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1. Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule

Point Questionnaire Schedule
1. Definition A written list of questions filled A list of questions filled out by
out by the respondent. the enumerator on behalf of the
respondent.
2. Who fills it? Respondent themselves. Enumerator (interviewer) fills it
based on respondent's
answers.
3. Cost Low, as no trained personnel Higher, as trained
required. enumerators/interviewers are
needed.
4. Use in Literacy Suitable for literate Suitable for both literate and
respondents. illiterate respondents.
5. Response Rate Generally lower. Generally higher due to
personal interaction.
6. Flexibility Less flexible; lacks explanation More flexible; enumerator can
or probing. clarify and probe further.
7. Reliability of Responses May contain inaccurate or More reliable and complete
incomplete answers. data due to guided questioning.
8. Suitability for Large Suitable for large and Suitable for smaller or localized
Surveys geographically dispersed surveys.
surveys.

2. Difference between Primary and Secondary Data

Point Primary Data Secondary Data
1. Definition Data collected first-hand for a Data already collected and
specific research purpose. published by others.
2. Source Collected from original sources Obtained from books, reports,
by researcher. journals, websites, etc.
3. Accuracy Generally more accurate and May be less accurate or
reliable for the study. outdated.
4. Cost Expensive and time-consuming.Cheaper and quicker to obtain.
5. Specificity Tailored to specific research May not exactly fit the current
needs. research objectives.
6. Examples Surveys, interviews, Census data, company records,
observations, experiments. published research papers.
7. Control Researcher has full control over No control over how the data
the method and process. was collected.
8. Time of Availability Takes time to collect and Available immediately.
process.

3. Difference between Probability and Non-Probability

Sampling
Point Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
1. Definition Every unit has a known and Units are selected based on
non-zero chance of selection. judgment or convenience.
2. Basis of Selection Random selection using Subjective selection; not
statistical methods. random.
3. Bias Minimizes bias. Higher risk of selection bias.
4. Representativeness More representative of the May not represent the entire
population. population accurately.
5. Statistical Validity Allows for generalization and Cannot reliably generalize
statistical inference. findings to the whole
population.
6. Examples Simple random sampling, Convenience sampling, quota
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, purposive sampling.
sampling.
7. Complexity Requires more time, planning, Simpler and quicker to execute.
and resources.
8. Use in Research Preferred in quantitative Common in qualitative or
studies. exploratory research.

1. Steps of Research Process

1. Identifying the Problem: Define the issue or question you want to investigate. It should be
clear and specific.

2. Review of Literature: Study existing research to understand what has already been done and
where gaps exist.

3. Formulating Hypotheses: Develop testable predictions based on theories or previous studies.

4. Collecting Data: Gather information through surveys, experiments, observations, or other

methods.

5. Analyzing and Interpreting Data: Use statistical or qualitative tools to make sense of the data
and draw conclusions.

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2. Characteristics of Research

1. Systematic and Organized: Research follows a structured approach with clearly defined
steps.

2. Objective and Unbiased: Research should be neutral, avoiding personal opinions or biases.

3. Based on Empirical Evidence: It uses observed and measured phenomena to form

conclusions.

4. Replicable and Verifiable: Other researchers should be able to repeat the study and get
similar results.

5. Addresses a Specific Problem: Research aims to solve or understand a particular issue.

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3. Features of a Good Research Design

1. Clearly Defined Objectives: The purpose and goals of the research must be clearly stated.

2. Minimizes Bias and Error: The design should reduce chances of incorrect conclusions.

3. Efficient and Economical: It uses resources wisely while achieving accurate results.

4. Flexible When Needed: The design can adapt to changes or unexpected challenges during
research.

5. Reliable and Valid Results: The results should be consistent (reliable) and measure what
they’re supposed to (valid).
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4. Contents of a Research Report

1. Title Page: Includes the title, author, institution, and date.

2. Abstract or Executive Summary: A brief summary of the entire report.

3. Introduction and Problem Statement: Describes the research problem and its importance.

4. Methodology: Explains how the research was conducted (tools, participants, procedures).

5. Results and Discussion: Presents findings with explanations, charts, and interpretation.

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5. APA Referencing Style (with Example)

1. Author’s Name: Last name first, followed by initials.

2. Publication Year: In parentheses after the author's name.

3. Title of the Work: Italicized and in sentence case (only first word capitalized).

4. Publisher Information: Name of the organization that published the work.

5. Example:
Smith, J. (2020). Introduction to research. Oxford University Press.
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6. Disadvantages of Research

1. Time-Consuming: Research, especially thorough studies, can take a long time.

2. Costly: Resources like tools, travel, and data collection can be expensive.

3. May Lead to Biased Results: If not properly conducted, personal or sampling biases can
distort outcomes.

4. Difficult to Generalize Findings: Sometimes results are only valid for specific situations or
populations.

5. Requires Expertise and Skills: Good research needs training in methods, analysis, and
reporting.

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7. Advantages of Sampling in Research

1. Cost-Effective: Studying a sample costs less than studying an entire population.

2. Time-Saving: Fewer subjects mean faster data collection and analysis.

3. Easier to Manage: Smaller groups are simpler to handle, organize, and monitor.

4. Allows for Quicker Data Analysis: Processing and interpreting a smaller dataset is more
efficient.

5. Useful When Population is Large: Sampling is necessary when dealing with large or
dispersed populations.
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8. Features of a Good Questionnaire

1. Simple and Clear Language: Questions should be easy to understand by all respondents.

2. Logically Arranged Questions: Questions should follow a logical flow to maintain interest and
clarity.

3. Avoids Leading or Biased Questions: Questions should not suggest or influence a particular
response.

4. Includes Both Open and Closed Questions: Closed questions offer fixed choices, while open
ones allow free responses.

5. Pre-tested Before Use: Testing the questionnaire helps identify errors and improve clarity.

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9. Different Parts of a Research Report

1. Introduction: Provides background and states the research question or hypothesis.

2. Literature Review: Summarizes previous research related to the topic.

3. Methodology: Describes how the research was conducted.

4. Findings/Results: Shows what the research discovered.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations: Summarizes key points and suggests future actions or
research.

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10. How Can Computer Software Help in Research

1. Data Analysis (e.g., SPSS, Excel): These tools help in processing large sets of data
statistically or graphically.

2. Reference Management (e.g., Zotero, Mendeley): Organizes and formats citations and
references automatically.

3. Survey Creation (e.g., Google Forms, SurveyMonkey): Makes collecting data from
respondents easier and faster.

4. Plagiarism Checking: Ensures the originality of the research content.

5. Statistical Modeling and Simulations: Helps simulate real-world scenarios and test
hypotheses virtually.

Standard Error (SE):

Definition: Standard Error is a measure of the variability or dispersion of a sample statistic (like
the mean) from the population parameter.

Formula (for mean):

\text{SE} = \frac{s}{\sqrt{n}}

Purpose: It helps to understand how precisely a sample represents the population. A smaller SE
means more reliable estimates.

Usage: Commonly used in confidence intervals and hypothesis testing.

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Non-Parametric Test:

Definition: Non-parametric tests are statistical tests that do not assume a specific distribution
(like normal distribution) for the data.

When Used:

Data does not meet assumptions of parametric tests.

Sample sizes are small.

Data is ordinal or nominal.

Examples:

Mann–Whitney U test (for two independent samples)

Wilcoxon signed-rank test (for paired samples)

Kruskal–Wallis test (for more than two groups)

Advantages:

More flexible with fewer assumptions.

Can be used with ranked or categorical data.