COMPUTER NETWOKING

 Networking, also known as

computer networking, is the
practice of transporting and
exchanging data between nodes
over a shared medium in an
information system. Networking
comprises not only the design,
construction and use of a network, but also the management, maintenance
and operation of the network infrastructure, software and policies.
 Computer networking enables devices and endpoints to be connected to
each other. This is an essential function for service providers, businesses
and consumers worldwide to share resources, use or offer services, and
communicate.
 A Network can be classified in many ways depending upon range of the
network, accessibility of network.

 Classification of network depending upon range of the network :

 Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a
Wireless modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc.,And
revolves around one person in one building. These types of networks are
typically found in small offices or residences, and are managed by one
person or organization from a single device.

 Local Area Network (LAN)

LANs are the most frequently discussed networks, one of the most
common, one of the most original and one of the simplest types of
networks. LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices
together across short distances (within a building or between a group of
two or three buildings in close proximity to each other) to share
information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and maintain
LANs.
  Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology,
such as Wi-Fi. Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs,
these types of networks don’t require that devices rely on physical cables
to connect to the network.

 Campus Area Network (CAN)

Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs),
these types of networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12 school
districts or small businesses. They can be spread across several buildings
that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and
incorporate elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire
geographic area (typically a town or city, but sometimes a campus).
Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person or
company (a local council, a large company, etc.).

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together
across longer physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage
devices to be remotely connected to each other over one large network to
communicate even when they’re miles apart. The Internet is the most basic
example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by
multiple administrators or the public.

 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

As an alternative to traditional switch-based Ethernet LANs, POLAN
technology can be integrated into structured cabling to overcome concerns
about supporting traditional Ethernet protocols and network applications
such as PoE (Power over Ethernet). A point-to-multipoint LAN architecture,
POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from one strand of
single mode optical fiber into multiple signals to serve users and devices.
  Virtual Private Network (VPN)

By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its

users send and receive data as if their devices were connected to the
private network – even if they’re not. Through a virtual point-to-point
connection, users can access a private network remotely.

 Network can be also classified depending on the accessibility of the

network :

 INTRANET :

An intranet is a private network

contained within an enterprise that is
used to securely share company
information and computing resources
among employees. An intranet can
also be used for working in groups and
teleconferences.
Intranets encourage communication within an organization. They let
employees easily access important information, links, applications,
forms and databases of company records. A database that includes
all the usernames of employees who have access rights to the
network is often used to maintain intranet security.

Some of the benefits of the intranet are:

o It is cheap and easy to implement and run, and is more safe than the
internet.
o It streamlines communication that enables the company to share its data,
information, and other resources among employees without any delay. The
 entire staff can receive company's announcements, ask questions, and
access internal documents.
o It provides a secure space to store and develop applications to support
business operations, no one from outside can browse the information in
the intranet network.
o It improves the efficiency of the company by speeding up workflow and
reducing errors. Thus, it helps achieve targets by completing the tasks on
time.
o Information is shared in real-time, or updates are reflected immediately to
all the authorized users.
o Modern intranets also offer a mobile app that allows employees to stay
connected on the go.
o It aids in project management and tracking workflow and teams' progress.
o It can work with mobile devices, which means it can provide information
that exists on intranet directly to mobile devices of employees such as
phones, tablets, etc.
o It can also be used to motivate employees, facilitate employee recognition,
and to reward them for performing beyond expectations.

 INTERNET:

The internet is a globally

connected network system
facilitating worldwide
communication and access to
data resources through a vast
collection of private, public,
business, academic and government networks. It is governed by
agencies like the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA) that
establish universal protocols.

The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used
interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same thing; the internet
refers to the global communication system, including hardware and
infrastructure, while the web is one of the services communicated
over the internet.

Uses of internet:

 Cashless
Transactions
 Online Banking
& Trading
 Web Browsing
 Electronic Mails
 Social
Networking
 Communication
 Entertainment
 E-Commerce
 File transfer
 Advertising
 Education
 Business
 Banking
 Research
 Online booking
 Finance & Accounting
 Bill Payment
 Downloading Files and many more.
NETWORK DEVICES:
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure
networks with different functionality, we require different devices like Modem,
Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let us explore them in detail.
Modem:
Modem stands for ‘Modulator Demodulator’. It
refers to a device used for conversion between
analog signals and digital bits. We know
computers store and process data in terms of 0s
and 1s. However, to transmit data from a
sender to a receiver, or while browsing the
internet, digital data are converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it
free-space or a physical media) carries the signal to the receiver. There are
modems connected to both the source and destination nodes. The modem at the
sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into analog signals.
The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog
signals into digital data for the destination node to understand.
Ethernet Card:
Ethernet card, also known as
Network Interface Card (NIC card) is
a network adapter used to set up a
wired network. It acts as an
interface between computer and
the network. It is a circuit board
mounted on the motherboard of a
computer as shown in figure. The
Ethernet cable connects the
computer to the network through
NIC. Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10 Mbps
and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address, which
helps in uniquely identifying the computer on the network.

RJ45:
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector
that is used exclusively with Ethernet cables for
networking. It is a standard networking interface that
can be seen at the end of all network cables.
Basically, it is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45
jacks of the Ethernet cards present in various
computing devices.

Repeater:
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable.
These signals can travel a specified distance (usually about
100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit and
become weak. In such conditions, original signals need to
be regenerated. A repeater is an analog device that works
with signals on the cables to which it is connected. The
weakened signal appearing on the cable is regenerated
and put back on the cable by a repeater.
Hub:
An Ethernet hub is a network device used to
connect different devices through wires. Data
arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all
the others. The limitation of Hub is that if data
from two devices come at the
A network hub with 8 ports
same time, they will collide.
Switch :
A switch is a networking device that plays a
central role in a Local Area Network (LAN). Like a
hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple
computers or communicating devices. When data
arrives, the switch extracts the destination
address from the data packet and looks it up in a
table to see where to send the packet. Thus, it sends signals to only selected
devices instead of sending to all. It can forward multiple packets at the same time.
A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops such
signals and asks the sender to resend it.
Router:
A router is a network device that can receive the
data, analyze it and transmit it to other networks. A
router connects a local area network to the
internet. Compared to a hub or a switch, a router
has advanced capabilities as it can analyze the data
being carried over a network, decide/alter how it is
packaged, and send it to another network of a
different type. For example, data has been divided into packets of a certain size.
Suppose these packets are to be carried over a different type of network which
cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged as
smaller packets and then sent over the network by a router.
A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to
smartphones and other devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to
provide wired Internet access. These days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual
task of a router and a modem/ switch. These routers connect to incoming
broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and convert them to digital
data for computing devices to process.
Gateway:
As the term “Gateway” suggests, it
is a key access point that acts as a
“gate” between an organization’s
network and the outside world of
the Internet. Gateway serves as
the entry and exit point of a
network, as all data coming in or
going out of a network must first
pass through the gateway in order
to use routing paths. Besides
routing data packets, gateways also maintain information about the host
network's internal connection paths and the identified paths of other remote
networks. If a node from one network wants to communicate with a node of a
foreign network, it will NOTES 2022-23 COMPUTER NETWORKS 191 pass the data
packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the destination using the best
possible route.

NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES:
We have already discussed that a number of computing devices are connected
together to form a Local Area Network (LAN), and interconnections among
millions of LANs forms the Internet. The arrangement of computers and other
peripherals in a network is called its topology. Common network topologies are
Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
Mesh Topology:
In this networking topology, each communicating device is connected with every
other device in the network as shown in Figure. Such a network can handle large
amounts of traffic since multiple nodes can transmit data simultaneously. Also,
such networks are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets down, it
does not cause any break in the transmission of data between other nodes. This
topology is also more secure as compared to other topologies because each cable
between two nodes carries different data.
However, wiring is complex and cabling cost is
high in creating such networks and there are
many redundant or unutilized connections.

A Mesh Topology

Ring Topology:
In ring topology, each node is connected to two other devices, one each on either
side, as shown in Figure. The nodes connected with each other thus forms a ring.
The link in a ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one
direction only (clockwise or counterclockwise).

A Ring Topology
Bus Topology:
In bus topology, each communicating device connects to a transmission medium,
known as bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are
transmitted to the length of the bus in both directions. That means, data can be
received by any of the nodes connected to the bus.

A Bus Topology
Star Topology:
In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a
central node, which is a networking device like a hub or a switch,
as shown in Figure. Star topology is considered very effective,
efficient and fast as each device is directly connected with the
central device. Although disturbance in one device will not affect
the rest of the network, any failure in a central networking device
may lead to the failure of complete network.
The central node can be either a broadcasting device means data
will be transmitted to all the nodes in the network, or a unicast
device means the node can identify the destination and forward
data to that node only.

A Star Topology

Tree or Hybrid Topology:

 It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches
and each branch can have one or more basic topologies like star,
ring and bus. Such topologies are
usually realized in WANs where
multiple LANs are connected.
Those LANs may be in the form
of a ring, bus or star. In figure, a
hybrid topology is shown connecting
4-star topologies in a bus.
In this type of A Tree or Hybrid Topology network, data
transmitted from source first reaches
the centralized device and from there the data passes through
every branch where each branch can have links for more nodes.

MAC Address:
MAC stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also
known as the physical or hardware address, is a unique value
associated with a network adapter called a NIC. The MAC address
is engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a
permanent address and cannot be changed under any
circumstances. The machine on which the NIC is attached, can be
physically identified on the network using its MAC address. Each
MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in
length), of which the first six digits (24 bits) contain the
manufacturer’s ID called Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI)
and the later six digits (24 bits) represents the serial number
assigned to the card by the manufacturer. A sample MAC address
looks like:
 IP ADDRESS
 IP address stands for internet protocol address. Every PC/Local machine is
having an IP address and that IP address is provided by the Internet Service
Providers (ISP’s). These are some sets of rules which govern the flow of
data whenever a device is connected to the Internet. It differentiates
computers, websites, and routers. Just like human identification cards like
Aadhaar cards, Pan Cards, or any other unique identification documents.
Every laptop and desktop has its own unique IP address for identification.
It’s an important part of internet technology.
 An IP address is displayed as a set of four-digit like 17.172.224.47. Here
each number on the set ranges from 0 to 255. Hence, the total IP address
range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. IP address will be in binary form,
but it is always represented in decimal
form. It consists of four bytes or 32
bits.
 Here an example for IP address is
shown.

 These are two types of IP address :

 IPv4
 IPv6

IPv4:
IPv4 is a version 4 of IP. It is a current version and the most commonly used IP
address. It is a 32-bit address written in four numbers separated by 'dot', i.e.,
periods. This address is unique for each device .For example, 66.94.29.13.
The above example represents the IP address in which each group of numbers
separated by periods is called an Octet. Each number in an octet is in the range
from 0-255. This address can produce 4,294,967,296 possible unique addresses.
In today's computer network world, computers do not understand the IP
addresses in the standard numeric format as the computers understand the
numbers in binary form only. The binary number can be either 1 or 0. The IPv4
consists of four sets, and these sets represent the octet. The bits in each octet
represent a number.
Each bit in an octet can be either 1 or 0. If the bit the 1, then the number it
represents will count, and if the bit is 0, then the number it represents does not
count.

Representation of 8 Bit Octet:

o The above representation shows the structure of 8- bit octet.

o Now, we will see how to obtain the binary representation of the above IP
address, i.e., 66.94.29.13.
Step 1: First, we find the binary number of 66.

To obtain 66, we put 1 under 64 and 2 as the sum of 64 and 2 is equal to 66

(64+2=66), and the remaining bits will be zero, as shown above. Therefore, the
binary bit version of 66 is 01000010.
Step 2: Now, we calculate the binary number of 94.

To obtain 94, we put 1 under 64, 16, 8, 4, and 2 as the sum of these numbers is
equal to 94, and the remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit
version of 94 is 01011110.
 Step 3: The next number is 29.

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
To obtain 29, we put 1 under 16, 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal
to 29, and the remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 29 is
00011101.

Step 4: The last number is 13.

To obtain 13, we put 1 under 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal to
13, and the remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 13 is
00001101.
 Hence the binary representation of the IP 66.94.29.13 is
01000010. 01011110. 00011101. 00001101.

Classification of IPv4:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
In the IPv4 IP address space, there are five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Each class has
a specific range of IP addresses (and ultimately dictates the number of devices
you can have on your network). Primarily, class A, B, and C are used by the
majority of devices on the Internet. Class D and class E are for special uses. Again
in these IPv4, there are private and public IPs.
The list below shows the five available IP classes, along with the number of
networks each can support and the maximum number of hosts (devices) that can
be on each of those networks. The four octets that make up an IP address are
conventionally represented by a .b .c .d - such as 127.10.20.30.
Class A Public & Private IP Address Range:
Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A
allows for 126 networks by using the first octet for the network ID. The first bit in
this octet, is always zero. The remaining seven bits in this octet complete the
network ID. The 24 bits in the remaining three octets represent the hosts ID and
allows for approximately 17 million hosts per network. Class A network number
values begin at 1 and end at 127.
Public IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0. (First octet value range from 1 to 127).
Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (8 bits)
Number of Networks: 126
Number of Hosts per Network: 16,777,214

Class B Public & Private IP Address Range:

Class B addresses are for medium to large sized networks. Class B allows for
16,384 networks by using the first two octets for the network ID. The first two bits
in the first octet are always 1 0. The remaining six bits, together with the second
octet, complete the network ID. The 16 bits in the third and fourth octet
represent host ID and allows for approximately 65,000 hosts per network. Class B
network number values begin at 128 and end at 191.
Public IP Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0. (First octet value range from 128 to
191)
Private IP Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
Number of Networks: 16,382
Number of Hosts per Network: 65,534
Class C Public & Private IP Address Range:
Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows for
approximately 2 million networks by using the first three octets for the network
ID. In a class C IP address, the first three bits of the first octet are always 1 1 0.
And the remaining 21 bits of first three octets complete the network ID. The last
octet (8 bits) represent the host ID and allows for 254 hosts per network. Class C
network number values begins at 192 and end at 223.
Public IP Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0. (First octet value range from 192 to
223)
Private IP Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.
Special IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (24 bits)
Number of Networks: 2,097,150
Number of Hosts per Network: 254
Class D IP Address Range:
Class D IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are used for multicasting.
Multicasting allows a single host to send a single stream of data to thousands of
hosts across the Internet at the same time. It is often used for audio and video
streaming, such as IP-based cable TV networks. Another example is the delivery of
real-time stock market data from one source to many brokerage companies.

Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. (First octet value range from 224 to 239)
Number of Networks: Not defined
Number of Hosts per Network: Multicasting
Class E IP Address Range:
Class E IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are not available for general
use. These are reserved for research purposes.
Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. (First octet value range from 240 to 255)
Number of Networks: Not defined
Number of Hosts per Network: Research/Reserved/Experimental.

Drawback of IPv4:
Currently, the population of the world is 7.6 billion. Every user is having more
than one device connected with the internet, and private companies also rely on
the internet. As we know that IPv4 produces 4 billion addresses, which are not
enough for each device connected to the internet on a planet. Although the
various techniques were invented, such as variable- length mask, network address
translation, port address translation, classes, inter-domain translation, to
conserve the bandwidth of IP address and slow down the depletion of an IP
address. In these techniques, public IP is converted into a private IP due to which
the user having public IP can also use the internet. But still, this was not so
efficient, so it gave rise to the development of the next generation of IP
addresses, i.e., IPv6.

 IPv6:
IPv4 produces 4 billion addresses, and the developers think that these addresses
are enough, but they were wrong. IPv6 is the next generation of IP addresses. The
main difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is the address size of IP addresses. The
IPv4 is a 32-bit address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address. IPv6
provides a large address space, and it contains a simple header as compared to
IPv4.
This hexadecimal address contains both numbers and alphabets. Due to the usage
of both the numbers and alphabets, IPv6 is capable of producing over 340
undecillion (3.4*1038) addresses.
IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address made up of 8 sets of 16 bits each, and these
8 sets are separated by a colon. In IPv6, each hexadecimal character represents 4
bits. So, we need to convert 4 bits to a hexadecimal number at a time.
The address format of IPv6:

The above diagram shows the address format of IPv6. It is a 128-bit hexadecimal
address. It contains 8 fields separated by a colon, and each field is 16-bit in size.
Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6:
IP addresses are an essential part of computer networking. They play an
important role in sending and receiving information on the internet. Every device
that connects to an internet network has an IP address, which means there are
billions of IP addresses that exist.
 In intranet we only use private IPs, but whereas in internet we use public
IPs. Public IPs are classified of two types :
 Static IPs
 Dynamic IPs

Static IP addresses:
A static IP address is an IP address that doesn’t change. Our static IP addresses
usually stay the same unless our network architecture changes or our devices
are out of commission. Static IP addresses are typically used for servers or
other important networking equipment. They’re popular within business
settings because they ensure that the devices connected to them keep a
consistent address. They also work well for remote access solutions. A static IP
address is assigned to a device by an ISP. Typically, static IP addresses add to
the cost of your internet service.
Dynamic IP addresses:
A dynamic IP address is an IP address that can regularly change. An ISP will buy
a large number of dynamic IP addresses and assign them to their customer’s
devices. Dynamic IP addresses are often reassigned. Reassigning IP addresses
helps internet providers save money and ensure a higher level of security. It
also means that they don’t need to take the time to reestablish any network
connections if we go on a vacation or move to a new location.
Static IP vs. dynamic IP:
There’s not always a clear answer when it comes to deciding between a static
or a dynamic IP address. When choosing between the two, it’s important to
consider your connection environment. In other words, static IP addresses
tend to be better for businesses, while dynamic IP addresses tend to be better
for personal or home networks.