LECTURE 2.

INTRODUCTION TO
FLUID MECHANICS

Transport Phenomena
CHEB417-01
2024 Spring Semester / MW 11:00 ~ 12:15
Outline
• Continuum hypothesis

• Types of flows

• Flow visualization experiments

Please refer to Whitaker
• The solution of flow problems Chapter 1 if to study separately

• Units

• Fluid properties

• Density

• Viscosity
Continuum Hypothesis
• In treating fluid as a continuum, we postulate velocity, pressure, density,
etc are continuous point functions (field variables)

→ In fact, not true, as materials are made up of molecules that are discrete

→ However, we are interested in class of problems for which the distance

between molecules is so small that they represent a continuous system
 • The density of a fluid may be defined as,

∆𝑀𝑀
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑀𝑀 = total mass contained in a small volume ∆𝑉𝑉
∆𝑉𝑉→0 ∆𝑉𝑉

• What do we mean by velocity, density, … at the microscopic level?

→ Averaging

ε ∆𝑉𝑉
∆V < ε x ∆V~ ε
Average motion
∆M ∑ mi v i
ρ = lim vu = lim +
∆V →ε ∆V ∆V →ε ∆M Random motion
 Condition for Continuum Hypothesis
• A sufficient condition, though not a necessary condition, for continuum
approach to be valid is,
1
<< ε << L3
n
,where

𝑛𝑛 : number of molecules per unit volume (liquid) In case of gases, 1/𝑛𝑛 can be replaced
[1/𝑛𝑛 = (microscopic length scale(𝑙𝑙))3] =𝑙𝑙3 with the cube of the mean free path

𝐿𝐿 : the smallest significant length scale in

The average distance traveled by
the flow field (macroscopic length scale)
molecules between collisions
Examples:
(1) Single fluid (2) Suspension (3) Traffic flow
Seoul
1
1
n
n
. . . . l
. .
. L
. Pohang
.
Cases where Continuum Approx. may not be valid
mylab2u.blogspot.com/

(1) Low pressure CVD (chemical vapor deposition)

l = λ = mean free path

" molecular dynamics"

L ~ 0.1µm

𝐿𝐿 RBC

(2) Blood flow in micro-capillary

DNA

(3) DNA separation in a nanofluidic device E

L ~ 100nm
𝑙𝑙 = few nm

→ velocity is not a continuous function

 Compressible and incompressible flow
• Incompressible: density undergoes “negligible” changes for “appreciable”
changes in temperature and pressure

• Is water compressible or incompressible?

• The density changes by less than 5% in 100°C and less than 1% in 100 atm

→ Incompressible, types of flow involving water are satisfactorily treated by

the incompressible form of the equation of motion
 • Then, what are considered as compressible flow?

→ When fluid velocity approaches or exceeds sonic velocity

• In gases, sonic velocity is 1100 ft/sec (at normal pressure and temperature)

• Sonic velocity in water is 4700 ft/sec

Sonic boom Water hammer in a valve

www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmhU7SEo4gg www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9UbzcanuDk
 Laminar flow vs Turbulent flow

• Laminar flow is characterized by smooth

motion of one lamina of fluid past another

• Turbulent flow is characterized by an irregular

and nearly random motion superimposed on
the main motion of the fluid

Laminar and turbulent flow from a

burning cigarette
Laminar flow vs Turbulent flow

Streak lines in the wake behind a circular cylinder

Laminar flow vs Turbulent flow

Flow from right to left past an aerofoil aerodestination.blogspot.com

the shape of a wing or blade (of a propeller, rotor or

turbine) or sail as seen in cross-section
Stream lines, Path Lines, Streak Lines
(1) Stream line: a curve in the space drawn so that the velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the curve (cf. electric field lines)
𝐯𝐯

(2) Path line: a curve that an individual fluid particle would follow, i.e.
(cf. trajectory, a long exposure picture)
t2 t3 t4
t =0 t1

(3) Streak line: a curve traced out by all particles passing through some
fixed point (snapshot at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 )
Example of Streak line

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Example of Path line

piqsels.com
Particle trajectories (a) (b) m.post.naver.com
Example of Stream line
Flow visualization experiments

www.youtube.com/watch?v=_q6ozALzkF4
 Reynolds Flow Visualization Experiment
• Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a tube was first investigated by
Osborne Reynolds

• Two distinct types of flow was observed

• Dye remained in the center of the tube + spread slowly (molecular diffusion)

• Dye was soon dispersed throughout the tube (laminar to turbulent flow transition)
• Found that the transition condition could be correlated to a dimensionless
group known as the Reynolds number, defined as,

𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝐷𝐷
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇
,where

𝜌𝜌 = density
𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = average velocity in the z-direction

𝐷𝐷 = tube diameter

𝜇𝜇 = viscosity

• The transition took place for values of 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 about 2100, regardless of the
specific values of 𝜌𝜌, 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 , 𝐷𝐷, 𝜇𝜇
Flow Visualization Experiment – Zigzag type

Kang & Chang, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (1982)

Flow Visualization Experiment – Cavity type

Kang & Chang, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (1982)

Simulation of Turbulent flows

Stanford Univ.
 Other types of flow
• Steady and unsteady flow

• If a laminar flow is steady,

→ the three components of the velocity (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 , 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 , 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 ) and pressure p are independent of time t

• Turbulent flows are naturally unsteady

• One-dimensional flow

• The velocity v is a function of only one spatial coordinate

• In the case of Reynolds’ apparatus,

Distance far down from the entrance: v is only a function of r

(one-dimensional)

Entrance region: v is a function of r and z (two-dimensional flow)

Characteristic scales in microfluidics (diffusion process)
Characteristic scales in microfluidics (diffusion process)

𝑅𝑅

2𝑎𝑎

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Stokes – Einstein Eqn 𝐷𝐷 =
6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎

𝑅𝑅2
Diffusion time scale 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 =
𝐷𝐷

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 4.12 × 10−21 𝐽𝐽 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 298𝐾𝐾 𝑎𝑎 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

𝜇𝜇 = 1𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 10−3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 � 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (𝑚𝑚2 ⁄𝑠𝑠) 2 × 10−11 2 × 10−10 2 × 10−9
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠) 5 × 102 5 × 10 5
𝑅𝑅 = 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 10−4 𝑚𝑚
Microfluidic preparation of droplets

Chem. Eng. J. 2022

Synthesis of LNP vaccine using microfluidics
The solution of flow problems
Solution of flow problems

(1) The fundamental postulates

(2) Mathematical analysis

(3) Constitutive equations / Equation of State / Other experimental information

(4) Intuition
 Fundamental postulates of continuum mechanics
• Up to now, we have learned the continuum hypothesis as well as the
different types of flow to have a basic idea of “fluid motion”

• Now we are ready to learn the fundamental postulates governing the

fluid motion
→ Principles of conservation (balance) of (i) mass, (ii) energy, (iii)
momentum, and (iv) angular momentum
Main principle used in Transport
phenomena II and compressible flow
(i) Principles of conservation of mass
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

(ii) Principles of conservation of energy

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

*”body” refers to a fixed quantity of material and is sometimes referred to as a “system”

 • You’ve probably seen something similar to below previously,

In Body Out
“Mass balance”
(System)

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

- At steady state, Mass in = Mass out (when no generation)

• Similarly,

(iii) Principles of conservation of momentum

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

(iv) Principles of conservation of angular momentum

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
 Euler’s two laws of mechanics
*These laws apply to discrete particles as well as any arbitrary continuous body

(1) The time rate of change of the momentum of a body equals the force
acting on the body – linear momentum principle
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

→ often referred to as the Newton’s second law

(2) The time rate of change of the angular momentum of a body equals
the torque acting on the body – angular momentum principle

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

• All fundamental postulates appear similar but the latter two are vector
equations while the former two are scalar equations
 Momentum, Angular momentum, and Torque

EBS 수능특강 물리I 中

 1) (Linear) momentum (선운동량, p): the product of the mass and velocity of an object

𝒑𝒑 = 𝑚𝑚v

2) Angular momentum (각운동량, L): the cross product of the object's position vector 𝒓𝒓
(relative to some origin) and its momentum vector (𝒑𝒑)
𝑳𝑳 = 𝒓𝒓 × 𝒑𝒑
- If the origin changes, angular momentum changes due
to change in object’s position vector r

- Let’s differentiate with 𝑳𝑳 respect to time t,

𝑑𝑑𝑳𝑳 𝑑𝑑𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝒑𝒑

= × 𝒑𝒑 + 𝒓𝒓 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝒑𝒑 𝑑𝑑𝑳𝑳
= 𝐯𝐯 × 𝒑𝒑 + 𝒓𝒓 × = 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑭𝑭 = 𝝉𝝉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝐯𝐯
= 𝐯𝐯 × 𝑚𝑚𝐯𝐯 + 𝒓𝒓 ×
blog.naver.com
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑭𝑭 = 𝝉𝝉
→ the time rate of change of angular momentum of the body equals the amount of
torque applied to a body
 Going back to Euler’s two laws of mechanics
*These laws apply to discrete particles as well as any arbitrary continuous body (fluid)

(1) The time rate of change of the momentum of a body equals the force
acting on the body – linear momentum principle
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

(2) The time rate of change of the angular momentum of a body equals
the torque acting on the body – angular momentum principle

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
Solution of flow problems

(1) The fundamental postulates

(2) Mathematical analysis

(3) Constitutive equations / Equation of State / Other experimental information

(4) Intuition
 Solution of flow problems

(1) The fundamental postulates

(2) Mathematical analysis

: required to put the fundamental postulates into useable form
- “rules” that describe the behavior of
(3-1) Constitutive equations a particular material
: the response of materials to applied force - mostly formulated on the basis of
experimental observation
e.g. Hooke’s law – relates the strain to the
applied stress for linear elastic materials

𝑭𝑭 = −𝑘𝑘x

e.g. Newton’s law of viscosity – rate of

strain proportional to stress

e.g. Ohm’s law – electrical current

proportional to potential gradient ko.wikipedia.org
(3-2) Equation of state (EOS)
: determines the relationship of the thermodynamic pressure, the density, and the
temperature

e.g. The ideal gas law:

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

- Many other EOS are available describing the relationship between pressure and density
for non-ideal gas and for liquids

- Mostly determined by experimental observation

(4) Intuition
: simple problems can be solved with practically no intuition, while more complex
problems require a great deal to obtain even an approximate solution
Units
• Easiest way of handling units is to define mass, length, and time
arbitrarily and use the linear momentum principle to define a unit of force

• In cgs system, 𝑀𝑀 = mass (g)

v = velocity (cm/s)
𝑡𝑡 = time (sec)

• The linear momentum principle,

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)

𝑑𝑑
(𝑀𝑀v) = 𝑭𝑭 (1 g-cm/sec2 = 1 dyne)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 dyne = 10-5 N

The momentum of the body The force acting on the body (vector)
• In English system of units, pounds-mass (lbm)
feet (ft)
seconds (sec)
𝑑𝑑
(𝑀𝑀v) = 𝑭𝑭
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(1 lbm-ft/sec2 = 1 poundal)

• Instead, use the force exerted by the earth’s gravitation field on 1 pound-mass

Unit of force = 1 pound-force (lbf)= (1 lbm)(32.2 ft/sec2) = 32.2 lbm-ft/sec2

1 lbf = 32.2 lbm-ft/sec2

• If to use, pound-force, pound-mass, foot, and second as units,

1 𝑑𝑑
(𝑀𝑀v) = 𝑭𝑭
𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 = 32.2 lbm-ft/ lbf-sec2
 1 = 32.2 lbm-ft/ lbf-sec2
• Conversion factors
1 = 12 in./ft
1 = 1.8°F/1°C *(68°F-32)(5/9) = 20 °C
1 = 3600 sec/hr
Fluid properties
• For single-phases incompressible flow,

-Newtonian: only need to know density (𝜌𝜌) and the viscosity (𝜇𝜇)

-Non-Newtonian: require additional parameters to characterize the viscous

behavior of the fluid

• Fluid density

• Fluid viscosity
 Fluid density
• Physical properties of common liquids

*(68°F-32)(5/9) = 20 °C

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 The relative density change of a fluid as a response

• Compressibility 𝜅𝜅 𝜅𝜅 =
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
to pressure change at constant temperature

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 The relative density reduction of a

• Coefficient of expansion 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 = − fluid as a response to increase in
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝 temperature at constant pressure
• 𝜅𝜅 and 𝛽𝛽 are both small for liquids → Do not need to significantly consider the effect of
temperature and pressure on liquid density
• However, for gases, strongly depend on the temperature and pressure

• At standard conditions (298°K and 1 atm),

• the density, compressibility, and coefficient of expansion can be estimated

• Prove the followings using the ideal gas law (EOS), 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑀𝑀
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 =
(i) 𝜌𝜌 =
𝑝𝑝(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌 = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

(ii) 𝜅𝜅 =
1
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) 1 𝜌𝜌 1
𝑝𝑝 𝜅𝜅 = = = =
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝
𝑇𝑇

(iii) 𝛽𝛽 =
1 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝑝𝑝(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) 1
𝑇𝑇 𝛽𝛽 = − =− − =
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝
𝜌𝜌 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 2 𝑇𝑇

,where 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 is the molecular weight

• However, whenever the temperature and pressure are close to the critical point, deviation
from ideal gas behavior becomes significant
Fluid viscosity
• Fluids: continuously deforms under the action of a shear stress

• Solids: deforms but is independent of time

Stress and strain
• Cause (원인) and result (결과)

www.cedars-sinai.org

• The rate at which a fluid deforms (rate of deformation):

• The rate of change in distance between two neighboring points moving with the fluid
divided by the distance between the points

= Change in length per unit length per unit time

“the strain” “rate”

→ Rate of deformation = rate of strain = strain rate = shear rate

• For Newtonian fluids, simple linear relationship between the applied

shear stress and the rate of strain
• The coefficient relating the two are called, the coefficient of viscosity or viscosity (𝜇𝜇)
How to measure the coefficient of viscosity, 𝜇𝜇
• Couette viscometer

: the inner cylinder is fixed and a torque is applied to the

outer cylinder causing it to rotate at a steady state

ℎ
: due to the small value of 𝑟𝑟 , the curvature can be neglected
𝑜𝑜
and the flow can be assumed to resemble rectilinear flow

Plate is moving at a constant velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜

 𝐹𝐹
• Plotting the force per unit area required to maintain the motion ( ) is
𝐴𝐴
plotted as a function of the velocity divided by the plate spacing (𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜 /ℎ).

𝐹𝐹 = applied torque divided by the lever arm 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 + ℎ

𝐴𝐴 = the area of the outer cylinder

𝐹𝐹 𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜 - measures torque with
= 𝜇𝜇
𝐴𝐴 ℎ a defined shear rate

• Force per unit area acting on the surface for which y is constant (y-
surface) in the x-direction,
𝐹𝐹
= 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝐴𝐴
𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Velocity gradient may be expressed as a derivative, =
ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇 = 𝜇𝜇(𝑇𝑇, 𝑃𝑃)

→ Newton’s law of viscosity 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 e.g. water, alcohol
Quick reminder before moving on…

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Newton’s law of viscosity 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : the total stress (force per unit area) acting on a surface

𝑖𝑖 : the surface upon which the stress is acting

𝑗𝑗 : the direction of the stress

e.g.) 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 : the stress acting on the y-surface in the x-direction

𝑇𝑇𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 : the stress acting on the x-surface in the y-direction

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 : the x-direction component of the velocity vector v

 The effect of temperature on fluid viscosity
• The viscosity of commonly encountered fluids

• Why does liquid viscosity decrease and gas

viscosity increase with increase in temperature?
→ Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

scitech.net.au
Temperature ↑ → Increase in the molecular interchange as molecules move faster

- Gases : viscosity will increase with temperature

- Liquids : molecular interchange + substantial attractive, cohesive forces between the molecules

: Temperature ↑ → Reduce cohesive forces and increase rate of molecular interchange

→ Reduction in viscosity
 Units of viscosities
• Viscosity
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔
𝜇𝜇 = 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ≡
𝑚𝑚 � 𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 � 𝑠𝑠
𝜇𝜇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ~ 1𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.01𝑃𝑃
𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ~ 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1𝑃𝑃

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐

𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇 = = 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 � 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 �
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 � 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 2 s = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 10 𝑔𝑔 = 10𝑃𝑃
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑠𝑠

• Kinematic Viscosity
𝜇𝜇 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚3 𝑚𝑚2
: key physical property in understanding fluid motion 𝜈𝜈 = = =
𝜌𝜌 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠
: the ratio of viscosity to the density
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ≡
𝑠𝑠
Viscosity vs kinematic viscosity
 Non-Newtonian fluids
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Newton’s law of viscosity 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇 → Newtonian fluids
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

the coefficient of viscosity or viscosity (𝜇𝜇)

Shear stress *Slope of these curves

= apparent viscosity (𝜇𝜇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )

Strain rate (shear rate)

Bingham model
• Describes fluids which posses a yield stress

: the material will not deform unless the magnitude of

the shear stress exceeds some critical value, 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

: the shear stress-shear rate relationship is,

𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 + if 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 > 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
=0 if 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Although no real fluids are described exactly by the Bingham model, several fit
the model reasonably well
e.g.) paint – critical film thickness below which paint
will not flow under the action of gravity
e.g.) toothpaste, ketchup

𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 + if 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 > 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 if 𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Ostwald-de Waele model (“power-law” fluid)
• Pseudoplastic : Fluids for which the apparent
viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate
(shear-thinning fluid)
• Dilatant : Fluids for which the apparent viscosity
increases with increasing shear rate
(shear-thickening fluid)
: these types of behavior can be described by,

𝑛𝑛−1
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑛𝑛 = 1 : reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity with 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜇𝜇

𝑛𝑛 < 1 : describes a pseudoplastic fluid

𝑛𝑛 > 1 : describes a dilatant fluid

Pseudoplastic (Shear-thinning) fluid
• Fluids whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear strain

• Observed in polymer solutions and molten polymers, as well as

complex fluids and suspensions
• Considered to be due to the small structural changes within the fluid
that facilitates fluid flow
• Polymer systems: the disentanglement of polymer chains during flow

• Colloid systems: phase separation during flow

• Examples include styling gel, blood, and etc.

Dilatant (Shear-thickening) fluid
• Fluids whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain

• Observed in thick suspensions of particles in a liquid

• Occurs when particles enter a state of flocculation and begin to behave

like a solid
• Examples include corn starch in water, body armor
youtube.com/watch?v=G1Op_1yG6lQ