Chemistry 101 Exam Preparation Guide

Compiled by Your AI Assistant

June 25, 2025

This guide compiles essential information for preparing for your Chemistry 101 exam, based on your
syllabus and previous year’s questions. It includes general study strategies, descriptive explanations of
key topics, and important derivations with sample math problems.

General Study Strategy

• Understand the Basics: For each topic, start by understanding the fundamental definitions and
concepts. Don’t jump to derivations or problems until you grasp the ”what” and ”why.”

• Refer to Your Recommended Book: Your syllabus mentions ”Essentials of Physical Chemistry
by Bhal and Tuli.” This will be your primary resource for in-depth explanations.
• Focus on Derivations: Many questions ask for derivations (e.g., Raoult’s Law, elevation of
boiling point, integrated rate equations, Van’t Hoff equation). Practice these step-by-step until
you can reproduce them accurately.

• Practice Numerical Problems: A significant portion of the exam involves calculations. Under-
stand the formulas, units, and practice a variety of problems for each topic.
• Memorize Definitions and Differences: Be ready to define key terms and explain differences
between related concepts (e.g., order vs. molecularity, metallic vs. electrolytic conduction).

• Diagrams and Graphs: For topics like MO diagrams, phase diagrams, solubility curves, and
conductometric titration curves, understand how to draw and interpret them.
• Review Previous Year Questions: Use these as a guide to understand the types of questions
asked and the depth required. Try to solve them after studying each topic.

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Detailed Contents of Chem-101 Syllabus
1. Solution and their Classification
This chapter deals with mixtures where one substance is dissolved uniformly into another.
• Unit Expressing Concentration: Ways to quantify solute amount in solvent/solution.
– Percent by Weight: Mass of solute / total mass of solution × 100%.
– Mole Fraction: Moles of component / total moles of all components.
– Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution (temperature-dependent).
– Molality (m): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (temperature-independent).
– Normality (N): Gram equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
• Types of Solutions: Formed from different states of matter, e.g., gases in gases (air), gases in
liquids (carbonated drinks), liquids in liquids (alcohol in water), solids in liquids (salt in water).
• Henry’s Law and Limitations: States that gas solubility in a liquid is proportional to its partial
pressure above the liquid. Limitations include not applying to gases that react with the solvent.
• Solubility Behavior of Partially Miscible Liquids (Phenol-water system): Explores sys-
tems where liquids don’t mix completely, with solubility changing with temperature (e.g., forming
two liquid layers).
• Definition:
– Solubility: Maximum solute dissolving in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
– Saturated Solution: Contains maximum dissolved solute at a given temperature.
– Supersaturated Solution: Contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution (un-
stable).
– Solvation of NaCl: Solvent molecules surround and stabilize solute ions (Na+ and Cl− )
allowing dissolution.
• Solubility Curve: A graph showing how solubility changes with temperature.

2. Colligative Properties of Dilute Solution

These properties depend only on the number of solute particles, not their identity.
• Definition: Colligative Properties: Properties of a solution dependent on solute particle con-
centration, not chemical nature.
• Lowering of the Vapor Pressure:
– Raoult’s Law: For a non-volatile solute, PA = PA0 XA . The relative lowering of vapor
0
PA −PA
pressure ( PA0 ) equals the mole fraction of the solute (XB ).
– Used for molecular weight calculation.
• Elevation of the Boiling Point: Solution boiling point is higher than pure solvent. ∆Tb =
Kb × m, where Kb is the molal elevation constant. Used for molecular weight calculation.
• Depression of the Freezing Point: Solution freezing point is lower than pure solvent. ∆Tf =
Kf × m, where Kf is the molal depression constant. Used for molecular weight calculation.
• Osmotic Pressure:
– Osmosis: Solvent movement through a semi-permeable membrane to equalize concentrations.
– Osmotic Pressure: Pressure needed to stop osmosis.
– Reverse Osmosis: Using pressure to force solvent from high to low concentration (e.g.,
water desalination).
– Van’t Hoff Equation: Relates osmotic pressure (Π) to concentration, Π = iCRT . Used for
molecular weight calculation.

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3. Thermochemistry
This branch deals with heat changes in chemical reactions and physical transformations.

• Enthalpy (∆H) and Internal Energy (∆E):

– Enthalpy: Total heat content at constant pressure. ∆H is heat absorbed/released at constant
pressure.
– Internal Energy: Total energy within a system. ∆E is heat absorbed/released at constant
volume.
• Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
– Exothermic: Release heat (∆H < 0).
– Endothermic: Absorb heat (∆H > 0).
• Relation: ∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT : Relates enthalpy change to internal energy change for gas-phase
reactions. ∆n is the change in moles of gas.
• Cp and Cv : Molar heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume, respectively.
• Kirchhoff ’s Equations: Describe how ∆H of a reaction changes with temperature, based on
∆Cp (difference in heat capacities).
• Types of Heat (Enthalpy) Changes:
– Heat of Formation: Enthalpy change forming one mole of compound from elements.
– Heat of Combustion: Enthalpy change burning one mole of substance in oxygen.
– Heat of Solution: Enthalpy change when one mole of solute dissolves.
– Heat of Neutralization: Enthalpy change when one mole of water forms from acid-base
reaction (constant for strong acid/base).
– Heat of Fusion/Vaporization/Sublimation: Enthalpy changes for melting, boiling, and
sublimation, respectively.
• Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation: Total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent
of the pathway. Used to calculate unknown ∆H values.

4. Chemical Kinetics
This field studies reaction rates, factors affecting them, and reaction mechanisms.

• Reaction Rate: Speed at which reactants convert to products.

• Rate Laws: Equations relating reaction rate to reactant concentrations.
• Order of a Reaction: Experimentally determined sum of exponents in the rate law.
• Molecularity of a Reaction: Number of molecules/ions colliding in an elementary reaction.
• Differences between Order and Molecularity: Order is empirical, can be fractional; molecu-
larity is theoretical, always an integer. High molecularity reactions are rare.
• Pseudo-order Reactions: Reactions appearing to have a lower order because some reactants are
in large excess.
• Integrated Rate Equations and Half-life (t1/2 ):
– Zero Order: Rate is constant. t1/2 ∝ [A]0 .
2.303 [A]0 0.693
– First Order: Rate ∝ [A]. k = t log [A]t . t1/2 = k (independent of initial concentra-
tion).
1 1
– Second Order: Rate ∝ [A]2 or [A][B]. [A]t − [A]0 = kt.
– Third Order: More complex equations.

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 • Methods of Determining Order: Graphical method, half-life period method, differential method.
• Collision Theory: Reactant molecules must collide with sufficient energy and correct orientation.
• Activation Energy: Minimum energy for a successful collision.
• Transition State Theory: Proposes an unstable activated complex forms during reaction.
• Effect of Temperature on Rate (Arrhenius Equation): Relates rate constant (k) to activa-
tion energy (Ea ) and temperature, k = Ae−Ea /RT .

5. Chemical Equilibrium
This chapter explores the state where forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, leading to constant
concentrations.

• Reversible Reactions: Reactions proceeding in both directions.

• Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium: Dynamic, constant concentrations, approachable
from either side, in a closed system.
• Law of Mass Action: Defines the equilibrium constant.
• Equilibrium Constant (Kc and Kp ):
– Kc based on concentrations, Kp based on partial pressures.
– Relationship between Kc and Kp (e.g., Kp = Kc (RT )∆n ).
• Thermodynamic Derivation of Equilibrium Law (∆G = ∆G0 + RT ln K): At equilibrium,
∆G = 0, leading to ∆G0 = −RT ln K.
• Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constant (van’t Hoff ’s Equation): ln K
K1 =
2

0
 
∆H 1 1
R T1 − T2 . Shows how K changes with temperature.

• Le Chatelier’s Principle: System shifts to relieve stress (changes in concentration, pressure,

temperature). Applied to ammonia synthesis.
• Common Ion Effect: Decreased solubility/dissociation of a weak electrolyte by adding a common
ion.
• Ostwald’s Dilution Law: Relates dissociation constant to degree of dissociation and concentra-
tion for weak electrolytes.

6. Electrochemistry
This area studies the relationship between electrical energy and chemical reactions.

• Definitions:
– Electrolytes: Substances forming ions, conducting electricity.
– Electrolysis: Using electricity to drive non-spontaneous reactions.
– Electrolytic Cell: Converts electrical energy to chemical energy.
– Anode: Electrode where oxidation occurs.
– Cathode: Electrode where reduction occurs.
– Mechanism of Electrolysis: How ions move and react at electrodes.
• Faraday’s 1st and 2nd Law:
– 1st Law: Mass deposited is proportional to electricity passed.
– 2nd Law: Masses deposited by same electricity are proportional to equivalent weights.
• Conductance of Electrolytes:

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 – Specific Conductance (κ): Conductance of a 1 cm cube of solution.
– Equivalent Conductance (Λeq ): Conductance of a solution containing one gram equivalent.
– Molar Conductance (Λm ): Conductance of a solution containing one mole.

• Variation of Equivalent Conductance with Concentration:

– Strong Electrolytes: Slightly increases with dilution due to reduced interionic attraction.
– Weak Electrolytes: Significantly increases with dilution due to increased dissociation.
• Conductometric Titration Curve: Graph of conductance vs. titrant volume, used to find
equivalence point.
• Transport Number: Fraction of total current carried by a specific ion.
• Kohlrausch’s Law and its Application: At infinite dilution, molar conductivity is the sum of
ionic conductivities. Used to find Λ∞
m for weak electrolytes.

7. Phase Rule
This section deals with equilibrium between different phases of substances.

• Phase (P): Physically distinct, homogeneous, separable part of a system.

• Component (C): Minimum independent chemical constituents to define phase compositions.
• Degrees of Freedom (F): Minimum independent variables (T, P, concentration) needed to define
system state.
• Phase Rule: F = C - P + 2
• Phase Diagram: Graphical representation of conditions for different phases in equilibrium.
– Area: Single phase exists (F=2).
– Line: Two phases in equilibrium (F=1).
– Triple Point: Three phases coexist (F=0).
• Phase Diagram of H2 O: Shows solid, liquid, and gas phases of water, including its unique triple
point.

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Derivations and Sample Maths
1. Colligative Properties of Dilute Solution
a. Lowering of the Vapour Pressure (Raoult’s Law) and Molecular Weight Calculation
• Derivation:
– Raoult’s Law: PA = PA0 XA
0
PA −PA nB nB
– Relative Lowering of VP: PA0 = XB = nA +nB ≈ nA (for dilute solutions)
0
wB MA PA
– MB = 0 −P )w
(PA A A

• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: 18.2 g of urea dissolved in 100 g of water at 50◦ C. Lowering of vapour pressure is
5 mm (Hg) and vapour pressure of water at 50◦ C is 92 mm (Hg). Calculate molecular mass
of urea.
– Solution: Given wB = 18.2g, wA = 100g, ∆P = 5mmHg, PA0 = 92mmHg, MA = 18g/mol.

5 18.2 × 18 18.2 × 18 × 92
= =⇒ MB = = 60.28 g/mol
92 MB × 100 5 × 100

b. Elevation of the Boiling Point and Molecular Weight Calculation

• Derivation: ∆Tb = Kb × m
wB ×1000
– Where m = MB ×wA
Kb ×wB ×1000
– MB = ∆Tb ×wA

• Definition: Molar (Molal) Elevation Constant (Kb ): Elevation in boiling point when one
mole of non-volatile solute is dissolved in 1 kg of solvent. (Units: K kg mol−1 or ◦ C kg mol−1 )

c. Depression of the Freezing Point and Molecular Weight Calculation

• Derivation: ∆Tf = Kf × m
wB ×1000
– Where m = MB ×wA
Kf ×wB ×1000
– MB = ∆Tf ×wA

• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: 1.250 g of Naphthalene was dissolved in 60 cm3 of benzene. Freezing point of

solution was 277.515 K, pure benzene 278.495 K. Density of benzene = 0.880 gcm−3 . Kf =
5.1 K per 1000 g benzene. Calculate the molecular mass of Naphthalene.
– Solution: Given wB = 1.250g, Vbenzene = 60cm3 , Tf = 277.515K, Tf0 = 278.495K, density =
0.880g/cm3 , Kf = 5.1Kkgmol−1 .

wA = 60 × 0.880 = 52.8 g
∆Tf = 278.495 − 277.515 = 0.980 K
5.1 × 1.250 × 1000
MB = = 123.2 g/mol
0.980 × 52.8

d. Osmotic Pressure (Van’t Hoff Equation) and Molecular Weight Calculation

• Derivation: Π = iCRT or Π = i MwBBV RT
wB RT
– MB = ΠV

• Sample Math Problem:

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 – Question: Osmotic pressure of blood is 7.65 atm at 310 K. If 1L of glucose to a patient
intravenously is isotonic with blood, what is glucose concentration in g/L?
– Solution: Given Π = 7.65atm, T = 310K, R = 0.0821Latmmol−1 K −1 , Mglucose = 180.16g/mol.
Glucose is non-electrolyte, i = 1.
Π 7.65
=
C= = 0.3005 mol/L
RT 0.0821 × 310
Concentration (g/L) = 0.3005 mol/L × 180.16 g/mol = 54.14 g/L

2. Chemical Kinetics
a. Integrated Rate Equation of a First Order Reaction and Half-life
• Derivation: Rate = − d[A]
dt = k[A]

2.303 [A]0
– Integration gives: k = t log [A]t

• Proof: First Order Reaction is Never Completed: From At = A0 e−kt , for At = 0, t must
be infinite.

• Proof: Half-life Does Not Depend Upon Initial Concentration: t1/2 = 0.693
k . Since k is
constant, t1/2 is constant.
• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: A first order reaction starting with a concentration of 1.00 mole/L. After 3.00 hrs,
the concentration decreased to 1.21 x 10−3 mole/L. Calculate the time required to disappear
2/3 amount of the reactant.
– Solution: Given [A]0 = 1.00M , [A]t = 1.21 × 10−3 M at t = 3.00hrs.
2.303 1.00
k= log = 2.240 hr−1
3.00 1.21 × 10−3
For 2/3 disappearance, [A]t = [A]0 /3 = 1.00/3 = 0.3333M.
2.303 1.00
t= log = 0.490 hrs
2.240 0.3333

b. Integrated Rate Equation of a Second Order Reaction

• Derivation (Case: 2A → Products or A → Products): 1
[A]t − 1
[A]0 = kt

• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: A second order reaction is 25% completed in 600 sec. Calculate the time required
to complete 90% of the reaction.
– Solution: Let [A]0 = 1. At 25% complete, [A]t1 = 0.75. At 90% complete, [A]t2 = 0.10.
1 1
− = k × 600 =⇒ k = 0.0005555 L mol−1 sec−1
0.75 1
1 1
− = 0.0005555 × t2 =⇒ t2 = 16200 sec
0.10 1

3. Chemical Equilibrium
a. Thermodynamic Derivation of Law of Chemical Equilibrium
• Derivation: Starts from ∆G = ∆G0 + RT ln Q. At equilibrium, ∆G = 0 and Q = K.
– Therefore, ∆G0 = −RT ln K.

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b. Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constant (van’t Hoff ’s Equation)
0
• Derivation: From ln K = − ∆G 0 0 0
RT and ∆G = ∆H − T ∆S , differentiate with respect to T.

d(ln K) ∆H 0
– Differential form: dT = RT 2
 
K2 ∆H 0 T2 −T1
– Integrated form: log K1 = 2.303R T1 T2

• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: Kp for a reaction is 1.22 x 10−3 at 298 K and 2.16 at 498 K. Calculate ∆H.
– Solution: Given K1 = 1.22×10−3 , T1 = 298K, K2 = 2.16, T2 = 498K, R = 8.314Jmol−1 K −1 .
 
2.16 ∆H 498 − 298
log =
1.22 × 10−3 2.303 × 8.314 298 × 498
∆H
3.2481 = × 0.0013476
19.147
∆H = 461523.1 J/mol = 461.5 kJ/mol

4. Thermochemistry
a. Relation: ∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT
• Derivation: Starts from ∆E = q + w at constant pressure (qp = ∆H, w = −P ∆V ) and ideal gas
law (P ∆V = ∆nRT ).
• Sample Math Problem:
– Question: Heat of formation of methane at 298 K at constant pressure is -17.890 kcal.
Calculate its heat of formation at constant volume. (R = 1.987 cal/degree.mol).
– Solution: Reaction: C(s) + 2H2 (g) → CH4 (g). ∆n = 1 − 2 = −1.

∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT
−17.890 kcal = ∆E + (−1 × 1.987 × 10−3 kcal/mol K × 298 K)
∆E = −17.890 + 0.592 = −17.298 kcal

b. Kirchhoff ’s Equation
d(∆H)
• Derivation: dT = ∆Cp
– Integrated form: ∆H2 = ∆H1 + ∆Cp (T2 − T1 )

c. Sample Math Problem (Hess’s Law):

• Question: Calculate standard heat of formation of propane if its heat of combustion is -2220.2
kJmol¹. Heat of formation of CO2 (g) and H2 O (l) are -393.5 and -285.8 kJ mol¹ respectively.

• Solution: Combustion: C3 H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)

∆Hcombustion = [3∆Hf0 (CO2 ) + 4∆Hf0 (H2 O)] − [∆Hf0 (C3 H8 ) + 5∆Hf0 (O2 )]
−2220.2 = [3(−393.5) + 4(−285.8)] − [∆Hf0 (C3 H8 ) + 0]
−2220.2 = [−1180.5 − 1143.2] − ∆Hf0 (C3 H8 )
∆Hf0 (C3 H8 ) = −2323.7 + 2220.2 = −103.5 kJ/mol

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5. Electrochemistry
a. Conductance Calculations
• Formulas: κ = 1
R × l
A, Λeq = κ×1000
N , Λm = κ×1000
M

• Sample Math Problem:

– Question: 0.5 N solution of a salt placed between two platinum electrodes, 2.0 cm apart and
of area of cross section 4.0 sq cm has a resistance of 25 ohms. Calculate equivalent conductance
of the solution.
– Solution: Given N = 0.5N , l = 2.0cm, A = 4.0cm2 , R = 25ohms.
1 2.0
κ= × = 0.04 × 0.5 = 0.02 S cm−1
25 4.0
0.02 × 1000
Λeq = = 40 S cm2 eq−1
0.5

6. Chemical Equilibrium
a. Calculation of Kc for a reaction:
• Sample Math Problem:
– Question: Some nitrogen and hydrogen gases are pumped into an empty five-litre glass bulb
at 500 ◦ C. When the equilibrium is established, 3.00 moles of N2 , 2.10 moles of H2 and 0.298
mole of NH3 are found to be present. Find the value of Kc for the reaction.
– Reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
– Solution: Given V = 5.00L, nN2 = 3.00mol, nH2 = 2.10mol, nNH3 = 0.298mol.

[N2 ] = 0.600M
[H2 ] = 0.420M
[NH3 ] = 0.0596M
[NH3 ]2 (0.0596)2
Kc = = = 0.0799 ≈ 0.080
[N2 ][H2 ]3 (0.600)(0.420)3

7. Phase Rule
• Phase Rule Formula: F = C - P + 2
• Sample Problem:
– Question: Determine the number of components, phases and degree of freedom for: (i) H2 O
(s) ⇌ H2 O (l) ⇌ H2 O (g) (ii) CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
– Solution:
∗ (i) H2 O (s) ⇌ H2 O (l) ⇌ H2 O (g)
· P = 3 (solid, liquid, gas)
· C = 1 (H2 O)
· F = 1 - 3 + 2 = 0 (Invariant system, fixed T and P)
∗ (ii) CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
· P = 3 (CaCO3 (s), CaO(s), CO2 (g))
· C = 2 (e.g., CaCO3 and CO2 )
· F = 2 - 3 + 2 = 1 (Univariant system, either T or P must be fixed)