10/23/2021

Chapter 3

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Introduction
• What determines where a
batted baseball lands?
• How do you describe the motion
of a roller coaster car along a
curved track or the flight of a
circling hawk?
• Which hits the ground first, a
baseball that you simply drop or
one that you throw horizontally?
• We need to extend our
description of motion to two and
three dimensions.

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3. Motion in 2- & 3-D

1. Vectors
2. Velocity & Acceleration Vectors
3. Constant Acceleration
4. Projectile Motion
5. Uniform Circular Motion
6. Relative Motion

Learning Outcomes
In this chapter, you’ll learn…
• how to use vectors to represent the position and velocity of a particle
in two or three dimensions.
• how to find the vector acceleration of a particle, and how to interpret
the components of acceleration parallel to and perpendicular to a
particle’s path.
• how to solve problems that involve the curved path followed by a
projectile.
• how to analyze motion in a circular path, with either constant speed or
varying speed.
• how to relate the velocities of a moving object as seen from two
different frames of reference.
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Motion in Two Dimensions: Planar Motion

 Kinematic variables in one dimension
 Position: x(t) m
 Velocity: v(t) m/s
x
 Acceleration: a(t) m/s2

 Kinematic variables in three dimensions y


 Position: r (t )  xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ m

 Velocity: v (t )  v x iˆ  v y ˆj  v z kˆ m/s
 j
 Acceleration: a (t )  a x iˆ  a y ˆj  a z kˆ m/s2 i
x
 All are vectors: have direction and k
z
magnitudes

Position Vector
• The position vector from
the origin to point P has
components x, y, and z.

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Position and Displacement

 In one dimension
x  x2 (t 2 )  x1 (t1 )
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m, x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
  
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m r  r2  r1

 In two dimensions
 Position: the position of an object is

described by its position vector r (t )
always points to particle from origin.
  
 Displacement: r  r  r
2 1

r  ( x2iˆ  y2 ˆj )  ( x1iˆ  y1 ˆj )
 ( x2  x1 )iˆ  ( y2  y1 ) ˆj
 xiˆ  yˆj
The displacement of a particle is the change of September 22, 2008
the position vector during a certain time.

Example 3.1. Taking a Drive

You drive to city 160 km from home, going 35 N of E.

Express your new position in unit vector notation, using an E-W / N-S coordinate system.

r  rx ˆi  ry ˆj
y (N)
rx  r cos   160 km  cos 35 
city
 160  0.81915 km  131.06 km  131 km
r = 160 km

j  = 35
ry  r sin   160 km  sin 35 
 91.77  km  92 km
x (E)
home i  160  0.57357  km

r  131 ˆi  92 ˆj km

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Example 3.2 Planar motion:

Velocity
• We define the average velocity as the displacement
divided by the time interval:

• Instantaneous velocity (a.k.a. “velocity”) is the

instantaneous rate of change of position with time:

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Average Velocity
• The average velocity between two points is the displacement divided
by the time interval between the two points, and it has the same
direction as the displacement.

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Instantaneous Velocity
• The instantaneous velocity is the instantaneous rate of change of
position vector with respect to time.
• The components of the instantaneous velocity are
dx dy dz
vx  , vy  , and v z  .
dt dt dt
• The instantaneous velocity of a
particle is always tangent to its path.

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Example 3.3, two-dimensional velocity

Acceleration (1 of 2)

• Acceleration describes how the velocity changes.

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Acceleration (2 of 2)

• We define the average acceleration as the change in

velocity divided by the time interval:

• Instantaneous acceleration (a.k.a. “acceleration”) is the

instantaneous rate of change of velocity with time:

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Average Acceleration (1 of 2)

• The change in velocity between two

points is determined by vector
subtraction.

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Average Acceleration (2 of 2)

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Instantaneous Acceleration (1 of 2)

• The velocity vector is always

tangent to the particle’s path,
but the instantaneous
acceleration vector does not
have to be tangent to the path.
• If the path is curved, the
acceleration points toward the
concave side of the path.

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Instantaneous Acceleration (2 of 2)

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Components of Acceleration

• Shooting an arrow is an example of an

acceleration vector that has both x- and y-
components.

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Parallel and Perpendicular

Components of Acceleration (1 of 3)

• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a point

P on a curved path with constant speed

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Parallel and Perpendicular

Components of Acceleration (2 of 3)

• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a point P

on a curved path with increasing speed

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Parallel and Perpendicular

Components of Acceleration (3 of 3)

• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a point

P on a curved path with decreasing speed

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Example 3.4 Two-dimensional rabbit run …acceleration problem

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September 22, 2008

Example 3.5. Windsurfing

You’re windsurfing at 7.3 m/s when a wind gust accelerates you 1
x  x0  vx 0 t  ax t 2
at 0.82 m/s2 at 60 to your original direction. 2
If the gust lasts 8.7 s, what is your net displacement? 1
y  y0  v y 0 t  a y t 2
2

r0   0 , 0  m

v 0   7.3 , 0  m / s

a  0.82  cos 60 , sin 60  m / s 2   0.41 , 0.71  m / s

2

1
x  7.3 t  0.41 t 2
2
1
y  0.71 t 2
2
x  79.0 m
net displacement
y  26.9 m

r x 2  y 2  84 m

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At what angle should this penguin leave the

water to maximize the range of its jump? 45

Projectile Motion (1 of 3)
• A projectile is any object given an initial velocity that then follows
a path determined by the effects of gravity and air resistance.
• Begin by neglecting resistance and the curvature and rotation of
the earth.
Examples in sports:
Tennis
Baseball
Football
Lacrosse
Racquetball
Soccer………….

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Parabolic Trajectories of a Bouncing Ball

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The X- and Y-Motion Are Separable

• The red ball is dropped at the same
time that the yellow ball is fired
horizontally.
• The strobe marks equal time intervals.
• We can analyze projectile motion as
horizontal motion with constant
velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration:
ax  0 and ay  g.

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Projectile Motion (2 of 3)
• If air resistance is negligible, the trajectory of a projectile is a
combination of horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical
motion with constant acceleration.

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3.5. Motion with Constant Acceleration

• Projectile motion sets
xo = 0 and yo = 0, and x = (vocosαo)t
y = (vosinαo)t  1/2gt2
a  0 ,  g 
vx = vocosαo
• then obtains the specific results
vy = vosinαo  gt

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x = (vocoso)t
y = (vosinαo)t  1/2gt2
a  0 ,  g 
vx = vocosαo
vy = vosinαo  gt

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Projectile motion

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Horizontal Range and Vertical Height

 Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0

v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0x = v0 sinθ0, then
x  0  v0 xt 0  0  v0 y t  12 gt 2 h
2v0 y 2v0 sin  0
t 
g g
2v0 cos  0 v0 sin  0 v0 sin 2 0
2
R  x  x0  v0 xt  
g g
2
2 t gt 
h  y  y0  v0 y t h  12 gt h  v0 y   
2 2  2
Horizontal Vertical
v0 sin 2  0
2
h v y  v0 y  gt
2g v x  v0 x
2v0 y
v y  v0 y  gt  v0 y  g  v0 y x  x0  v0 x t y  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
g
September 22, 2008

Trajectory of Projectile
ax  0; a y   g

v0 y
v0 x  v0 cos 0 ; v0 y  v0 sin 0 ;  tan 0
v0 x
x  x0
 t
v0 cos  0
2
 x  x0  1  x  x0 
y  y0   v0 sin  0    g  
 v0 cos 0  2  v0 cos  0 

g
y  y0   x  x0  tan  0   x  x0 
2

2 v02 cos 2 0 Projectile trajectory:

parabola

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Trajectory of Projectile
v0 y
v0 x  v0 cos  0 ; v0 y  v0 sin  0 ;  tan 0
v0 x

ax  0; a y   g

1
x  x0  vx 0 t  ax t 2  x   v cos   t
2 0 0 0

1 1 2
y  y0  v y 0 t  a y t 0 0
2  y  v sin 
0t  gt
2 2

x  x0
 t
v0 cos  0
2
 x  x0  1  x  x0 
y  y0   v0 sin  0    g  
 v0 cos 0  2  v0 cos  0 
g
y  y0   x  x0  tan 0   x  x0 
2

2 v02 cos 2 0 Projectile trajectory:

parabola

Projectile Motion with Different initial and final heights

v0 y g
v0 x  v0 cos  0 ; v0 y  v0 sin  0 ;  tan  0
v0 x
ax  0; a y   g

vx  v0 x ; v y  v0 y  gt

x(t )  x0  v0 x t; y (t )  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2

2
x  x  1  x   v0 y   g  2
t ; y ( x)  v0 y   2 g    x  2  x
v0 x  v0 x   v0 x   v0 x   2v0 x 

 g  2
y ( x)   tan  0  x   2 x
2
 0v cos 2
 0  This is the equation
for a parabola.

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Horizontal Range of a Projectile

0  v0 yT  12 gT 2 ; T  0 g

v0 y  12 gT  0

2v0 y 2v0
T  sin  0
g g

 2v  v2
R  v0 xT   v0 cos  0   0 sin  0   0 2sin  0 cos  0
 g  g

2sin  0 cos  0  sin 2 0

v0 2
R sin 2 0
g
R is maximum when o=45o,
so that sin 2o = 1.

The Range of a Projectile

g
y  y0   x  x0  tan  0   x  x0 
2

2 v02 cos 2 0

Horizontal range y = y0 :

g
0   x  x0  tan  0   x  x0 
2

2 v02 cos 2  0

x  x0

2 v02 2 v2 v2
x  x0  cos 2 0 tan 0  0 cos  0 sin  0  0 sin 2 0
g g g

Longest range at 0 = 45 = /4.

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The effects of wind resistance

– Cumulative effects can be

large.
– Peak heights and distance fall.
– Trajectories cease to be
parabolic.

Example 3.4. Cliff Diving v  v0  a t

1
A diver drops from 10-m- high cliff. x  x0   v0  v  t
2
1. At what speed does he enter water? 1
x  x0  v0 t  a t 2
2. How long is he in the air? 2
v 2  v02  2a  x  x0 
y0  10 m, y0m
v0  0
a   g  9.8 m / s 2

v 2  v02  2 g  y  y0   2  9.8 m / s 2   10 m 

 196  m / s 
2

v  14 m / s v  14 m / s

v  v0 14 m / s
t   1.428 s  1.4 s
g 9.8 m / s 2

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Example 3.5. Tossing a Ball v  v0  a t

Toss ball up at 7.3 m / s. Leaves 1
hand at 1.5 m above floor.
x  x0   v0  v  t
2
1. When does ball hit floor? y0  1.5 m, yF  0 1
x  x0  v0 t  a t 2
2. Maximum height of ball. 2
v0  7.3 m / s, vT  0
3. Its speed passing hand v 2  v02  2a  x  x0 
on way down. a   g  9.8 m / s 2
1 2
yF  0  y0  v0 t  gt
2
t
1
g
v0  v02  2 g y0 

1
9.8 m / s 2

7.3  
7.32  2  9.8  1.5 m / s

 1.7 s
t
 0.18 s

vT2  0  v02  2 g  yT  y0   7.32  2  9.8  yT  1.5 

yT  4.2 m

v  v02  2 g  y0  y0 
2
h
vh  v0

Example 3.7. : Different initial and final heights

You toss a ball from your window 8.0 m above
the ground. When the ball leaves your hand,it
is moving at 10.0 m/s at an angle of 20 below
the horizontal. How far horizontally from your
window will hit the ball ground?

y (t )  v0 y t  12 gt 2 v0 y  v0 sin  0

0  1
2
g t 2  v0 yt  y x  v0 xt v0 x  v0 cos  0

v0 y  v02 y  2 gy x  v0 x t  (v0 cos  0 )t  9.2 m

t
g
t  1.70 s and t  0.98 s

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Example 3.8. Washout vx  v0 x

v y  v0 y  g t
A section of highway was washed away by flood, creating a gash 1.7 m deep.
A car moving at 31 m/s goes over the edge.
x  x0  vx 0 t
1
How far from the edge does it land? y  y0  v y 0 t  g t 2
2

x0  0 vx 0  31 m / s
vy 0  0 y0
y0  1.7 m

x   31 m / s  t
1
0  1.7 m 
2
 9.8 m / s 2  t 2
1.7
t s  0.589 s
4.9

x  31 0.589 m  18 m

Example 3.10. Out of the Hole

A construction worker stands in a 2.6 m deep hole, 3.1 m from edge of hole. He tosses a
hammer to a companion outside the hole. Let the hammer leave his hand 1.0 m above hole
bottom at an angle of 35.
1.What’s the minimum speed for it to clear the edge?
2. How far from the edge does it land?
g
y  y0   x  x0  tan  0   x  x0 
2

2 v02 cos 2 0

x0  0 x  3.1 m
y  2.6 m  0  35
y0  1.0 m

9.8
 3.1
2
1.6  3.1tan 35 
2 v02 cos 2 35

minimum speed v0  11 m / s
9.8
1.6  x tan 35  x2
2 11 cos 2 35  0.060 x  0.70 x  1.6  0
2 2

1 8.7 m
x  0.70  0.33   Lands at 5.5 m from edge.
0.12 3.1 m

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Example 3.11. Probing the Atmosphere

After a short engine firing, a rocket reaches 4.6 km/s.
If the rocket is to land within 50 km from its launch site,
what’s the maximum allowable deviation from a vertical trajectory?

g
y  y0   x  x0  tan 0   x  x0 
2
Short engine firing  y  0, v0 = 4.6 km/s.
2 v02 cos 2 0
g v02 v2
0  x tan  0  x2  x2 sin  0 cos 0  0 sin 2 0
2 v02 cos 2  0 g g

 4.6 km / s 
2

50 km  sin 20
9.8 103 km / s 2

 1.33  0.67
sin 2 0  0.0232 20   0  
180  1.33 90  0.67

 maximum allowable deviation from a vertical trajectory is 0.67.

3.6. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion: circular trajectory, constant speed

Examples:
Satellite orbit.
Planetary orbits (almost).
Earth’s rotation.
Motors.
Electrons in magnetic field.
⁞
Uniform circular motion

Constant speed, or, Motion along a circle:

constant magnitude of velocity Changing direction of velocity

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Motion in a circle
• Uniform circular motion is constant speed along a circular
path.

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Motion in a circle
• Car speeding up along a circular path

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Motion in a circle
• Car slowing down along a circular path

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3.6. Uniform Circular Motion

 Centripetal acceleration
vi
v r vr Δv = vf - vi
 so, v  v
v r r vi f y B
A
v r v v 2 vf
  Δr
t t r r R
ri rf
v v 2
a r  lim  O
t  0 t r x
 Direction: Centripetal

v2
a   rˆ
r

Acceleration for uniform circular motion

• For uniform circular motion,
the instantaneous acceleration
always points toward the
center of the circle and is
called the centripetal
acceleration.
• The magnitude of the
acceleration is arad = v2/R.
• The period T is the time for one revolution, and
arad = 4π2R/T 2.

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Uniform circular motion

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Nonuniform circular motion

• If the speed varies, the motion is nonuniform circular motion.
• The radial acceleration component is still arad = v2/R, but
there is also a tangential acceleration component atan that is
parallel to the instantaneous velocity.

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Example 3.11. Space Shuttle Orbit

Orbit of space shuttle is circular at altitude 250 km, where g is 93% of its surface value.
Find its orbital period.

2 r v2
T a
v r

2 r r
T  2
ar a

6.37  103 km  250 km

 2  5355 s  89 min (low orbits)
0.93  9.8  103 km / s 2

ISS: r ~ 350 km
15.7 orbits a day

Example 3.12. Engineering a Road

Consider a flat, horizontal road with 80 km/h (22.2 m/s) speed limit.
If the max vehicle acceleration is 1.5 m/s2,
what’s the min safe radius for curves on this road.

v2
a
r

 22.2 m / s   329 m
2 2
vmax
rmin  
amax 1.5 m / s 2

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Nonuniform Circular Motion

Nonuniform Circular Motion: trajectory circular, speed nonuniform
 a non-radial but ar = v2 / r

at

ar

GOT IT? 3.4.

Arbitrary motion:
ar = v2 / r r = radius of curvature

If v1 = v4 , & v2 = v3 , rank ak.

Ans: a2 > a3 > a4 > a1

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Relative Velocity in One Dimension

• If point P is moving relative to reference frame A, we
denote the velocity of P relative to frame A as vP/A.
• If P is moving relative to frame B and frame B is moving
relative to frame A, then the x-velocity of P relative to
frame A is v P / A  x  v P / B  x  v B / A x .

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3.7. Relative Motion

• Every measurement must be made with respect to a reference

frame. Usually, speed is relative to the Earth.

• If a person walks towards the front of a train at 5 km/h (with

respect to the train floor) & the train is moving 80 km/h with
respect to the ground.
• The person’s speed, relative to the ground is 85 km/h.

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3.7. Relative Motion

The speed of the passenger with respect to the ground depends on
the relative directions of the passenger’s and train’s speeds:

vgnd = 16.2 m/s vgnd = 13.8 m/s

3.7. Relative Motion

This also works in two dimensions:

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Relative Velocity in Two or Three Dimensions (1 of 2)

• We extend relative velocity to two or three dimensions

by using vector addition to combine velocities.

Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Relative Velocity in Two or Three Dimensions (2 of 2)

Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved

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3.9: Relative motion in two-dimensions

A and B, the two observers, are watching P, the moving particle,

from their origins of reference. B moves at a constant velocity
with respect to A, while the corresponding axes of the two frames
remain parallel. rPA refers to the position of P as observed by A,
and so on. From the situation, it is concluded:

Example 3.12: Flying a Plane

A pilot wishes to fly a plane due north relative to the ground.
The airspeed of the plane is 200 km/h, and the wind is
blowing from west to east at 90 km/h.
(a) In which direction should the plane head?
(b) What will be the ground speed of the plane?

  
v pG  v pA  v AG

v AG (90 km/h)
  arcsin  arcsin  26.7 west of north
v pA (200 km/h)

v pG  v 2pA  v AG
2
 (200 km/h)2  (90 km/h) 2  179 km/h

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Example 3.13. Navigating a Jetliner

Jet flies at 960 km / h wrt air, trying to reach airport 1290 km northward.
Assuming wind blows steadly eastward at 190 km / h.
1.What direction should the plane fly?
2.How long will the trip takes?
Desired velocity v  v y ˆj   0 , v y 

Wind velocity V  190 km / h i  190 , 0 

V Jet velocity v  960 km / h  cos  i  sin  j 

190
km/h   960 cos  , 960 sin  

v  v  V   0 , v    960 cos   190 , 960 sin  

y

v v
190  190 
960 cos      cos 1     101.4
km/h  960  960 
v y  960 sin   941 km / h
1290 km
Trip time t  1.4 h
941 km / h

Example 3.14: Crossing a River

You are riding in a boat with a speed relative to
the water of vbw = 6.1 m/s. The boat points at an
angle of  = 25° upstream on a river flowing at
vwg = 1.4 m/s.

(a) What is your speed vbg and angle qbg relative

to the ground?
  
vbg  vbw  vwg

vwg  ( 1.4 m/s) yˆ

vbw  (6.1 m/s) cos 25 xˆ  (6.1 m/s)sin 25 yˆ
 (5.5 m/s) xˆ  (2.6 m/s) yˆ

vbg  (5.5 m/s) xˆ  (2.6 m/s  1.4 m/s) yˆ vbg  (5.5 m/s) 2  (1.2 m/s) 2  5.6 m/s
 (5.5 m/s) xˆ  (1.2 m/s) yˆ
bg  tan 1  (1.2 m/s) / (5.5 m/s)  12

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