Faculty of Engineering Technology

Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka

Laboratory Experiments and Tutorials

Imran Syakir Mohamad

Mohd Haizal Mohd Husin
GENERAL CHEMISTRY LAB SAFETY

The chemistry laboratory can be a place of discovery and learning. However, by the very
nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of danger if proper common-sense
precautions aren't taken. While every effort has been made to eliminate the use of
explosive, highly toxic, and carcinogenic substances from the experiments which you will
perform, there is a certain unavoidable hazard associated with the use of a variety of
chemicals and glassware. You are expected to learn and adhere to the following general
safety guidelines to ensure a safe laboratory environment for both yourself and the
people you may be working near. Students who fail to follow all safety rules may be
asked to leave the lab or suffer grading penalties.

ATTIRE

a) Safety goggles must be worn at all times while in the laboratory. This rule must be
followed whether you are actually working on an experiment or simply writing in your
lab notebook.
b) Closed toe shoes and long pants must be worn in the lab. Sandals and shorts are not
allowed.
c) Long hair must be tied back when using open flames.

CONDUCT

a) Eating, drinking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in the laboratory.

b) No unauthorized experiments are to be performed.
c) Never taste anything. Never directly smell the source of any vapor or gas; instead by
means of your cupped hand, waft a small sample to your nose. Do not inhale these
vapors but take in only enough to detect an odor if one exists.
d) Always wash your hands before leaving lab.
e) Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
f) Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
g) Proper Handling of Chemicals and Equipment
h) Consider all chemicals to be hazardous unless you are instructed otherwise.
i) Know what chemicals you are using. Carefully read the label twice before taking
anything from a bottle.
j) Excess reagents are never to be returned to stock bottles. If you take too much,
dispose of the excess.
k) Many common reagents, for example, alcohols and acetone, are highly flammable.
Do not use them anywhere near open flames.
l) Always pour acids into water. If you pour water into acid, the heat of reaction will
cause the water to explode into steam, sometimes violently, and the acid will splatter.
m) If chemicals come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious
amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
n) Never point a test tube or any vessel that you are heating at yourself or your partner,
it may erupt like a geyser.
o) Dispose of chemicals properly. Waste containers will be provided and their use will
be explained by your Lab Assistance. Unless you are explicitly told otherwise,
assume that only water may be put in the lab sinks.

1
p) Clean up all broken glassware immediately and dispose of the broken glass properly.
q) Never leave burners unattended. Turn them off whenever you leave your
workstation. Be sure that the gas is shut off at the bench rack when you leave the
lab.
r) Beware of hot glass. it looks exactly like cold glass.

COMMONLY USED LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

A. Beaker I. Pipette filler

B. Erlenmeyer Flask J. Test tube
C. Graduated cylinder K. Dropper
D. Wash bottle L. Funnel
E. Burette M. Spatula
F. Ring stand N. Test tube rack
G. Burette clamp O. Crucible tongs
H. Graduated pipette / volumetric P. Crucible
pipette

Figure 1.1: Commonly used laboratory equipment

2
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

a) Before starting any experiment, have a clear idea of what is to be done by studying
carefully the details of the experiment. Plan your work so as to maximize laboratory
time.
b) Record all details, such as accurate weights and volumes, color changes, or
evolution of gases, on a notebook. Do not use scraps of paper to do this.
c) Keep your working bench clean and dry. Store glasswares that are not immediately
required, place dirty glasswares in a plastic bowl if they are to be cleaned later, and
throw solid wastes in the proper waste basket.
d) Carry all operations involving unpleasant and noxious materials in a properly
functioning fume cupboard.

CLEANING OF GLASSWARES

It is a good habit to clean all glasswares immediately after use as the identity of the
contaminant is known and thus easier to remove.
a) Use a test-tube brush and a commercial washing powder or liquid detergent.
b) Rinse thoroughly with tap water, and finally with distilled water. Drain off the water
as completely as possible.
c) Use a warm air blower or a hot oven (100-120C for about 1 hour) to dry the
glassware, placing them upside down. Glassware to be used immediately may be
rinsed with a little industrial spirit or acetone before drying.

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

TRANSFERRING MATERIALS
a) Always bring a CLEAN, DRY container and CLEAN, DRY transfer tool with you to get
any chemicals.
b) Take the correct amount of chemical from a container but NEVER put any back once
you have taken it to your lab station.
c) Put the lid back on any chemical container when you are finished with it.
d) NEVER use the same piece of equipment or apparatus for different chemicals.
Failure to do this could result in contamination of one or more stock bottles or jars.
Always start with clean, dry containers for each separate chemical.
e) Pour liquids slowly to avoid splashing.
f) In transferring liquids from one container to another at your lab station, use a stirring
rod laid across the top of one container to direct the flow of the liquid into the other.
This technique is especially useful when you are separating a liquid from a solid
(decanting).

ANALYTICAL BALANCE
Many experiments require accurate weights of solid chemicals. An analytical balance is
used for this purpose. Most laboratories are equipped with digital electronic balances

3
and/or single pan analytical balances. These balances are accurate to 0.001 and
0.0001g respectively. General rules when using an analytical balance:
a) Before weighing, make sure the reading is at zero. After weighing, press “tares”
or turn the dial so that the reading is back at zero.
b) Use a weighing bottle with a stopper. Do not use pieces of paper.
c) Do not weigh corrosive or hot chemicals.
d) Keep the balance clean all the time.

MEASURING VOLUMES OF LIQUIDS

a) Always read the volume of a liquid in a container so your eye level is at the same
level as the surface of the liquid.
b) When the volume of water and water-solutions are read in a container, you will notice
that there is a curved surface at the top of the liquid. This is called the meniscus.
Always read the bottom of the meniscus (Figure 1.2).
c) The following lab equipment will be used for dispensing, measuring or mixing liquids
during the year:

Figure 1.2: Proper technique for reading a burette or a graduated cylinder

1. GRADUATED CYLINDERS
i. These are designed to measure volumes of liquids accurately.
ii. No chemicals are to be mixed in a graduated cylinder.
iii. A graduated cylinder should never be heated or placed in an oven.
iv. Different size graduated cylinders have different "sensitivities"; that is,
different degrees of accuracy. Selection of the proper graduated cylinder
depends not only on the total volume you need to measure but the accuracy
that you need as well.

2. BEAKERS AND FLASKS

i. Only approximate volumes are measured in beakers and flasks.
ii. Beakers and flasks are primarily used for mixing and heating chemicals.

3. BURETTES
i. A burette is used like a graduated cylinder in that a specific volume can be
accurately measured.
ii. The burette is held by a ring stand and the liquid is dispensed by a small
valve at the bottom.
iii. Burettes that have not been cleaned properly are major sources of error in
labs requiring their use.

4
 4. VOLUMETRIC FLASKS
i. These long-necked flasks are used for preparing a specific volume (e.g. 1.00
liter, 2.00 liters) of a solution. There is a single line etched on the neck for
this particular volume only.

5. PIPETTE
i. Pipettes are narrow, hollow tubes that are used to draw a specific, small
volume of liquid with a squeeze bulb. Typically, the capacity of a pipette is
5.0 or 10.0 milliliters.
ii. Pipettes should never be used for stirring solutions.
iii. NEVER use your mouth to draw a solution into a pipette!

Figure 1.3: Proper technique for using pipette

A. Suction by a pipette filler

B. Drain to graduation mark touching off adhering drop
C. After discharge, allow a 20 seconds drainage period. Touch the tip to the
side of the flask.
D. The liquid remaining in the tip of the pipette should not be blown out. The
pipette was calibrated for this amount to remain.

FILTRATION AND DRYING

a) When separating a solid from a liquid, filtration can be used. The liquid phase will go
through the filter paper while the solid phase will not.
b) The filter paper is folded in half TWICE (in quarters) so that it will open up and fit into
a funnel (either glass or plastic).
c) The filter paper can be moistened with water from a wash bottle so it will adhere to
the sides of the funnel.
d) The funnel containing the filter paper should be placed in a filtering rack (with flask
underneath) or in the mouth of a flask.
e) Never add so much liquid that it overflows the side of the filter paper. Some solid
material could end up in the flask.
f) As solid material collects in the filter paper, the rate of flow may slow down. This is
normal.
g) Once all of the solid/liquid mixture to be filtered has been transferred to the filter
paper, wash the solid material, using a wash bottle, with distilled water several times.
h) The filter paper containing the separated, washed solid, should be dried. This can be
accomplished by removing the filter paper from the funnel and placing it in a clean,

5
 dry, pre-weighed beaker. The beaker containing the filter paper can then be air-dried
or placed in an oven.

EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENT DATA

The chemist scientist of today and future therefore needs to have thorough grounding in
experiment techniques, in how to acquire data, and in how to evaluate the data collected.
Only with knowledge of how to evaluate collected data can any significance be placed on
the experimental measurements. Precision and accuracy are two essential concepts in
the evaluation of data.

In making measurements it is important to recognize and if possible, estimate sources of

error. Experimental error may be classified as either systematic or random. In systematic
error the cause usually is detectable and can be corrected. This type of error causes
measurements to be consistently higher or lower that actual value. These include errors
present in the system itself, error present in the measuring device, personal error and
gross error such as incorrect recording data or miscalculation. Random errors are mare
related to experimental uncertainty than accuracy. Their sources cannot be identified and
are beyond our control. They also tend to fluctuate in random fashion about a measured
value.

PRECISION
Precision is a quantitative measured of the reproducibility of experimental measurements
how well repeated measurements of the same quantity agree with one another.
Precision is frequently measured in terms of the average deviation, which is determined
by following
a. determine the average value from a series of measurements
b. determine the deviation of each measurement from the average value
c. determine the average of the deviations without regard to sign

ACCURACY
The agreement of experimental measurements with the accepted value of a quantity is
measured in term of the error. The error is the difference between the values of quantity
as measured and the accepted value of the same quantity:

Error = measured value – accepted value

When the error in a measurement is put on a relative basis it become more useful and is
known as the relative error. The error divided by the accepted value and multiplied by
100%. This is usually known as the percent error.

Error
Percent error  x 100 %
Accepted value

EXAMPLE: in the determine of the concentrations of an unknown acid by titration with

standard base, four measurements were made: 0.1025 M, 0.1018 M, 0.1020 M, and
0.1024 M. Compute the average value and the average deviation. Assume that the
accepted value of the unknown acid molarity is 0.1014 M as the determined by several
different experienced experimenters using sound technique. Compute the error and
percent error for determination of the molarity of an unknown acid.

6
SOLUTION: the average value is computed by summing the four measurements and
dividing by four. This yields an average value of 0.1022 M. the individual deviations of
each measurement from the average value are 0.0003 (0.1025 M), 0.0004 (0.1018 M),
0.0002 (0.1020 M) and 0.0002 (0.1024 M). The sum of the four deviations 0.0011,
divided by four yields the average deviation, 0.00028. Since this deviation represents an
uncertainty in the measurements, the molarity of the unknown acid is not precisely
0.1022 M, but ranges from 0.1019 M to 0.1025 M and should therefore be reported with
the average deviation included, that is 0.1022  0.0003 M.

Further, to make the measurement of precision more useful, the average deviations are
put on the percentage basis by determine the relative average deviation. This is the
average deviation divided by the average value and multiplied by 100%.

Average deviation
Re lative average deviation  x 100 %
Average of measuremen ts

0 . 00028
Re lative average deviation  x 100 %  0 . 27 %
0 . 1022

A relative average deviation of 0.27% or better (that is, smaller) is typical expected
precision value for an acid-base titration. In general, however, the precision of an
experiment varies with the technique and/or apparatus used. A number of variables built
into the method of the experiment can affect its precision. In the method tested over long
period of time, the results (average value) should not only agree very well with one
another (have good precision) but also agree very closely with the accepted value (have
high accuracy)

Since the error is the difference between the measured value and accepted value, in this
case it is 0.1022 – 0.1014 = + 0.0008. From this error, the percent error is calculated.

 0 . 0008
Percent error  x 100 %   0 . 8 %
0 . 1014

The only significant of the sign of the error (+ or -) is that the measured value is greater
or smaller than the accepted value. In the example above, the percent error, which is
measures the accuracy of the experiment, is larger than the precision. This is an
indication of existence of systematic error and can be corrected. If all systematic errors
have been eliminated, the accuracy should be comparable to the precision of the
experiment that measures random error. Thus the accuracy of the experiment is related
to the precision (random error) but is also related to possible systematic error.

PROPAGATION OF ERROR AND DEVIATIONS

Often the final result of an experiment will be a combination of the measurements of
several different items. The errors (or deviations) in all of those measurements are
combined to produced the error (or deviation) of the result. If two measurements are
added or subtracted, the error of the result is the sum of the absolute error of the two
measurements. If two measurements are multiplied or divided, the error of the result is
the sum of the relative error of the measurements. Identical rules to the propagation of
deviation.

7
GRAPHS
Graphs are used to present the data in picture from so that they can be more readily
grasped by the reader. Occasionally a graph is used to follow a trend. Notice that the
best smooth curve is drawn through the data points. This is not the same as connecting
the dots, all data points will not fall on the line. Often, a graph is used to show how well
data fit a straight line. The line drawn may either be visually estimated.
a) The graph must have a title. Title your graph. Make sure you describe what is
represented on the horizontal and vertical axes.
b) The scale you select should be easy to work with. Such as a 1 square represents
1, 2, 5, or 10. Or perhaps 5 squares represent a unit of 1, 10, or a multiple of ten,
such as 20,100, or 0.1. Never change the scale along an axis. However, you may
use a different scale for each axis.
c) Select a scale that uses the greatest portion of the paper. Don't go overboard
here. The axes must be both numbered and labeled.
d) Using a ruler draw the coordinate axes on the graph paper.
e) Put "tick" marks on the axes to show the measurements.
f) Plot your points and then draw a best fit curve or line. Do not connect the dots.

UNIT OF MEASUREMENT
The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Le Système
international d'unités) is the modern form of the metric system. It is the world's most
widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science.

The international system of units consists of a set of units together with a set of prefixes.
The units of SI can be divided into two subsets. There are seven base units. Each of
these base units is nominally dimensionally independent. From these seven base units
several other units are derived.

Name Symbol Quantity

meter m length
kilogram kg mass
second s time
ampere A electric current
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature
mole mol amount of substance
candela cd luminous intensity

8
A prefix may be added to units to produce a multiple of the original unit. All multiples are
integer powers of ten. For example, kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli-
denotes a multiple of a thousandth hence there are one thousand millimetres to the
metre and one thousand meters to the kilometer. The prefixes are never combined: a
millionth of a kilogram is a milligram not a microkilogram.

Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol Factor

12
tera- T 10 deci- d 10-1
giga- G 109 centi- c 10-2
mega- M 106 milli- m 10-3
kilo- k 103 micro- µ 10-6
hecto- h 102 nano- n 10-9
deca- da 101 pico- p 10-12

SI derived units are part of the SI system of measurement units and are derived from
the seven SI base units

Derived units with special names

SI base units (other
Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
units)
Frequency hertz Hz s−1 (1/s)
Energy joule J m2∙kg∙s−2 (N∙m)
Force Newton N m∙kg∙s−2 (m∙kg/s2)
Pressure Pascal Pa m−1∙kg∙s−2 (N/m2)
Electric charge coulomb C A∙s
Temperature Celsius °C K (t°C = tK − 273.15)
Volume Liter L dm3 (L)

Other quantities and units

Expression in terms
Physical Quantity Name Symbol
SI base units
area square meter m2 m2
volume cubic meter m3 m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s m·s−1
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2 m·s−2
density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3 kg·m−3
heat capacity joule per kelvin J/K kg·m2·s−2·K−1
molar heat
joule per kelvin mole J/(K·mol) kg·m2·s−2·K−1·mol−1
capacity

9
Conversion of units refers to conversion factors between different units of
measurement for the same quantity.

Mass unit
453.6 grams = 1 pound (Ib) 1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 kilogram = 1000 gram = 2.205 pound (Ib) 1 ounce = 28.35 grams
1 gram = 1000 milligram

Volume Unit
1 liter (L) = 1000 millimeter (mL) = 1000 cm3 1 cubic foot = 28.316 L
1 milliliter (mL) = 0.001 L = 1 cm3 1 gallon = 4.546 09 L
1 liter (L) = 1 dm³ = 0.001 m³

Length unit
1 mile = 1.609 kilometer = 5280 feet 2.54 cm = 1 inch
1 meter (m) = 100 cm = 39.37 inches 1 yard = 36 inches = 0.914 m
1 millimeter = 0.001 m = 0.1 cm 1 Angstrom (Å) = 1.0 x 10-8 cm = 0.10 nm

Energy
1 joule = 107 ergs 1 calorie = 4.184 joule

10
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Experiment 1: Usage and Calibrate of Mukasurat
1/1-9-2017
Lab Glassware Equipment 4

OBJECTIVE:
To calibrate glassware such as burette, pipette, volumetric flask, beaker, and measuring
cylinder and list possible errors that could occur in an experiment.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After conducting this experiment, you should be able to:
1. State the reasons why laboratory equipments must be calibrated prior to use;
2. Calibrate glassware’s; e.g. burette, pipette and volumetric flasks; and
3. List the possible errors that could occur in an experiment.

INTRODUCTION:
Chemists use a variety of glassware to measure the volume of chemicals. The
specific type of glassware used in any situation depends on how accurately or precisely
the volume needs to be known. An error is a bound on the precision and accuracy of the
result of a measurement.

These can be classified into two types: random error and systematic error.
Random error is caused uncertainty and carelessness in the measurement apparatus,
where as systematic errors is occur when the equipments used are imperfect or faulty
and were not calibrated before use. These errors could be minimized by checking and
calibrating the equipments prior to use.

Glassware is used for a wide variety of functions which include volumetric

measuring, storing chemicals or samples, mixing or preparing solutions or other
mixtures. For the burette, pipette and volumetric flask are made to determine specific
volume of a solution at a specific temperature. Therefore, it is important to determine the
type of glassware that will be used and calibrate it. Meanwhile, there are types of
glassware are used for the approximate measurement of volume likes reagent bottles,
beakers, conical flasks, and graduated cylinders. Normally they are used to prepare
solutions with an approximate concentration.

There are three general methods commonly employed to calibrate glassware.

These are as follows: Direct calibration: A volume of water delivered by a burette or
pipette, or contained in a volumetric flask, is obtained directly from the weight of the
water and its density (refer to Table 1.1). Indirect calibration: Volumetric glassware can
be calibrated by comparison of the mass of water it contains or delivers at a particular
temperature with that of another vessel which had been calibrated directly. The volumes
are directly related to the masses of water. This method is convenient if many pieces of
glassware are to be calibrated. Relative calibration: It is often necessary to know only
the volumetric relationship between two items of glassware without knowing the absolute
volume of either.

11
 This experiment will acquaint you with the precision, accuracy, and tolerance of
measurements made using a beaker with calibration marks, a graduated cylinder, a
burette, and a pipette. The objective of this experiment is to determine the accuracy and
precision of your volumetric glassware, so that you can chose the proper instrument for
our next analytical experiments

Table 1.1: Density of Water at Various Temperatures

Temperature, Density, Temperature, Density,

(C) (g/mL) (C) (g/mL)
23 0.9966 28 0.9955
24 0.9964 29 0.9952
25 0.9962 30 0.9949
26 0.9959 32 0.9944
27 0.9957 33 0.9941

LAB EQUIPMENT
100 mL volumetric flask 100 mL measuring cylinder
50 mL burette analytical balance
20 mL pipette funnel
150 mL beaker dropper
100 mL beaker wash bottle

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Distilled water

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Part A: Calibrate Burette

1. Wash, clean and dry 100 mL beaker (label A), and record its weight.
2. Clean the burette with distilled water.
3. By using funnel (avoid spilling) to pour the distilled water into the burette to a
point the mark for 0.00 volume; (make sure the portion of the burette below the
stopcock is filled or without any air bubbles).
4. Transfer 50 mL water from burette into beaker (label A).
5. Repeat step 3 and 4, by adding distilled water into beaker (label A) from burette
until the volume reaches 100 mL.
6. Record the weight of water and beaker for 100 mL volume. Calculate the density
of water (in g/mL).
7. Compare value of density was measured with standard density of water at
ambient temperature.
mass
density  (eq. 1.1)
volume

12
 8. Compare this calculated density to its actually density (via temperature) using the
percent error formula shown below:

| Theoritica l  Experiment |
x 100 %  % Error (eq. 1.2)
Theoretica l

Part B: Calibrate Pipette

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 100 mL beaker (label A) has been used, and records its
weight.
2. Rinse the 20 mL pipette with distilled water.
3. Fill the pipette by using pipette bulb until the distilled water is reach pipettes level
line
4. Transfer 20 mL water from pipette into beaker (label A). Withdraw the last drop of
water by touching it to the glass surface for about 15 seconds.
5. Repeat step 3 and 4, by adding distilled water into beaker (label A) from pipette
until the volume reaches 100 mL.
6. Record the weight of water and beaker for 100 mL volume. Calculate the density
of water (in g/mL).
7. Compare value of density was measured with standard density of water at
ambient temperature.

Part C: Calibrate Volumetric Flask

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 100 mL beaker (label A) has been used, and records its
weight.
2. Rinse and clean the 100 mL volumetric flask with distilled water.
3. Pour the distilled water into the volumetric flask until approximately ½ from the
marked level by using a funnel.
4. Use a clean dropper to add the water until it reaches the required level. Position
your eyes parallel to the meniscus level.
5. Transfer 100 mL water from volumetric flask into beaker (label A).
6. Record the weight of water and beaker for 100 mL volume. Calculate the density
of water (in g/mL).
7. Compare value of density was measured with standard density of water at
ambient temperature.

Part D: Calibrate Measuring Cylinder

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 100 mL beaker (label A) has been used, and records its
weight.
2. Rinse and clean the 100 mL measuring cylinder with distilled water.
3. Pour the distilled water into the measuring cylinder until it reaches the 100 mL
level. Position your eyes parallel to the meniscus level.
4. Transfer 100 mL water from measuring cylinder into beaker (label A).
5. Record the weight of water and beaker for 100 mL volume. Calculate the density
of water (in g/mL).
6. Compare value of density was measured with standard density of water at
ambient temperature.

13
Part E: Calibrate Beaker

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 100 mL beaker (label A) has been used, and records its
weight.
2. Rinse and clean the 150 mL beaker with distilled water.
3. Pour the distilled water into the beaker until it reaches the 100 mL level. Position
your eyes parallel to the meniscus level.
4. Transfer 100 mL water from 150 mL beaker into 100 mL beaker (label A).
5. Record the weight of water and beaker for 100 mL volume. Calculate the density
of water (in g/mL).
6. Compare value of density was measured with standard density of water at
ambient temperature.

14
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Experiment 2: Density of Liquid and Mukasurat
1/1-9-2017
Solid 3

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate the density of given substances from measured values of volume and mass

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After conducting this experiment, you should be able to:
1. Known that type of technique to determine the density of substance
2. Calculate the density of an unknown liquid
3. Calculate the density of an irregularly shaped solid.

INTRODUCTION:
Density is a physical property of liquids and solids. We can define density (d) as
the amount of mass is given volume (eq 2.1). The unit of density is g/cm3 or g/mL. For a
homogeneous object, the formula mass/volume may be used. To determine the density
of a liquid, the volume may be measured directly but the mass may use an indirect
technique called weighing by difference (Figure 2.1). The density of a solid material,
we can measure mass directly using balance but the volume especially an irregular
object cannot to be found directly. However, its can found indirectly from the amount of a
liquid it displaces. This technique is called volume displacement (Figure 2.2).

mass
density  (eq. 2.1)
volume

After collecting the experiment data, we can calculate density by dividing the
mass by the volume. However, most important calculated value was the proper unit. The
density of liquids and solids is usually expressed in gram per millimeter (g/mL) or gram
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since 1 mL = 1 cm3, the numerical value for density in g/mL
and g/cm3 is identical. For example, the density of water may be expressed as 1.00 g/mL
or 1.00 g/cm3.

Weighing by difference, the technique of the mass of the chemical was calculated
by subtracting the weight of an empty container from the total weight of the container and
chemical. Meanwhile, volume displacement technique based on Archimedes principle
that volume of solid (that sinks) is equal with displaces an amount of water. It is can be
calculated by the difference of volume before and volume after an object is immersed in
an amount of water.

15
 Figure 2.1: Weighing By Difference Figure 2.2: Volume Displacement

LAB EQUIPMENT
10 mL graduated cylinder Filter funnel
50 mL burette Dropper
100 mL beakers Wash bottle
Retort stands and clamps

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Distilled water
Unknown liquid
Irregularly shaped solid

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Part A: Calibration of Burette and Graduated Cylinder

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 10.0 mL graduated cylinder.

2. Clean the burette with distilled water.
3. By using funnel (avoid spilling) to pour the distilled water into the burette. Read
the initial level and its need not start at 0.00 mL (make sure the portion of the
burette below the stopcock is filled or without any air bubbles).
4. Carefully, transfer amount of water into graduated cylinder from the burette until
to a point the mark for 2.0 mL of cylinder. Read the final level and record these
data and calculate the volume of water.
5. Repeat step 4, by continues adding of water from the burette into cylinder for the
point of 4.0 mL, 6.0 mL, 8.0 mL and 10.0 mL.
6. From these data, plot a graph volume of graduated cylinder vs. volume of burette.
These calibration graph will be use for experiment Part B and Part C

16
Part B: Density of an Unknown Liquid

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 10.0 mL graduated cylinder (used in Part A)
2. Weigh the cylinder on an analytical balance. Record its mass to the nearest
0.01 g.
3. Obtain about 15 mL of an unknown liquid in a 100 mL beaker, and record the
unknown label.
4. By using a dropper, add between 2 to 4 mL of the unknown liquids to the cylinder.
Record the volume to the nearest 0.1 mL.
5. Weigh the liquid and cylinder on the same balance used for the first weighing,
and again records the mass to the nearest 0.01 g.
6. To validate your experimental technique, and repeat step 4 and 5 by using the
same liquid in set of volume of the unknown liquid between 5 to 7 mL and
between 8 to 10 mL.
7. Calculate the density of the unknown liquid from your mass and volume (from the
cylinder and calibration graph) data.
8. Return the liquid to its container when you finish with it.

Part C: Density of an Irregularly Shaped Solid

1. Rinse, clean and dry the 10.0 mL graduated cylinder (used in Part A).
2. Add about 4 to 5 mL of water to the cylinder and record the volume to the nearest
0.1 mL
3. Obtain an irregularly shaped object and record its identity label. Spread the solid
onto a towel and check to see if it is dry. Dry it with a towel, if necessary
4. Weight this object as accurately as possible and record it mass.
5. Till the graduated cylinder to about 40 angle and carefully slide the solid down
into the water (the solid should be completely submerged in water and not
exceed the capacity of the cylinder).
6. Gently tap the cylinder to remove any air bubbles adhering to the solid).
7. Record the new volume to the nearest 0.1 mL. The change in volume gives the
volume of the solid.
8. To validate your experimental technique, and repeat all step by using the same
object (must clean and dry) in set of volume between 5 to 6 mL and between
6 to 7 mL of the water to the cylinder.
9. Calculate the density of the unknown liquid from your mass and volume (from the
cylinder and calibration graph) data.

17
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Experiment 3: Preparation and Mukasurat
1/1-9-2017
Standardization of Solution 3

OBJECTIVE:
To prepared and determine the concentration of solution

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After conducting this experiment, you should be able to:
1. How to prepare the standard solution and dilute the solution
2. Determine the concentration of solution in various units

INTRODUCTION:
In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is
mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most
frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount
of solute in a substance

A solution generally consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent. To work quantitatively

with a solution we must have ways to express their concentrations. The most useful
expressions are molarity (M) density (g/L or g/mL) and percent weight (%w/w). A solution
is prepared in a volumetric flask to ensure that a precise final volume is obtained.
Molarity = moles of solute per liters of solution
Density = weight of solute per volume of solution
Percent weight = (weight of solute per weight of solution) x 100%

A standard solution is prepared from pure ( 99%) substance and the exact
concentration of the solution is known. Some solutions need to be standardized because
their concentrations vary over time due to chemical reactions such as oxidation.

To lower the concentration of solution, we use the process of dilution, or adding

more solvent to a solution. In this process, the relative numbers of solute and solvent
particles change. Adding more solvent increase the number of solvent particles and
increases the volume. For a given amount of the original solution, the number of solute
stays the same, but they are spread out through a greater volume, so their concentration
is less.

If we dilute a solution of known molarity, we can calculate the molarity of diluted

solution using the formula given by.

M 1V 1  M 2V 2 (eq. 3.1)
where M1 and V1 the molarity and volume of the solution before dilution, M2 and V2 are
the molarity volume of the solution after dilution

18
 Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative/chemical analysis which can
be used to determine the concentration of a known reactant. Because volume
measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. It was
process of determining the concentration of one substance in solution by reacting it with
a solution of another substance that has a known concentration. In a typical acid-base
titration, a pipette is used to precisely measure a volume of a solution of unknown
concentration into a conical flask, followed by the addition of an indicator solution.

An indicator solution is a dye that has one color in an acidic solution and another in a
basic solution. A standard solution is that added from the burette until some visual effect,
such as color change, signals that the reaction is complete. The solution in the burette is
referred to as the titrant.

In this experiment, you will be required to prepare a standard solution of oxalic acid.
The oxalic acid will be used to standardize a solution of sodium hydroxide of unknown
concentration. The chemical reaction between oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide occurs
as follows:
H 2 C 2 O 4  2 H 2 O  2 NaOH  Na 2 C 2 O 4  2 H 2 O (eq. 3.2)
The molar equivalence of the reactants can be calculated using the formula given by

M aV a M bV b
 (eq. 3.3)
a b
Where Ma and Va the molarity and volume of the acid, Mb and Vb are the molarity and the
volume of the base; a and b are the stoichiometric constants respectively.

LAB EQUIPMENT
Small and large beakers 20 mL pipette
100 mL volumetric flask Filter funnel
50 mL burette Dropper
Retort stands and clamps Glass rod
250 mL conical flask

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Oxalic acid crystal (H2C2O4  2H2O) Thymol blue indicator solution
NaOH solution (already prepared in the lab) Distilled water

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Part A: Preparation of solution

1. Weigh approximately 0.35 - 0.40 g of oxalic acid in a small beaker. Record the
exact weight of the acid.
2. Dissolved the acid in some distilled water and stirred by using glass rod.
3. Use funnel transfer all acid solution from beaker into a 100 mL volumetric flask
4. Add distilled water into volumetric flask until the diluted solution fills the flask to
the marked level.
5. Placed the stopper in the flask and inverted the flask for several times to
thoroughly mix the solution.
6. Calculate the concentration of solution in g/mL, g/L and molarity

19
Part B: Dilution of NaOH solution
1. Use a beaker to obtain approximately 30 mL of NaOH solution (already prepared
for you in the lab)
2. Pipet 20 mL of NaOH from beaker into a 100 mL volumetric flask
3. Add distilled water into volumetric flask until the diluted solution fills the flask to
the marked level.
4. Placed the stopper in the flask and inverted the flask for several times to
thoroughly mix the solution.

Part C: Titration
1. Set up the equipment for titration. Use a beaker to obtain approximately 80 mL of
NaOH solution (that have prepared from Part B)
2. Fill the burette with the oxalic acid that you have prepared from Part A (use a
funnel). Record the initial reading on the burette.
3. Pipet 20 mL of NaOH into a conical flask and add 2 - 5 drops of Thymol Blue.
Titrate the NaOH solution until the color of the solution changes from blue to a
permanent light yellow. Record the final reading.
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 two more times. Determine the average amount of oxalic
acid used.
5. Calculate the concentration of diluted NaOH and standard NaOH (already
prepared for you in lab)

Figure 3.1: Experimental setup for titration process

20
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Mukasurat
Experiment 4: Vinegar Analysis 1/1-9-2017
2

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the percent by mass of acetic acid in vinegar.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After conducting this experiment, you should be able to:
1. Calculate the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar
2. Determine the percent by mass of acetic acid in vinegar

INTRODUCTION:
Acetic acid is the chemical compound responsible for the characteristic odor and
sour taste of vinegar. Household vinegar is a 4 – 5 % (by mass) acetic acid, CH3COOH,
solution (4% is the minimum federal standard). Generally, caramel flavoring and coloring
are also added to make the product aesthetically more appealing. In this experiment you
are going to analyze a sample of vinegar to find the percent-by-mass of acetic acid in the
vinegar.

Volumetric analysis is a technique that employs the measurement of volumes to

determine quantitatively the amount of a substance in solution. In any reaction between
two or more species, the reaction equation will show the stoichiometric ratio of reacting
species. In a volumetric analysis, if one of these species is present in known molar
concentration, then by taking a fixed volume of one solution and progressively adding the
other solution, it is possible to find a point at which complete reaction of the substances
has occurred. This is called the equivalence point. The incremental process is called
titration and enables the concentration of a solution to be determined from the ratio of
reacting volumes, the stoichiometric equation and the one known concentration.

The titration techniques is the method used for determine of the percent by mass
of acetic acid in vinegar. A measured mass of vinegar is titrated to the phenolphthalein or
thymol blue endpoint with a measured volume of a standardized sodium hydroxide
solution. As the volume and molar concentration of the standardized NaOH solution are
known, the moles of NaOH used for the analysis are also known.

The moles of CH3COOH are calculated from the balanced equation:

CH 3 COOH  aq   NaOH  aq   NaCH 3 CO 2  aq   H 2 O  l  (eq. 4.1)

The mass of CH3COOH in the vinegar is calculated from the measured moles of
CH3COOH neutralized in the reaction and its molar mass, 60.05 g/mol:

Mass  g  of CH 3 COOH  mol CH 3 COOH  60 .05 g / mol CH 3 COOH (eq. 4.2)

21
Finally, the percent by mass of CH3COOH in vinegar is calculated:

mass ( g ) of CH 3 COOH
% by mass of CH 3 COOH   100 % (eq. 4.3)
mass ( g ) of vinegar

LAB EQUIPMENT
Volumetric flask 100 mL, Burette 50 mL,
Pipette 20 mL, Conical flask 125 or 250 mL

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Standardized NaOH solution, Thymol blue indicator
Sample of vinegar

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Clean 100 mL volumetric flask, and measure its mass.
2. Add the 10 mL of the vinegar to a volumetric flask with previously measured
mass.
3. Measure the combined mass of the volumetric flask and sample of vinegar.
4. Dilute a concentrated solution with fill the volumetric flask to the 100 mL mark
using distilled water, gently shake the solution.
5. In 125 or 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask, pipette 20 mL of the diluted acid solution
(from volumetric flask). Add 5 drop of thymol blue indicator solution.
6. Rinse a clean 50 mL burette with the standardized NaOH solution; fill the burette
with NaOH solution. Adjust the volume to the zero mark and record the initial
volume.
7. Titrate the sample solution with NaOH solution until the solution just turns blue
and the blue color persists for 30 seconds. Read and record the final volume of
NaOH titrant in the burette.
8. Repeat the titration procedure above (step 5 to 7), 2 more times.

22
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Mukasurat
Experiment 5: Boyle’s Law 1/1-9-2017
2

OBJECTIVE:
The primary objective of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the
pressure and volume of a confined gas.

INTRODUCTION:
The gas we use will be air, and it will be confined in a syringe connected to a Pressure
Sensor (see Figure 5.1). When the volume of the syringe is changed by moving the
piston, a change occurs in the pressure exerted by the confined gas. This pressure
change will be monitored using a Pressure Sensor. It is assumed that temperature will
be constant throughout the experiment. Pressure and volume data pairs will be collected
during this experiment and then analyzed. From the data and graph, you should be able
to determine what kind of mathematical relationship exists between the pressure and
volume of the confined gas. Historically, this relationship was first established by Robert
Boyle in 1662 and has since been known as Boyle’s law.

Figure 5.1: Experimental setup for Boyle’s Law

LAB EQUIPMENT
Windows PC Vernier computer interface Vernier Gas Pressure Sensor
Logger Pro 20-mL gas syringe

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Air

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the Pressure Sensor and an air sample for data collection.
a. Plug the Pressure Sensor into Channel 1 of the computer interface. With the
20-mL syringe disconnected from the Pressure Sensor, move the piston of the
syringe until the front edge of the inside black ring (indicated by the arrow in
Figure 5.1) is positioned at the 10.0 mL mark.
b. Attach the 20-mL syringe to the valve of the Pressure. Newer Vernier Gas
Pressure Sensors have a white stem protruding from the end of the sensor
box—attach the syringe directly to the white stem with a gentle half-turn.

23
2. Prepare the computer for data collection.
a. Prepare the computer for data collection by opening the Experiment 6 folder
from Chemistry with Computers. Then open the experiment file that matches
the sensor you are using.
b. On the Graph window, the vertical axis has pressure scaled from 0 to 250 kPa.
The horizontal axis has volume scaled from 0 to 20 mL.
3. Click Collect to begin data collection.
4. Collect the pressure vs. volume data. It is best for one person to take care of the
gas syringe and for another to operate the computer.
a. Move the piston to position the front edge of the inside black ring (see Figure
5.2) at the 5.0-mL line on the syringe. Hold the piston firmly in this position until
the pressure value stabilizes.
b. When the pressure reading has stabilized, click Keep. Type “5.0” in the edit
box. Press the ENTER key to keep this data pair. Note: You can choose to redo
a point by pressing the ESC key (after clicking Keep, but before entering a
value).Continue the procedure for volumes of 7.5, 10.0, 12.5, 15.0, 17.5, and
20.0 mL.
c. Click Stop when you have finished collecting data.
5. In your data table, record the pressure and volume data pairs displayed in the
Table window (or, if directed by your instructor, print a copy of the Table window).
6. Examine the graph of pressure vs. volume. Based on this graph, decide what kind
of mathematical relationship you think exists between these two variables, direct or
inverse. To see if you made the right choice:
a. Click the Curve Fit button,.
b. Choose Variable Power (y = Ax^n) from the list at the lower left. Enter the value
of n in the Degree/Exponent edit box that represents the relationship shown in
the graph (e.g.,type “1” if direct, “-1” if inverse). Click Try Fit.
c. A best-fit curve will be displayed on the graph. If you made the correct choice,
the curve should match up well with the points. If the curve does not match up
well, try a different exponent and click Try Fit again. When the curve has a good
fit with the data points, then click OK.
7. Once you have confirmed that the graph represents either a direct or inverse
relationship, print a copy of the Graph window, with the graph of pressure vs.
volume and its best-fit curve displayed. Enter your name(s) and the number of
copies you want to print.

Figure 5.2: Experimental setup for Boyle’s law

24
 UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL No. Dokumen: No. Isu./Tarikh
MALAYSIA MELAKA TB/MMK/ BETV 1013 1/1-9-2017

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY Jumlah

No. Semakan/Tarikh
Experiment 6: Heat of Reaction of Mukasurat
1/1-9-2017
Carbonates 3

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate the heat of reaction of carbonates compound

INTRODUCTION:
Chemical reactions are always accompanied by energy changes. A chemical
reaction that releases heat energy to the environment is said to be exothermic. One that
absorbs heat from the environment is said to be endothermic. The heat change of a
system at constant pressure is called the heat of reaction or enthalpy change. The
enthalpy change of a system is given by symbol H. The heat content of a system which
undergoes an exothermic reaction is negative because the heat content is reduced.

Calorimetry is the basic technique for studying any process where heat energy is
of interest. Calorimeters are designed to be well-insulated, so no heat is gained from or
lost to the surroundings. The basic strategy in calorimetry is to use a temperature
change and a heat capacity to determine the heat of reaction using the following
equation:

q so ln  m  s   T   C p   T  (eq. 6.1)

where, q so ln is the heat of reaction of the solution

m is the total masses of the reaction
s is the specific heat capacity of the final solution
T = Tfinal – Tinitial
Cp is the heat capacity of calorimeter

The heat capacity of the calorimeter, Cp is often ignored such that equation 6.1
may be simplified as follows:

q so ln  m  s   T  (eq. 6.2)

The molar enthalpy of a reaction, Hsoln is negative of the heat of reaction, qsoln
per mole of limiting reagent, n

 q so ln
 H so ln  (eq. 6.3)
n

25
The objective of this experiment is to determine the heat of reaction (qrxn) and calculate
the molar enthalpy H of following reactions:

Na 2 CO 3  2 HCl  2 NaCl  H 2 O  CO 2 H1 = x kJ (eq. 6.4)

NaHCO 3
 HCl  NaCl  H 2 O  CO 2 H2 = y kJ (eq. 6.5)

The calculations are simplified by assuming the value of s as equal to 4.18 J/ g C and
the density of the final solution as equal to 1.0 g/mL. The heat capacity of the calorimeter
can be ignored.

LAB EQUIPMENT
Thermometer Glass stirrer
20 mL pipette Small towel
50 mL beaker Large filter paper or cardboard (calorimeter
100 mL beaker covering)
200 mL beaker

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS

Hydrochloric acid, HCl 2.0 M
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Construct a simple calorimeter (see figure 6.1) using the 100 mL and 200 mL
beakers and a small towel. Be sure to dry the inner beaker thoroughly before use.
2. Using the inner beaker, weigh 1.80 – 2.20 g of Na2CO3. Record the exact weight
of the solid. Place the inner beaker inside the larger beaker as shown in the
figure.
3. Pipet 20 mL of the HCl solution into another beaker and measure initial
temperature, Tinitial (to one decimal place)
4. Pour the acid into the calorimeter and immediately replace the calorimeter
covering. Stir the solution and determine the highest temperature (if temperature
rises) or lowest temperature (if the temperature decreases). Record this
temperature as the final temperature of the reaction, Tfinal.
5. Thoroughly clean the inner beaker (of the calorimeter) and repeat step 2 – 4, this
time weight 2.5 – 3.0 g of NaHCO3.
6. Calculate T, qsoln and H1 and H2

26
 Thermometer

Stirrer

Calorimeter
Covering
200 mL beaker
100 mL beaker

Insulator
(Towel) Solution

Figure 6.1: A Simple Calorimeter

27
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 1
Usage and Calibrate of Lab Glassware Equipment

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Water temperature (C): ……………………

Measured Beaker A True Density of Percent

Beaker A
volume with water volume water error
(g)
(ml) (g) (g) (g/mL) (%)

Burette

Pipette

Volumetric
flask

Measuring
cylinder

Beaker

Average result: Average percent error Rank of most precise

equipment
Burette ………...………….. ………...…………
Pipette ……………...…….. ……………...……
Volumetric flask …………………..... …………………...
Measuring cylinder …………………….. …………………...
Beaker …………………….. …………………...

28
B. QUESTIONS

1. How do the finding compare to your expectations? Explain

2. What is the difference in terms of usage for

a. volumetric flask

b. burette

c. measuring cylinder

3. Why is that the last drop of water or solution should no be blown out during the
transfer using a pipette?

29
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 2
Density of Liquid and Solid

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Part A: Calibration of Burette and Graduated Cylinder

Volume of graduated cylinder (mL) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Volume of burette (mL)

1. Sketch the graph of volume graduated cylinder vs volume of burette.

Part B: Density of an Unknown Liquid

Liquid label: ………………………

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Weighing
Result:
Mass of graduated cylinder (g)
……………… ……………… ………………
Total mass: graduated cylinder
+ liquid (g) ……………… ……………… ………………
Mass of liquid (g)
……………… ……………… ………………

Measuring of volume:
Volume of liquid in graduated
cylinder (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………
Volume of liquid from
calibration graph (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Calculating of density:
Density of liquid ……………… ……………… ………………

Average density ……………….………….

30
Part C: Density of an Irregularly Shaped Solid

Solid object label: …………..……

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Weighing
Result:
Mass of solid object (g)
……………… ……………… ………………

Measuring of volume:
Volume of water in
graduated cylinder (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………
Total volume :water+ solid
object (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Volume of solid object (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Volume of solid object from
calibration graph (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Calculating of density:
Density of solid object ……………… ……………… ………………

Average density ……………….………….

B. QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the density of a rectangular solid which has a mass 25.71 g. It is

2.30 cm long, 4.01 cm wide and 1.82 cm high.

31
2. The density of pure gold is 19.3 g/mL. A ‘gold’ bracelet has a mass of 48.2 g and
displaces 3.00 mL of water. Is the bracelet pure gold?

3. The mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 1024 kg and average diameter is 12700 km.
assuming the earth is spherical, what is the average density of our planet in
g/cm3

32
33
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 3
Preparation and Standardization of Solution

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Part A: Preparation of solution

Preparation of solution result:
Mass of beaker (g) : ………………………………

Total mass: beaker + oxalic acid (g) : ………………………………

Mass of oxalic acid (g) : ………………………………

Molar mass of oxalic acid (g/mol) : ………………………………

Volume of oxalic acid solution (mL) : ………………………………

1. Calculate the concentration of solution in g/mL, g/L and molarity

34
Part B: Dilution of NaOH solution
Dilution of NaOH solution result:
Initial volume of NaOH solution (mL) : ………………………………
Final volume of NaOH solution (mL) : ………………………………

Part C: Titration

Molarity of standard oxalic acid (M) : ……………………………

Volume of NaOH solution for titration (mL) : ……………………………

Titration: Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Initial reading (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Final reading (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Volume of oxalic acid
(mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Average of used oxalic acid (mL) …………………….……

B. QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the molarity of diluted NaOH and standard NaOH (already prepared for
you in lab)

35
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 4
Vinegar Analysis

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Concentration NaOH Solution (M) …………………………….…

Vinegar Sample (brand) …………………………….…

Volume of Vinegar (mL) …………………………….…

Mass of volumetric flask (g) …………………………….…

Mass of volumetric flask + vinegar sample (g) …………………………….…

Mass of vinegar sample (g) …………………………….…

Titration: Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Initial reading (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Final reading (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Volume of NaOH (mL) ……………… ……………… ………………

Average of used NaOH (mL) …………………………

B. QUESTIONS
1. Calculate molar concentration of acid acetic in the vinegar sample after titration

36
2. Calculate the percent by mass (% w/w) of acid acetic in this vinegar?

3. Compare with minimum federal standard, calculate the percent of differences of

vinegar? Give comment.

4. Why vinegar sample must to be diluted before titration?

37
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 5
Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume Relationship in Gases

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Volume (mL) Pressure (kPa) Constant, k

B. QUESTIONS
1. If the volume is doubled from 5.0 mL to 10.0 mL, what does your data show happens
to the pressure? Show the pressure values in your answer.

2. If the volume is halved from 20.0 mL to 10.0 mL, what does your data show happens
to the pressure? Show the pressure values in your answer.

38
3. If the volume is tripled from 5.0 mL to 15.0 mL, what does your data show happened
to the pressure? Show the pressure values in your answer.

4. From your answers to the first three questions and the shape of the curve in the plot
of pressure versus volume, do you think the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a confined gas is direct or inverse? Explain your answer.

5. Based on your data, what would you expect the pressure to be if the volume of the
syringe was increased to 40.0 mL? Explain or show work to support your answer.

6. Based on your data, what would you expect the pressure to be if the volume of the
syringe was decreased to 2.5 mL? Explain or show work to support your answer.

39
7. What experimental factors are assumed to be constant in this experiment?

8. One way to determine if a relationship is inverse or direct is to find a proportionality

constant, k, from the data. If this relationship is direct, k = P/V. If it is inverse,
k = P x V. Based on your answer to Question 4, choose one of these formulas and
calculate k for the seven ordered pairs in your data table (divide or multiply the P and
V values). Show the answers in the third column of the Data and Calculations table.

9. How constant were the values for k you obtained in Question 8? Good data may
show some minor variation, but the values for k should be relatively constant.

10. Using P, V, and k, writes an equation representing Boyle’s law. Write a verbal
statement that correctly expresses Boyle’s law.

40
 LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 6
Heat of Reaction of Carbonates

Student Name: Course: Section:

Instructor: Table No. Date:

A. DATA AND RESULT

Part A:
Weighing
Result:
Mass of beaker (g) ……………..………….

Total mass: graduated cylinder + Na2CO3 (g) ……………..………….

Mass of Na2CO3 (g) ……………..………….

Temperature Initial (C) ……………… Final (C) ……………….

T(C) ……………..…………..

Part B:
Weighing
Result:
Mass of beaker (g) ……………..………….

Total mass: graduated cylinder + NaHCO3 (g) ……………..………….

Mass of NaHCO3 (g) ……………..………….

Temperature: Initial (C) ……………… Final (C) ………………..

T(C) ……………..…………..

B. QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the heat of reaction

41
2. Calculate the enthalpy reaction

3. Which reaction is endothermic or exothermic? Write the thermochemical equation.

4. Student performs a calibration experiment to determine the heat capacity of the

calorimeter. The student mixes 25.0 mL of warm water at 41.2°C and 35.0 mL of cool
water at 15.1°C. The final temperature of the mixture is 19.8°C. Assume that the
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °C and that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
Calculate the heat capacity of the calorimeter.

42
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 1

1. Give an example for each of the following terms:

a. Matter b. Substance c. Mixture

2. Give an example of homogeneous mixture and an example of heterogeneous mixture.

3. Explain the difference between a physical property and chemical property.

4. As the following statements describe chemical and physical property.

a. Water boils below 100C on top of a mountain.
b. Lead is denser than aluminum.
c. Sugar tastes sweets.

5. Give the SI units for expressing the following:

a. Length b. volume c. mass d. time e. energy f. temperature

6. Write the numbers presented by the following prefixes:

a. mega- b. kilo- c. deci- d. centi- e. milli- f. micro- g. nano- h. pico-

7. An oversea flight leave New York in the late afternoon and arrives in London 8.50 hours later. The airline
distance from New York to London is about 5.6 x 103 km. What is the average speed of the plane in
kilometers per hours? (658.8 km/h)

8. Express normal body temperature, 98.60F in C and Kelvin. (37.0C, 310.15 K)

9. Carry out the following conversions.

a. 76.3 mm to meters (0.0763 m)
b. 482.2 in3 to cubic centimeters (7902 cm3)
c. 476 cm2 to square inches (73.8 in2)

10. An average adult has 5.2 L of blood, what volume of blood in m3? (5.2 x 10-3 m3)

11. A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is 0.0833 pound (Ib), what is this mass in
milligrams (mg)? (3.78 x 104 mg)

12. To determine the density of ethyl alcohol, a student pipettes a 5.00 mL sample into an empty flask weight
15.246 g, he finds that the mass of the flask + ethyl alcohol =19.171 g. Calculate the density of ethyl alcohol.
(0.785 g/mL)

13. The density of ethanol, a colorless liquid is 0.798 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 17.4 mL of the liquid?
(13.9 g)

14. Carry out the following conversions

a. 90.0 km/h to meters per second. (25.0 m/s)
b. 4.17 g/s to kilograms per hour. (15.0 kg/h)
c. 1.39 ft/s to kilometer per hour. (1.53 km/h)

15. The commonly accepted measurement now used by dietary specialist in assessing whether a person is
overweight is the body mass index (BMI). BMI is based on a person’s weight and height. It is the mass, in
kilograms, divided by the square of the height in meters, which is, expressed in kg/m2. Generally speaking, if
the BMI exceeds 25, a person considered overweight. What is the BMI of a person is 69.0 inches tall and
weight 158 Ib? (23.3 kg/m2)

43
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 2

1. Compare the properties of the following: proton, neutron and electron? Describe the structure of the atom?

2. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?

A
3. Explain the meaning of each term in the symbol Z
X

4. Give the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the following species
a) 178O b) 19980Hg c) 20080Hg d) 147N3- e) 5426Fe2+ f) 3115P3- g) 13053I- h) 10747Ag+

5. Write the names and symbols for four elements in each of the following categories:
a) nonmetal b) metal c) metalloid

6. Define with two examples, the following terms:

a) alkali metals b) alkaline earth metals c) halogens d) noble gases

7. Give an example of each of the following:

a) a monatomic b) a monatomic anion c) a polyatomic cation d) a polyatomic anion

8. Identify the following as elements or compounds: NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2

9. Give number of protons, neutrons and electrons for each of the following common ions: Na+, Ca2+, Al3+, Fe2+,
I-, F-, S2-, O2-, N3-, K+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Br-, Mn2+, C4-, and Cu2+

10. Define molecular formula and empirical formula. What are the similarities and differences between the
empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound?

11. What are the empirical formulas of the following compounds:

a) C2N2 b) C6H6 c) C9H20 d) P4O10 e) B2H6 f) Al2Br6 g) Na2S2O4

12. Explain why the formula HCl can represent two different chemical systems?

13. Name the following compounds:

a) HBr b) Al(OH)3 c) HNO2 d) Fe2O3 e) CaCl2 f) Li3N
g) NH4NO2 h) H2O i) KMnO4 j) Na2S2O4 k) K2Cr2O7 l) TiCl4

14. Write the formulas for the following compounds:

a) potassium chloride b) ammonia c) barium iodide d) hydrogen bromide
e) sodium chlorate f) titanium (IV) oxide g) nitric acid h) hydrobromic acid

15. Predict the formula and name of a binary compound formed from the following element:
a) Na and H b) B and O c) Al and F d) Na and S
e) F and O f) Sr and Cl

44
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 3

1. There are three naturally occurring isotopes of neon. Their percent abundances are: neon-20 (90.51%),
neon-21 (0.27%), neon-22 (9.22%). Calculate weighted average atomic mass of neon. (20.19 g/mol)

2. The atomic masses of 63Li and 73Li are 6.0151 amu and 7.0160 amu, respectively. Calculate the neutral
abundances of these two isotopes. The average atomic mass of Li is 6.941 amu. (92.5%, 7.5%)

3. Calculate the formula masses of:

a) Li2O b) BaCl2 c) Mg(NO3)2 d) Al2Br6 e) K2Cr2O7 f) Ba(OH) g) NaHCO3 h) CaSO4.2H2O
4. Calculate
i. the mass, in gram, of 0.155 mol C3H8
ii. the mass, in milligrams, of 2.45 x 10-4 mol of ethane, C2H6
iii. the number of moles of C4H10 in a 165 kg sample
iv. the number of moles of phosphoric acid in a 760 mg sample.
5. Calculate
a. The number of moles of aluminum in cube of the metal 5.5 cm an edge (d = 2.70 g/cm3)
b. The volume occupied by 1.38 mol carbon tetrachloride, a liquid with a density of 1.59 g/mL
6. Phenol has composition 76.57% C, 6.43% H and 17.00% O. Determine its empirical formula.
7. Resorcinol, used in manufacturing resins drugs and other products, is 65.44% C, 5.49% H, and 29.06% O
by mass. Its molecular mass is 110 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?

8. Balance the following equation:

a. PCl5 (s) + H2O (l)  H3PO4 (aq) + HCl (aq) c) Mg3N2 (s) + H2O (l)  Mg(OH)2 (s) + NH3 (g)
b. PbO (s) + NH3 (g)  Pb (s) + N2 (g) + H2O (l) d) Fe (s) + O2 (g) (s)  Fe2O3 (s)

9. All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxide.
A typical reaction is that between lithium and water.
Li (s) + H2O (l)  LiOH (aq) + H2 (g) (not balanced)
a. How many moles of H2 will be formed by the complete reaction of 6.23 moles of Li with water?
b. How many grams of H2 will be formed by the complete reaction of 80.57 g of Li with water?
c. How many grams of LiOH will be formed by the complete reaction of 80.57 g of Li with water?

10. Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepares by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:

NH3 + CO2  (NH2)2CO + H2O (not balanced)
In one process 637.2 g of NH3 are allowed to react with 1142 g of CO2.
a. Which of the reactants is limiting reagent?
b. Calculate, the mass of (NH2)2CO formed? And excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
11. What is the molarity of an 85.0 mL ethanol (C2H5OH) solution containing 1.77 g of ethanol?
12. The label of a stock bottle of aqueous ammonia indicates that the solution 28% NH3 by mass and has
density of 0.898 g/mL. Calculate the molarity of solution.
13. Describe how you would prepare 5.00 x 102 mL of 1.75 M H2SO4 solution starting with an 8.61 M stock
solution of H2SO4
14. How many milliliter of a 0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to neutralize 20.0 mL of a H2SO4 solution?
NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O (not balanced)

45
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 4

1. Describe the four quantum numbers used to characterize an electron in an atom.

2. An electron in an atom is in the n = 3 quantum level. List the possible values of l and ml that it can have.

3. What is electron configuration? Describe the role that the Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund’s rule play in
writing the configuration of elements.

4. Explain the meaning of the symbol 4d6

5. How many electrons are permitted in each of the following subshells

a. 2s b. 4d c. 6p d. fifth shell e. 5f

6. Write detailed electron configurations and an orbital diagram for the following atoms and ions:
a. K b. Mn2+ c. P d. O2- e. C f. N
g. Fe 2+ h. Fe 3+ i. Ca 2+ j. Li k. Cu l. Cu+
m. B n. Ne o. Cl p. Cl - q. Na r. Na+

7. What neutral atom is presented by each of the following configurations

a. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
b. 1s2 2s2 2p1
c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

8. Explain the meaning of diamagnetic and paramagnetic.

9. Define the magnetic properties (paramagnetic or diamagnetic) for the following atoms.
a. K b. Mn2+ c. P d. C e. Li f. N
g. Fe2+ h. Fe3+ i. Ca2+ j. Cu k. Sr l. Ar

10. Which of the following elements are metals, nonmetals or metalloids?

a. As b. Xe c. Fe d. Li e. B f. Cl
g. Ba h. P i. I j. Si k. Sr l. Ar

11. What is representative element? Give names and symbols of for four representative elements.

12. A neutral atom of certain element has 20 electrons. (a) Write the ground-state electron configuration of the
element, (b) classify the element, and (c) determine whether the atoms of these elements are diamagnetic or
paramagnetic.

13. Write the outer electron configurations for the

a. alkali metals
b. alkaline earth metals
c. halogens
d. noble gases

14. Specify the group of the periodic table in which each of the following elements is found:
a. [Ne] 3s1
b. [Ne] 3s2 3p3
c. [Ne] 3s2 3p6
d. [Ar] 4s2 3d8

15. Group the species that are isoelectronic: Be2+, F-, Fe2+, N3-, He, S2-, Co3+, Ar

46
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 5

1. Use the second member of each group from Group 1A to Group 7A to show that the number of valance
electrons on an atom of the element is the same as its group number.

2. Use Lewis dot symbol to show the formation of aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

3. Explain what an ionic bond is? And name five metals and five nonmetals that are very likely to form ionic
compounds

4. Show the formulation of ionic bonds between these following atoms. What are the name and formula of the
compound that results
a. Barium and iodine b. Aluminum and oxygen

5. What is Lewis’s contribution to our understanding of the covalent bond?

6. Show the formation of covalent bonds between these following atoms. What are the name and formula of
the compound that result
a. 1 carbon, 3 hydrogen and 1 chlorine b. 1 nitrogen and 3 hydrogen

7. Write Lewis structures for the following molecules:

a. ICl b. PH3 c. BF3 d. CO32- e. N2H4

8. Determine whether each of the following is polar or non polar

a. SO2 b. BF3 c. CO2

9. Give an example for each type of intermolecular forces.

a. dipole-dipole interaction b. dipole-induced dipole interaction c. ion-dipole interaction
d. dispersion forces e. van der Waals forces

10. Arrange the following sets of atoms in the expected order of increasing electronegativity, that is from lowest
to highest electronegativity value
a. Cl, Mg, Si, Al b. P, As, N, Sb c. As, Se, Br

11. Indicate the polar nature (+ and -) of the following bond.
a. Br --- Cl b. H --- Cl c. I ---Cl d. Cl ---F

12. Which of the following can form hydrogen bonds with water? CH3OCH3, CH4, HF, CHOOH

13. Which of the following species are capable of hydrogen bonding among themselves? H2S, C6H6, CH3OH

14. Diethyl ether has a boiling point of 34.5C and 1-butanol has a boiling point of 117C:

Diethyl ether 1-butanol

Both of these compounds have the same number and types of atoms. Explain the difference in their boiling
points

47
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 6

1. What is a phase change? Name all possible changes that can occur among the vapor, liquid, and solid
phases of a substance.

2. List the physical characteristic of gas. Name five element and five compounds that exist as gases at room
temperature.

3. What is the pressure in atmospheres of a gas that supports a column of mercury to a height of 808 mm
(1.06 atm)

4. A 4.0 L sample of gas at 700 torr pressure is changed at constant temperature until its pressure is
1.315789 atm. What is its new volume? (2.80 L)

5. A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a pressure of 726 mmHg. Calculate the pressure
of the gas (in mmHg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154 mL.

6. A 6.50 L sample of gas is warmed at constant pressure from 2C to 77C. What is its final volume
(8.27 L)

7. A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125C. Calculate the temperature at which the gas will
occupy 1.54 L if the pressure remains constant.

8. Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6 is a colorless, odorless, very unreactive gas. Calculate the pressure exerted by
1.82 moles of gas in steel vessel of volume 5.43 L at 69.5C

9. What volume will 7.00 g of O2 occupy at STP? (4.91 L)

10. If 0.00206 kg of a gas occupies 3.33 L at 17C and 700 torr. What is the molar mass of the gas?
(16.0 g/mol)

11. Calculate the density of carbon dioxide in grams per liter (g/L) at 752 mmHg and 55C.

12. What volume does the oxygen gas liberated by heating 3x10-4 kg of KClO3 until it completely decomposition
to KCl and O2 occupy? The gas is collected at STP (0.0827 L)

13. Ethanol (C2H5OH) burn in air.

C2H5OH (l) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Balance the equation and determine the volume of air in liters at 35.0C and 790 mmHg required to burn
227 g of ethanol. Assume that air is 21.0 percent O2 by volume.

14. Explain why liquids unlike gases, are virtually in compressible.

15. What is surface tension? What is the relationship between intermolecular forces and surface tension?

16. What is viscosity? What is the relationship between intermolecular forces and viscosity?

17. Describe and give examples of the following types of crystals.

a. ionic crystals b. covalent crystals c. molecular crystals d. metallic crystals

18. Explain why diamond is harder than graphite. Why graphite is an electrical conductor but diamond is not?

19. What is an amorphous solid? How does it differ from crystalline solid?

48
Technical Chemistry BETV 1013

Chapter 7

1. Define and give an example of each the following terms: thermal energy, chemical energy, potential energy,
kinetic energy, law of conservation of energy.

2. Explain the following terms: thermochemistry, system, surroundings, open system, closed system, isolated
system, exothermic process, and endothermic process.

3. Calculate the heat evolved when 266 g of white phosphorus (P4), burn in air according to the equation.
P4 (s) + 5 O2 (g)  P4O10 (s) H = -3013 kJ (-6.47 x 103 kJ)

4. How much heat, does it take to raise the temperature of 225 g of water from 25.0C to 100C. (Specific heat
of water is 4.18 J g-1 K-1) (70.5 kJ)

5. A quantity of 1.922 g of methanol (CH3OH) was burned in a constant-volume bomb calorimeter.

Consequently the temperature of water rose by 4.20C. If the quantity of water surrounding the calorimeter
was exactly 2000 g and the heat capacity of calorimeter was 2.02 kJ/K, calculate the molar heat of
combustion of CH3OH. (-727 kJ/mol)

6. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that is used to synthesis a variety of organic
compounds, such as methanol. One reaction for producing synthesis gas is show here:

3 CH4 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + CO2 (g)  4 CO (g) + 8 H2 (g)

Calculate the standard enthalpy change for this reaction if the standard enthalpies of formation
CH4 (g) = -74.81 kJ mol-1, H2O (l) = -285.8 kJ mol-1, CO2 (g) = -393.5 kJ mol -1 and CO (g) = -110.5 kJ mol-1
(+747.5 kJ)

7. Ethylene derived from petroleum, is used to make ethanol for use as fuel or solvent, the reaction is
C2H2 (g) + H2O (l)  CH3CH2OH (l)
Calculate H for this reaction, when the standard enthalpies of formation C2H2 = 226.7 kJ/mol,
H2O = -285.8 kJ/mol, and CH3CH2OH = -277.7 kJ/mol (-44.2 kJ)

8. Use the following equation:

H2S (g) + 3/2 O2 (g)  H2O (l) +SO2 (g) H = -562 kJ
CS2 (l) + 3 O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2 SO2 (g) H = -1075 kJ
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction
CS2 (l) + 2 H2O  CO2 (g) + 2H2S (g) H = ? (+48 kJ)

9. Use the following equation:

N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  N2O4 (g) H = +9.2 kJ
N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  NO2 (g) H = +33.2 kJ
To calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction
2 NO2 (g)  N2O4 (g) H = ? (24.0 kJ)

10. Determine the enthalpy change for the oxidation of ammonia.

4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g)  4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (l)
From the following data:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g)  2 NH3 (g) H = -99.2 kJ
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO (g) H = +180.5 kJ
2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 H2O (g) H = -571.6 kJ (-1170 kJ)

49