacles, which
causes them to follow the curvature of the Earth.

57
Surface Attenuation – A method by which ground waves follow the curvature of the Earth. Think of the wave
interacting with the Earth and getting tilted downward.
Sky Waves: Can be reflected back to Earth by clouds and by the ionosphere, far past the reach of ground waves. - The
ionosphere will be higher at night, which means that reflected waves can reach much further. Can be affected by solar
activity and other electromagnetic disturbances. Relatively free of atmospheric and precipitation static.
Line of sight- VHF waves do not bounce of bend along the ground like the low, med, or high frequency, VHF is
relatively free of atmospheric and precipitation static`
Skip Zone – an area on the earth where radio waves don’t reach, perhaps because it is too far from a station for ground
waves, but bouncing sky waves return to Earth past the zone.
LF/MF/HF – Can use both ground and sky wave frequencies.
VHF/UHF – Propagates almost exclusively as sky waves (line of sight).
Distance of Reception (in miles) = 1.23 multiplied by the square root of aircraft height in feet (AGL).
HF Single Side Band (SSB):
Normal AM signal has a carrier frequency and two sidebands, the upper and lower sidebands. In SSB, only one of the
sidebands is allowed to be transmitted, and the other sideband and carrier are suppressed. Once the signal gets to the
receiver, the carrier can then be re-inserted. Saves a huge amount of power because transmission of just one sideband
takes only about one sixth of the regular full signal (the carrier alone takes two-thirds of the power). Consumes narrower
bandwidth, only 3 KHz instead of 9 KHz normal, conserving spectrum space. Eliminates most of the transmission noise.
10.3 VOR
VOR Navigation:
VHF Omnidirectional Range. Approximately 450 ground based stations in Canada, maintained by Nav Canada. Each
station broadcasts a unique Morse code identifier, three letters long. The VOR Indicator does NOT care about the heading
of your aircraft! You can fly in circles while remaining on the same VOR. Compass Rose on a chart shows magneticity.
Transmits between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz. Precipitation, static and electrical storms are not an issue. A tracking
accuracy of plus or minus 1o is possible on a 1o radial. Line of sight only. If you’re losing the signal, try climbing.
There are only 160 frequencies and about 450 stations, so you sometimes pick up two signals simultaneously.
Advantages;
● The VOE in canada operates in the very high frequency ( VHF) range of 112.00 to 117.95 MHz
(Megahertz)
● At these frequency, precipitation static and other annoying interference that are caused by storms or
various weather phenomena are not an issue
● Accuracy; a track accuracy of plus or minus 1 º is possible when flying a VOR radial
Disadvantage
● VOR signals transmitted by line or sight
● Any obstacle blocks VOR signals and restricted the distance over which they are received at given
altitude
● This can result in a sudden scalloping fluctuations of the cockpit indicated normally for short time
intervals because of greater reception distante that we have a higher altitude it is also possible for an
aircraft receive erroneous indication due to the reception of 2 VOR stations operating on the same
frequency
VHF Reception Distance KNOW THIS
● VHF reception distance NM = 1.25 X √ altitude AGL
Airways:
The airway system is partially based on VOR’s. The aircraft’s VOR receiver receives an azimuth signal sent from the
station. This azimuth From the station is called a radial of the VOR. The reverse of this radial is the To radial, and is 180o
off. VOR radials are all magnetic. It is the source of the radial that gives it its name, regardless of which direction the
aircraft is going.
Two main components: the receiver, and the navigation indicator. If the VOR receiver and the VHF communications
radio are co-located in the same control unit, the radio is called a NAVCOM. The VOR navigation indicator (VOR Head)
gives the pilot the aircraft’s position relative to a specific radial. The course index is a small triangle pointing to the
selected radial. The CDI needle (track bar) helps determine if the aircraft’s track is lined up properly. - The deflection

58
indicators are spaced at 2o intervals. The Red Nav flag, if visible, is the unreliable signal or no signal flag. The Omni
Bearing Selector (OBS) knob allows us to choose various radials. The CDI has a 10o spread from center to either side
when receiving a VOR signal.You need to steer in the direction of the CDI deflection to get back on track.
Track arrow;
When the aircraft heading agrees with or is close to the radial selected then the track bar ( TB or
CDI) aka course deviation indicator. It shows the aircraft position relative to the track selected, it
will indicate whether the radial is to the left or right.
The TB needle has to be 10 º spread from center to either side when receiving a VOR signal or
2.5 º in LOC mode, for RNAV CDI indicated distance off track
Each time a track or ridal is chosen on the selector the area around the VOR station is divide into
halves or envelops
If the aircraft is flying along the track line, the track bar needle is centered
If it flies to the left of the track arrow as in position A then the track bar needle swings to the
right
If it flies to the right of the track arrow as in position B, the track bar needle swings to the left.
Reference Line:
● When a track is selected, the position of another line is established, which is a reference line
perpendicular to the track arrow and intersecting it at the station.
● It divides the VOR reception area into two additional sectors.
● ‘The VOR will temporarily display OFF when passing over this line, even if the crossing point is not
over the VOR. This is the Area Of Ambiguity.
Area Of Ambiguity – Occurs when an aircraft is on a radial 90o to the one that they have selected. It widens with
increasing distance from the station. KNOW THIS
Heading has no effect- aircraft heading has no effect of reading the VOR indicator. It doesn't matter which
direction the aircraft is heading, it will receive the same indication as long as the aircrafts remains on the radial.
KNOW THIS
To determine a fix without DME, you can use two VOR stations, and triangulate (remember that a DME gives
distance and direction, so triangulation is not necessary):
1. Find a station and twist the OBS until you get a From indicator with the CDI centered.
2. Next, do the same with a second station.
3. Triangulate your chart.
Testing a VOR:
● VOT Test. ● Dual VOR Check.
● Self-test. ● Geographical Reference Point.
● Apron Check Sign.
VOT Test:
● Slowly being phased out. ● Set OBS to 180o. CDI must center to within +/-
● Stands for VOR Test Frequency, which you 4o and show To.
must look up in the CFS. ● Check full-scale deflection both ways by
● Set OBS to 360o. CDI must center to within +/- checking ten degrees from both side
4o and show From.
Apron check:
● Airport sign in a run-up area or somewhere on the apron.
● Taxi up beside the sign, follow directions, VOR should be within +/- 4 o.
Dual VOR check:
● Works if your airplane has two VOR receivers.
● Tune both to the same station, select the same radial, they must agree to within +/- 4o.
Airborne Geographical:
● Fly over a landmark on a known and published radial, and note the indicated radial. -
● Must be +/- 6o, this is the only method that allows for greater than a four degree variance.
Time & Distance check to station – Uses exactly the same approach and formulas as with the NDB, except

59
using radials instead of degrees (the same thing).
Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) does not require an interrogation. It displays reflected radio signals from
contacts, aircraft, and weather. Being phased out.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) requires a reply from a transponder (interrogation) to determine the
aircraft’s range. Does not locate weather. Much better range than the PSR.
● Time to station = 138 / 10 = 13.8 minutes
● Distance to station = ( 100 x 13.8) / 60 = 23 NM
10.4 Other radio and radar Airds
DF Steer – Directional assistance to an aircraft using radio.to pilots who may be unsure of their location Essentially
phased out in Canada now. KNOW THIS
Area Navigation (RNAV):
Can be defined as a method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired course within the
coverage of the station referenced navigation. No airways required. Developed to provide more lateral freedom
and thus more complete use of available airspace. 3 principle applications od Advantages
Includes GPS as one possible system. Does not require a track to/from any specific radio navigation aid.
1. A route structure can be organized between any given departure and arrival point to reduce flight distance
and traffic separation
2. .Aircraft can be flown into terminal areas on varied pre-programmed arrival and departure paths to
expedite traffic flow.
3. Instrument approaches can be developed and certified at certain airports, without local instrument landing
aids at that airport.
Types include Multiple VOR/DME, GNSS (GPS), Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), or Inertial Reference
Systems (IRS).
VOR/DME Method:
● The Track Line Computer (TLC) system is based on azimuth and distance information from a VORTAC. Also
called the Rho-Theta system.
● Pilot effectively moves or offsets the VORTAC to any desired location (if it is within reception range). - The
phantom station is created by setting the distance (Rho) and the bearing (Theta) of the waypoint from a
VORTAC.
● Use a series of these phantom stations to make up an RNAV route.
● Disappearing due to the prevalence of GPS.
Inertial Navigation Systems:
Completely self-contained and independent of ground-based navigation aids. After being supplied with initial position
information, it is capable of updating with accurate displays of position, attitude, and heading. Can give track and
distance between two points, course error, ETA, ground speed, and wind information. Can provide guidance and steering
info. Works due to accelerometers and gyroscopes. System alignment before flight is important. Accuracy decays at about
1-2 NM/hr. Position updates can be implemented in flight.
Flight Management System:
An integrated system that uses navigation, atmospheric, and fuel flow data from several sensors to provide a centralized
control system for flight planning and for flight/fuel management. Controls vary widely between aircraft. Multi-sensor,
including DME, VOR, air data computer, and fuel flow sensors. May also incorporate INS, IRS, and GPS. Most are
approved for en route IFR.
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN):
● Used primarily by the military, it works like a VOR/DME.
● Provides azimuth (radials) and slant distance (NM) from ground station.
● 126 UHF channels.
● Civilian pilots trying to tap into it will receive only DME. Any VOR radial info would be a false signal.
Radar Altimeter – Provides dependable, accurate altitude AGL.
Flight Director System:
● Electronically collects info from several sources.
● Includes a Horizontal Situation Indicator and an Attitude Director Indicator.

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 ● Can be used with or without autopilot.
● Command bars placed over top of the attitude indicator. The pilot keeps them aligned.
Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) and Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) both receive
SSR equipped aircraft (transponders) and the computer calculates if there is a chance of a collision.
10.5 GLobal Navigation Satellite System GNSS
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS):
Up to 32 satellites in orbit. Satellites in polar orbits, circling Earth in just under 12 hours. GPS satellites are referred to
as NavStar. Need to triangulate from three satellites for two dimensions (latitude and longitude). Need a fourth satellite to
also get an altitude/elevation position fix.
● Advantages include: Point to point navigation, not affected by weather, unlimited range, very accurate,
economical, available 24/7.
Always verify the coordinates of a waypoint! Think it out, don’t just stare at the digits and let your eyes glaze over.
Maybe you can verify from a CFS or map chart. Do not rely solely on the GPS.
Orbit at 11,900 NM, six different orbital paths, each satellite transmitting on 1227.6 MHz and 1575.42 MHz.
Virtually no errors due to atmospheric distortion. Line of sight, so watch out for signal masking. Each GPS satellite
has four atomic clocks to ensure accuracy. There is a master control station in Colorado Springs that has the capability
to send corrections to satellites if errors are detected. Be aware that GPS gives true tracks and ground speeds (not
airspeed).
Differential GPS:
● Used to achieve the accuracy required for more demanding operations.
● Done by having a receiver on the ground at a precisely surveyed position.
● The data can be “corrected” with cross reference from the ground station.
● Two types: WAAS and LAAS.
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS):
● A network of ground-based reference stations create a correction signal which is sent to WAAS geostationary
satellites.
● Compatible devices receive the correction signal from the satellite and improve upon accuracy.
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS):
● An all-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal.
● Local reference receivers located around the airport send data to a central location at the airport.
● This is the basis for a correction message, which is transmitted to users via a VHF data link.
● Aircraft’s receiver corrects GPS data with this message, and an ILS-style precision approach display
becomes available.
System Integrity – The ability of a system to warn a user when there is something wrong with it. If ILS detects a
malfunction, it shuts down, flags, and you have to do a missed approach.
RAIM – Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (an integrity assessment system). FDE – Fault Detection &
Exclusion.
Baro-Aiding – A type of GPS integrity augmentation that basically allows your GPS to use your static system to
provide a vertical reference and reduce the number of satellites required in a RAIM system.
A GPS installation must have prior approval before it can be used in IFR conditions (TSO C-129 Standard).
Handheld devices will not be approved.
Be careful when entering GPS coordinates. For example, CWYG (the airport) and WYG (the VOR for that
airport) seem like they should be the same, but they are listed at different coordinates. User entered waypoints are
the most common source of GPS error. Do not navigate solely with GPS!

10.6 Surveillance
It is the ability to reliably detect key flight attributes such as position, level and intend, this is an integral part of a
complex air traffic ecosystem. 3 type of surveillance;
● Dependent
● Procedural control is a method of providing air traffic control service without the use of radar

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 ● Report their position using a voice channel ( HF, VHF)
● It relies on the pilot/ aircraft navigation capability
● Independent
● Radar is used to detect and spot targets
● Rader measures the position of the aircraft
● Is allows smaller separation standards
● Co-operative
● Measure position of aircrafts range and azimuth
● Second rader depends on targets equipped with a transponder
Transponder:
A radio receiver/transmitter which will generate a reply signal upon proper interrogation, designed to reinforce a
surveillance radar signal. Consists of a controller, a receiver/transmitter, and a k-Band antenna that looks like an
inverted shark’s fin. The ground station is a rotating directional antenna (you’ll see a light blinking on the transponder
when the ground antenna rotates toward you and does an interrogation).
● Mode C has a pressure altimeter in it that gives apparent elevation, ie. asks for identification and altitude.
● Mode A asks for identification only.
● Mode S also incorporates a unique signature, so you don’t have to dial a specific transponder code.
● You can tell you have Mode C if you have an ALT setting. MUST KNOW
Squawk – To operate the transponder on a specified code, or to activate certain modes or functions on the
transponder.
Squawk Ident – Push the IDENT button. Only do this if ATC requests it.
Stop Squawk – Turn off your transponder.
Transponder Codes: MUST KNOW
● 1000: General IFR below 12,500’ ASL. ● 7500: Hijack.
● 1200: General VFR below 12,500’ ASL. ● 7600: Communications Failure.
● 1400: General VFR above 12,500’ ASL. ● 7700: Emergency.
● 2000: General IFR above 12,500’ ASL.
Grivation – The angle between north as indicated by a grid on a map and magnetic north at any point.

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