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<[email protected]> Mon, Jun 30, 2025 at 6:21 PM

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Unit 5 – Sinusoidal Steady-State A.C. Circuits: Important Exam Questions

I. Theoretical Questions

1. Define RMS value, Average value, Form factor, and Peak factor. Explain their significance.

RMS (Root Mean Square) Value: It is the effective value of an AC quantity. For a sinusoidal waveform, V_{RMS} = V_m / \sqrt{2}
where V_m is the peak value.
Significance: It represents the equivalent DC value that would produce the same heating effect in a resistive circuit. Most
AC measuring instruments show RMS values.
Average Value: It is the arithmetic mean of all instantaneous values of an AC quantity over one complete cycle. For a
symmetrical AC waveform (like sine), the average value over a full cycle is zero. Hence, it's usually defined over half a cycle. For
a sinusoidal waveform, V_{avg} = 2V_m / \pi \approx 0.637 V_m.
Significance: Used in rectifiers to calculate the DC output voltage.
Form Factor (K_f): It is the ratio of the RMS value to the Average value. K_f = RMS / Average. For a sinusoidal waveform, K_f =
(V_m / \sqrt{2}) / (2V_m / \pi) = \pi / (2\sqrt{2}) \approx 1.11.
Significance: Indicates the shape of the waveform. Different waveforms have different form factors.
Peak Factor (K_p) or Crest Factor: It is the ratio of the Peak value to the RMS value. K_p = Peak / RMS. For a sinusoidal
waveform, K_p = V_m / (V_m / \sqrt{2}) = \sqrt{2} \approx 1.414.
Significance: Indicates the maximum stress the insulation of a device has to withstand.

2. Explain the phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities. Illustrate with a diagram.

Explanation: Phasor representation is a method to represent sinusoidal AC quantities (like voltage and current) as rotating
vectors in a complex plane. A phasor has a magnitude (representing the peak or RMS value) and an angle (representing the
phase angle relative to a reference). They rotate at the angular frequency \omega of the AC waveform.
Significance: Simplifies the analysis of AC circuits by converting differential equations (time-domain) into algebraic equations
(frequency-domain or phasor-domain).
Diagram: Imagine a vector rotating counter-clockwise around the origin. Its projection onto the vertical axis at any instant gives
the instantaneous value of the sinusoidal quantity.
Diagram sketch: Draw an Argand diagram (complex plane). Draw a vector (phasor) from the origin making an angle \phi
with the positive real axis. Label its length as Vm (or VRMS). Indicate its rotation with \omega.

3. What is impedance? Derive an expression of impedance for: (a) Pure resistance (b) Pure inductance (c) Pure capacitance

Impedance (Z): It is the total opposition offered by a circuit to the flow of alternating current. It is a complex quantity, having
both magnitude and phase, and is measured in Ohms (\Omega). It combines resistance (R) and reactance (X). Z = R + jX.
Derivation:
(a) Pure Resistance (R):
Voltage across a resistor: v(t) = V_m \sin(\omega t)
Current through a resistor: i(t) = I_m \sin(\omega t), where I_m = V_m / R.
In phasor domain: V = VRMS \angle 0^\circ and I = IRMS \angle 0^\circ.
Impedance: Z_R = V / I = R.
Expression: Z_R = R \angle 0^\circ = R (Purely resistive, no phase shift).
(b) Pure Inductance (L):
Voltage across an inductor: v(t) = L \frac{di(t)}{dt}
If i(t) = I_m \sin(\omega t), then v(t) = L \frac{d}{dt}(I_m \sin(\omega t)) = \omega L I_m \cos(\omega t) = \omega
L I_m \sin(\omega t + 90^\circ).
The voltage leads the current by 90^\circ.
Inductive Reactance: X_L = \omega L.
Expression: Z_L = jX_L = j\omega L = \omega L \angle 90^\circ.
(c) Pure Capacitance (C):
Current through a capacitor: i(t) = C \frac{dv(t)}{dt}
 If v(t) = V_m \sin(\omega t), then i(t) = C \frac{d}{dt}(V_m \sin(\omega t)) = \omega C V_m \cos(\omega t) =
\omega C V_m \sin(\omega t + 90^\circ).
The current leads the voltage by 90^\circ, or voltage lags current by 90^\circ.
Capacitive Reactance: X_C = 1 / (\omega C).
Expression: Z_C = -jX_C = -j / (\omega C) = (1 / (\omega C)) \angle -90^\circ.

4. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of RL, RC, and R-L-C series circuits.

General Approach:
Choose a common reference phasor (usually current in series circuits).
Draw voltage phasors for each component based on their phase relationship with the current.
Perform vector addition to find the total voltage.
RL Series Circuit:
Let current I be the reference (I \angle 0^\circ).
V_R (voltage across R) is in phase with I.
V_L (voltage across L) leads I by 90^\circ.
Total voltage V = V_R + V_L. The voltage V leads the current I.
Diagram sketch: Horizontal I. V_R on horizontal. V_L vertically up from origin. Resultant V from origin to tip of V_L. Angle
\phi between V and I.
RC Series Circuit:
Let current I be the reference (I \angle 0^\circ).
V_R (voltage across R) is in phase with I.
V_C (voltage across C) lags I by 90^\circ.
Total voltage V = V_R + V_C. The voltage V lags the current I.
Diagram sketch: Horizontal I. V_R on horizontal. V_C vertically down from origin. Resultant V from origin to tip of V_C.
Angle \phi between V and I.
R-L-C Series Circuit:
Let current I be the reference (I \angle 0^\circ).
V_R is in phase with I.
V_L leads I by 90^\circ (upwards).
V_C lags I by 90^\circ (downwards).
Net reactive voltage: V_X = V_L - V_C (if V_L > V_C) or V_X = V_C - V_L (if V_C > V_L).
Total voltage V = V_R + V_X.
Diagram sketch: Horizontal I. V_R on horizontal. V_L up, V_C down. Net vertical component (V_L - V_C). Resultant V.
Angle \phi.

5. Define and explain the concept of phase angle and power factor.

Phase Angle (\phi): It is the angular difference between the voltage and current phasors in an AC circuit.
Explanation: In purely resistive circuits, \phi = 0^\circ (voltage and current are in phase). In inductive circuits, voltage
leads current, so \phi is positive (0^\circ < \phi \le 90^\circ). In capacitive circuits, voltage lags current, so \phi is negative
(-90^\circ \le \phi < 0^\circ). In RLC circuits, it depends on the net reactance.
Power Factor (PF): It is the cosine of the phase angle (\cos \phi) between the voltage and current in an AC circuit. It is also the
ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S). PF = P/S = \cos \phi.
Explanation:
PF = 1 (Unity): Purely resistive circuit. All power consumed is real power.
PF < 1 (Lagging): Inductive circuit. Current lags voltage. Common in motors, transformers. Leads to increased
current for the same real power.
PF < 1 (Leading): Capacitive circuit. Current leads voltage. Common in capacitors.
Significance: A high power factor (close to 1) is desirable as it indicates efficient utilization of electrical power, reducing
losses and improving system capacity.

6. Explain power in AC circuits. Derive the formula for real power, reactive power, and apparent power.

Real Power (P or Active Power): The actual power consumed or dissipated in the circuit (primarily by resistance) and converted
into useful work (e.g., heat, light, mechanical energy). Measured in Watts (W).
Formula: P = V_{RMS} I_{RMS} \cos \phi or P = I_{RMS}^2 R.
Reactive Power (Q): The power that continuously flows back and forth between the source and the reactive components
(inductors and capacitors) of the circuit. It does no useful work but is necessary for the operation of magnetic and electric
fields. Measured in Volt-Ampere Reactive (VAR).
Formula: Q = V_{RMS} I_{RMS} \sin \phi or Q = I_{RMS}^2 X (where X is net reactance).
Apparent Power (S): The total power delivered by the source to the circuit. It is the product of the RMS voltage and RMS current,
without considering the phase angle. Measured in Volt-Ampere (VA).
Formula: S = V_{RMS} I_{RMS} or S = \sqrt{P^2 + Q^2}.
Power Triangle: These three powers are related by the power triangle, where Apparent Power (S) is the hypotenuse, Real Power
(P) is the adjacent side, and Reactive Power (Q) is the opposite side, with \phi as the angle between P and S.

7. Define the term resonance. What are the conditions for resonance in RLC series circuit?

Resonance: A phenomenon in an AC circuit where the inductive reactance (X_L) becomes equal in magnitude to the capacitive
reactance (X_C), causing the total impedance of the circuit to become purely resistive (minimum impedance in series,
 maximum impedance in parallel). This leads to a maximum current at a specific frequency (resonant frequency) in series RLC
circuits.
Conditions for Resonance in RLC Series Circuit:
1. X_L = X_C
2. \omega L = 1 / (\omega C)
3. Z = R (Impedance is minimum and purely resistive)
4. Phase angle \phi = 0^\circ
5. Power factor \cos \phi = 1 (Unity)
6. Resonant frequency f_0 = 1 / (2\pi\sqrt{LC}) or \omega_0 = 1 / \sqrt{LC}

8. Explain the significance of Q-factor and bandwidth in series resonance.

Q-factor (Quality Factor): A dimensionless parameter that describes how underdamped an oscillator or resonator is. In a series
RLC circuit, it is a measure of the circuit's selectivity or sharpness of the resonance peak. It indicates the ratio of reactive power
to real power at resonance.
Formula: Q = (\omega_0 L) / R = 1 / (\omega_0 C R) = (1/R) \sqrt{L/C}
Significance: A higher Q-factor means a sharper and narrower resonance curve, indicating better selectivity (ability to
distinguish between frequencies) and lower energy dissipation in the circuit. Used in tuning circuits.
Bandwidth (BW): The range of frequencies over which the power delivered to the circuit is at least half of the maximum power
delivered at resonance. It is defined as the difference between the two half-power frequencies (f_2 - f_1).
Formula: BW = f_2 - f_1 = f_0 / Q = R / (2\pi L)
Significance: Indicates the range of frequencies over which the circuit effectively operates. A narrow bandwidth (high Q)
is desirable for selective tuning (e.g., radio receivers), while a wide bandwidth (low Q) is needed for transmitting
information (e.g., communication channels).

9. Describe the concept of admittance. How is it related to impedance?

Admittance (Y): It is the reciprocal of impedance and represents the ease with which current flows in an AC circuit. It is a
complex quantity, measured in Siemens (S) or mhos (\mho).
Formula: Y = 1/Z. If Z = R + jX, then Y = G + jB, where G is conductance and B is susceptance.
Relationship to Impedance:
If Z = R + jX, then Y = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R^2 + X^2) = R / (R^2 + X^2) - jX / (R^2 + X^2).
Here, Conductance G = R / (R^2 + X^2) and Susceptance B = -X / (R^2 + X^2).
Significance: Admittance is particularly useful in analyzing parallel AC circuits, as the total admittance of parallel branches is
the sum of individual admittances, similar to how total impedance is the sum of individual impedances in series circuits.

10. Compare series and parallel A.C. circuits on the basis of impedance, current, and power factor.

Feature Series A.C. Circuit Parallel A.C. Circuit

Z_{total} = Z_1 + Z_2 + ... (Sum of
Impedance 1/Z_{total} = 1/Z_1 + 1/Z_2 + ... (Sum of admittances)
impedances)
Same current flows through all
Current Current divides among branches (I_{total} = I_1 + I_2 + ...)
components (I_{total})
Voltage divides among components
Voltage Same voltage across all branches (V_{total})
(V_{total} = V_1 + V_2 + ...)
X_L = X_C, Minimum impedance, B_L = B_C (inductive susceptance = capacitive susceptance), Maximum
Resonance
Maximum current, Unity PF impedance, Minimum current (line current), Unity PF
Q-factor Q = \omega L / R (Voltage magnification) Q = R / (\omega L) (Current magnification)
Bandwidth BW = R / (2\pi L) BW = 1 / (2\pi CR)
Power
Depends on overall Z. Unity at resonance. Depends on overall Y. Unity at resonance.
Factor
Voltage magnification, resonant filters
Use Case Current magnification, resonant filters (band-stop/parallel)
(notch/band-pass)

II. Numerical Questions

1. Calculate the RMS and average value of a sinusoidal voltage v(t) = 150 \sin(314t)

Step 1: Identify Peak Value (V_m) The general form of a sinusoidal voltage is v(t) = V_m \sin(\omega t). Comparing with v(t) =
150 \sin(314t), we get V_m = 150 V.
Step 2: Calculate RMS Value (V_{RMS}) For a sinusoidal waveform, V_{RMS} = V_m / \sqrt{2}. V_{RMS} = 150 / \sqrt{2} \approx
150 / 1.414 = 106.07 V.
Step 3: Calculate Average Value (V_{avg}) For a sinusoidal waveform (over half cycle), V_{avg} = 2V_m / \pi. V_{avg} = (2 \times
150) / \pi = 300 / \pi \approx 300 / 3.14159 = 95.49 V.

Answer:

RMS Value: 106.07 V

 Average Value: 95.49 V

2. For a series R-L circuit with given R and L, calculate Impedance and Power factor. (The specific values for R and L are missing in the
image for this question. Assuming general values to illustrate the method.)

Let's assume: R = 10 \Omega and L = 20 \text{ mH} = 20 \times 10^{-3} \text{ H}. Let the angular frequency \omega = 100 \pi \text{
rad/s} (typical for 50 Hz supply).

Step 1: Calculate Inductive Reactance (X_L) X_L = \omega L X_L = 100\pi \times (20 \times 10^{-3}) = 2\pi \approx 6.28
\Omega.
Step 2: Calculate Impedance (Z) For a series R-L circuit, Z = R + jX_L. Magnitude: |Z| = \sqrt{R^2 + X_L^2} |Z| = \sqrt{(10)^2 +
(6.28)^2} = \sqrt{100 + 39.44} = \sqrt{139.44} \approx 11.81 \Omega. Phase angle: \phi = \arctan(X_L / R) \phi = \arctan(6.28 /
10) = \arctan(0.628) \approx 32.13^\circ. So, Z = 11.81 \angle 32.13^\circ \Omega.
Step 3: Calculate Power Factor (PF) PF = \cos \phi PF = \cos(32.13^\circ) \approx 0.846 (Lagging, because it's an inductive
circuit).

Answer (assuming R=10 Ohm, L=20mH, f=50Hz):

Impedance: 11.81 \angle 32.13^\circ \Omega

Power Factor: 0.846 Lagging

3. Voltage drop across each element in an RLC series circuit. Given R and C values at resonance current. Calculate current. (The values
for R, L, C, voltage, frequency and specific 'resonance current' are missing from the image for this question. It seems to be a
conceptual question about calculating current at resonance when R is given, implying we need the supply voltage at resonance too.)

Let's assume:

Supply Voltage at resonance V = 100 V

Resistance R = 50 \Omega
At resonance, we know X_L = X_C.
At resonance, the impedance of the series RLC circuit is purely resistive, Z = R.
Step 1: Determine Impedance at Resonance At resonance, Z = R. So, Z = 50 \Omega.
Step 2: Calculate Current (I) at Resonance Using Ohm's Law: I = V / Z I = 100 \text{ V} / 50 \Omega = 2 A.
Step 3: Calculate Voltage Drop across Each Element (Conceptual)
Voltage across Resistor (V_R): V_R = I \times R = 2 \text{ A} \times 50 \Omega = 100 V.
Voltage across Inductor (V_L): V_L = I \times X_L. (Need X_L or L and \omega_0).
Voltage across Capacitor (V_C): V_C = I \times X_C. (Need X_C or C and \omega_0).
At resonance, V_L and V_C are equal in magnitude and 180 degrees out of phase, so they cancel each other out. The
total voltage across L-C combination is 0.

Answer (assuming V=100V, R=50 Ohm at resonance):

Current at Resonance: 2 A
Voltage drops: V_R = 100 V. V_L and V_C would be equal and opposite, their individual values depend on L and C.

4. Find Q-factor and bandwidth. (The image doesn't provide the circuit details (R, L, C or f_0) needed to calculate Q-factor and
bandwidth. Assuming it refers to the RLC series circuit mentioned conceptually in Q3, but we still need L and C values or the resonant
frequency.)

Let's assume an RLC series circuit with:

R = 10 \Omega
L = 100 \text{ mH} = 0.1 \text{ H}
C = 10 \mu \text{F} = 10 \times 10^{-6} \text{ F}
Step 1: Calculate Resonant Frequency (\omega_0 or f_0) \omega_0 = 1 / \sqrt{LC} = 1 / \sqrt{(0.1)(10 \times 10^{-6})} = 1 /
\sqrt{1 \times 10^{-6}} = 1 / (1 \times 10^{-3}) = 1000 \text{ rad/s}. f_0 = \omega_0 / (2\pi) = 1000 / (2\pi) \approx 159.15 \text{
Hz}.
Step 2: Calculate Q-factor Q = \omega_0 L / R = (1000 \times 0.1) / 10 = 100 / 10 = 10. (Alternatively: Q = 1 / (\omega_0 C R) = 1
/ (1000 \times 10 \times 10^{-6} \times 10) = 1 / (0.1) = 10.) (Alternatively: Q = (1/R) \sqrt{L/C} = (1/10) \sqrt{0.1 / (10 \times
10^{-6})} = 0.1 \sqrt{10000} = 0.1 \times 100 = 10.)
Step 3: Calculate Bandwidth (BW) BW = f_0 / Q = 159.15 \text{ Hz} / 10 = 15.915 \text{ Hz}. (Alternatively: BW = R / (2\pi L) = 10
/ (2\pi \times 0.1) = 10 / (0.2\pi) = 50 / \pi \approx 15.915 \text{ Hz}.)

Answer (assuming R=10 Ohm, L=100mH, C=10uF):

Q-factor: 10
Bandwidth: 15.915 Hz

5. A 230 V, 50 Hz supply is applied to a circuit with R = 20 \Omega, L = 0.2 H. Find: Impedance, Power consumed.

Step 1: Identify Given Values

RMS Voltage (V_{RMS}) = 230 V
 Frequency (f) = 50 Hz
Resistance (R) = 20 \Omega
Inductance (L) = 0.2 H
Step 2: Calculate Angular Frequency (\omega) \omega = 2\pi f = 2\pi \times 50 = 100\pi \text{ rad/s} \approx 314.159 \text{
rad/s}.
Step 3: Calculate Inductive Reactance (X_L) X_L = \omega L = 100\pi \times 0.2 = 20\pi \approx 62.83 \Omega.
Step 4: Calculate Impedance (Z) For an R-L series circuit, Z = R + jX_L. Magnitude: |Z| = \sqrt{R^2 + X_L^2} |Z| = \sqrt{(20)^2 +
(62.83)^2} = \sqrt{400 + 3947.6} = \sqrt{4347.6} \approx 65.93 \Omega. Phase angle: \phi = \arctan(X_L / R) = \arctan(62.83 /
20) = \arctan(3.1415) \approx 72.34^\circ. So, Z = 65.93 \angle 72.34^\circ \Omega.
Step 5: Calculate Current (I) I_{RMS} = V_{RMS} / |Z| = 230 \text{ V} / 65.93 \Omega \approx 3.488 \text{ A}.
Step 6: Calculate Power Consumed (Real Power P)
Method 1: Using Power Factor PF = \cos \phi = \cos(72.34^\circ) \approx 0.303. P = V_{RMS} I_{RMS} \cos \phi = 230
\text{ V} \times 3.488 \text{ A} \times 0.303 \approx 242.9 \text{ W}.
Method 2: Using Resistance P = I_{RMS}^2 R = (3.488 \text{ A})^2 \times 20 \Omega = 12.166 \times 20 = 243.32 \text{
W}. (Slight difference due to rounding in intermediate steps).

Answer:

Impedance: 65.93 \angle 72.34^\circ \Omega

Power Consumed: Approximately 243 W

6. Find the power consumed and power factor when a capacitor is added in series with a resistor in an A.C. circuit. (The image
provides this as a separate question, but without specific values for R, C, V, or f. I'll provide the general steps and formulas.)

Let's assume:

Resistor (R)
Capacitor (C)
Supply Voltage (V_{RMS})
Frequency (f)
Step 1: Calculate Angular Frequency (\omega) \omega = 2\pi f.
Step 2: Calculate Capacitive Reactance (X_C) X_C = 1 / (\omega C).
Step 3: Calculate Impedance (Z) For an R-C series circuit, Z = R - jX_C. Magnitude: |Z| = \sqrt{R^2 + (-X_C)^2} = \sqrt{R^2 +
X_C^2}. Phase angle: \phi = \arctan(-X_C / R). The angle will be negative, indicating a leading current.
Step 4: Calculate Current (I) I_{RMS} = V_{RMS} / |Z|.
Step 5: Calculate Power Factor (PF) PF = \cos \phi. The value will be leading because it's a capacitive circuit.
Step 6: Calculate Power Consumed (Real Power P) P = V_{RMS} I_{RMS} \cos \phi or P = I_{RMS}^2 R.

Example (assuming values): Let R = 50 \Omega, C = 100 \mu \text{F}, V_{RMS} = 120 \text{ V}, f = 60 \text{ Hz}.

\omega = 2\pi \times 60 = 120\pi \approx 376.99 \text{ rad/s}.

X_C = 1 / (376.99 \times 100 \times 10^{-6}) = 1 / 0.037699 \approx 26.52 \Omega.
|Z| = \sqrt{50^2 + 26.52^2} = \sqrt{2500 + 703.21} = \sqrt{3203.21} \approx 56.59 \Omega.
\phi = \arctan(-26.52 / 50) = \arctan(-0.5304) \approx -27.93^\circ.
I_{RMS} = 120 / 56.59 \approx 2.12 \text{ A}.
PF = \cos(-27.93^\circ) \approx 0.883 (Leading).
P = 120 \times 2.12 \times 0.883 \approx 224.2 \text{ W}. (Alternatively: P = (2.12)^2 \times 50 = 4.4944 \times 50 = 224.72
\text{ W}).