NUTRITION NOTES

week Sub-module unit Discussion topics

Introduction to food  definition of terms
science and nutrition  importance, components of balanced diet
1
 food composition tables
 nutritional disorders and their prevention
Acids, bases and salts  definition of terms
1  properties
 pH scale
Organic chemistry  definition of terms
2  structural formula of hydrocarbons
 saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Physical and chemical  nutrients and other useful components of foods
aspects of nutrients  structure of macronutrients
3
 properties of nutrients
 sources of nutrients and other food components
Food commodities  types of food commodities
 sources of food commodities
3  factors to consider when choosing food commodities
 uses of food commodities
Enzymes  meaning
 characteristics
4
 classifications, roles
 digestive system
Food additives  meaning
4  importance, types and uses
 legislation
Food contaminants  meaning and classification
5  critical point of food contamination
 legislation
Food spoilage  meaning
5  characteristics of food fit for consumption
 causes and types of food spoilage
Micro-organisms useful  meaning
6 in the food industry  importance, types and factors
 meaning
 types and causes of food poisoning
6 Food poisoning
 preventive measures
 major food laws
 meaning, importance of food preservation
7 Food preservation  principles of food preservation
 methods of food preservation
 definition of terms, transmission and signs and symptoms
 home and clinical management of HIV/AIDS
7-8 HIV/AIDS and nutrition
 prevention
 nutritional effects on HIV/AIDS and diet therapy
Emerging trends in  emerging issues, challenges of the emerging issues in
7-8
nutrition nutrition and mechanisms of coping with the challenges

Course text and recommended reading materials

 1. The Theory of Catering – Foskett, Kinton & Ceserani (Hodder & Stoughton)

2. Nutrition & Diet therapy 10th edition by Ruth A. Roth

SEMINAR ONE

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses nutrients, and the
relationship between diet, health, and disease. The human body requires seven major
types of nutrients; protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin, mineral, fibre, and water

A nutrient is a source of nourishment, a component of food, for instance,

protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin, mineral, fibre, and water. Nutrients are all
compounds necessary for bodily function, including minerals, vitamins, fats,
carbohydrates and proteins.

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is

usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. Edible or potable substance
(usually of animal or plant origin), consisting of nourishing and nutritive components
such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, essential mineral and vitamins,

 Macronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively large quantities.

 Micronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively small quantities.

Over nutrition is frequent or habitual overconsumption of nutrients by eating too

much food to the point that it becomes dangerous to your health.

Undernutrition is the opposite of over nutrition, meaning that it is a nutrient

deficiency from not eating enough food. Undernutrition usually affects the balance of
all the nutrients in your body.

Malnutrition Undernutrition is a form of malnutrition -- a condition resulting from

not consuming enough nutrients. However, it is not synonymous with undereating --
it can occur despite overeating. This is because proper nutrition requires a balance
of all nutrients not present in all foods; this means that your body requires a balance
of many different foods. Even in the case of over nutrition, when you may be eating
too much food, you can still develop a deficiency in certain nutrients if you fail to
consume the proper variety foods.

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION

Good nutrition is the key to good mental and physical health. Eating a balanced diet
is an important part of good health for everyone. The kind and amount of food you
eat affects the way you feel and how your body works.

 Reduce the risk of some diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, stroke,
 some cancers, and osteoporosis
 Reduce high blood pressure
 Lower high cholesterol
 Improve your well-being
 Improve your ability to fight off illness
 Improve your ability to recover from illness or injury
 Increase your energy level

Food composition tables

Tables of the chemical composition, energy, and nutrient yield of foods, based on
chemical analysis. Although the analyses are performed with great precision, they
are, of necessity, only performed on a few samples of each type of food. There is
considerable variation, especially in the content of vitamins and minerals, between
different samples of the same food, so calculation of nutrient intakes based on use
of food composition tables, even when intake has been weighed, can only be
considered to be accurate to within about±10%, at best.

NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS AND THEIR PREVENTION

A nutritional deficiency occurs when the body doesn’t absorb or get from food the
necessary amount of a nutrient. Deficiencies can lead to a variety of health problems.
These can include digestion problems, skin disorders, stunted or defective bone
growth, and even dementia.

Types of nutritional deficiency

It’s possible to be deficient in any of the nutrients your body needs. Some common
types of nutritional deficiencies include:

Iron deficiency

The most widespread nutritional deficiency worldwide is iron deficiency. Iron

deficiency can lead to anaemia, a blood disorder that causes fatigue, weakness, and
a variety of other symptoms.

Iron is found in foods such as dark leafy greens, red meat, and egg yolks. It helps
your body make red blood cells. When you’re iron-deficient, your body produces
fewer red blood cells. The red blood cells it produces are smaller and paler than
healthy blood cells. They’re also less efficient at delivering oxygen to your tissues
and organs.

Vitamin A deficiency

Vitamin A is a group of nutrients crucial for eye health and functioning and
reproductive health in men and women. It also plays a part in strengthening
the immune system against infections.
.

For new-born babies, the best source of vitamin A is breast milk. For everyone else,
it’s important to eat plenty of foods high in vitamin A. These include:

 milk

 eggs

 green vegetables, such as kale, broccoli, and spinach

 orange vegetables, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, and pumpkin

 reddish-yellow fruits, such as apricots, papaya, peaches, and tomatoes

Thiamine (vitamin B-1) deficiency

Another common nutritional deficiency occurs with thiamine, also known as vitamin
B-1. Thiamine is an important part of your nervous system. It also helps your body
turn carbohydrates into energy as part of your metabolism.

A lack of thiamine can result in weight loss and fatigue as well as some cognitive
symptoms such as confusion and short-term memory loss. Thiamine deficiency can
also lead to nerve and muscle damage and can affect the heart.

In the United States, thiamine deficiency is most often seen in people who
chronically abuse alcohol. Alcohol reduces the body’s ability to absorb thiamine,
store thiamine in the liver, and convert thiamine to a usable form. Thiamine
deficiency is a common cause of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a form of dementia.

Many breakfast cereals and grain products in the United States are fortified with
thiamine. Eggs, legumes, nuts, seeds, wheat germ, and pork are also good sources
of the vitamin.

Niacin (vitamin B-3) deficiency

Niacin (vitamin B-3) is another mineral that helps the body convert food into energy.
A severe deficiency of niacin is often referred to as pellagra. Niacin is found in most
animal proteins, but also in peanuts. As a result, this condition is rare in developed
countries or in meat-eating communities.

Symptoms of pellagra include diarrhea, dementia, and skin disorders. You can
usually treat it with a balanced diet and vitamin B-3 supplements.
Folate (vitamin B-9) deficiency

Vitamin B-9, often referred to as folate, helps the body create red blood cells and
produce DNA. It also helps brain development and nervous system functioning. Folic
acid is the synthetic form found in supplements or fortified foods.

Folate is especially important for fetal development. It plays a crucial role in the
formation of a developing child’s brain and spinal cord. Folate deficiency can lead to
severe birth defects, growth problems, or anemia.

You can find folate in foods, including:

 beans and lentils

 citrus fruits

 leafy green vegetables

 asparagus

 meats such as poultry and pork

 shellfish

 fortified grain products

 whole grains

Vitamin D deficiency

Vitamin D is essential for healthy bones. It helps the body maintain the right levels
of calcium in order to regulate the development of teeth and bones. A lack of this
nutrient can lead to stunted or poor bone growth. Osteoporosis, caused by a lack of
calcium and vitamin

D, can lead to porous and fragile bones that break very easily.

The best source of vitamin D is sunlight. Vitamin D is only found naturally in a few
foods. Foods with vitamin D include:

 fish liver oils

 fatty fish

 mushrooms
 egg yolks

 liver

Many dairy products and plant milks in the United States are fortified with vitamin D.

Ultraviolet light from the sun is also a source of vitamin D. According to the NIH,
research suggests that 5 to 30 minutes of sun exposure twice a week on the face,
arms, neck, or back can provide you with enough vitamin D.

Although recommended for UV protection, sunscreen does hinder vitamin D

absorption from sunlight through the skin. Spend a few minutes in the sun prior to
sunscreen for optimal vitamin D absorption.

Calcium deficiency

Calcium helps your body develop strong bones and teeth. It also helps your heart,
nerves, and muscles work the way they should. A calcium deficiency often doesn’t
show symptoms right away, but it can lead to serious health problems over time. If
you aren’t consuming enough calcium, your body may use the calcium from your
bones instead, leading to bone loss.

While some experts believe that calcium deficiencies may be related to low bone
mass and weakening of bones due to osteoporosis, it’s a topic of much debate.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), evidence does support the
importance of calcium with vitamin D in older populations for bone health, but
evidence is weaker for younger populations.

Population study research by WHO also reveals that countries with lower calcium
intake don’t have high rates of bone diseases. But countries with higher calcium
intake have higher rates of hip fractures. In these countries, like the United States,
high protein intake and lack of exercise can contribute to poor calcium status and
bone health.

Calcium deficiency can lead to convulsions and abnormal heart rhythms. They can
even be life-threatening. Postmenopausal women experience greater bone loss due
to changing hormones and have more trouble absorbing calcium.

The best sources of calcium are dairy products such as milk, yogurt, cheese, calcium
-set tofu, and small fish with bones. Vegetables such as kale and broccoli also have
calcium, and many cereals

Fibre

Dietary fibre is a very important form of starch. Unlike other carbohydrates, dietary
fibre cannot be digested and does not provide energy to the body. However, dietary
fibre is essential for a balanced diet because it:

● helps to remove waste and toxins from the body and maintain bowel action

● helps to control the digestion and processing of nutrients

● adds bulk to the diet, helping us to stop feeling hungry; it is used in many slimming
foods. Fibre is found in:

● fruits and vegetables

● wholemeal and granary bread

● wholegrain cereals

● wholemeal pasta

● wholegrain rice

● pulses (peas and beans) and lentilsand grains are calcium-fortified.

Food composition tables

Tables of the chemical composition, energy, and nutrient yield of foods, based on
chemical analysis. Although the analyses are performed with great precision, they
are, of necessity, only performed on a few samples of each type of food. There is
considerable variation, especially in the content of vitamins and minerals, between
different samples of the same food, so calculation of nutrient intakes based on use
of food composition tables, even when intake has been weighed, can only be
considered to be accurate

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES

1. Kwashiorkor:
Kwashiorkor is a deficiency disease caused by lack of protein and energy in the body.
It is characterized by anorexia, an enlarged liver, irritability and ulcerating
dermatoses. These are the one of the nutritional deficiencies in children, especially
from famine-struck areas and places with poor food supply, Kwashiokor is caused by
malnutrition. A healthy and balanced diet enriched with protein and carbohydrate
sources like eggs, lentils, rice etc helps combat this problem.

2. Iron deficiency anaemia is a disease caused by the deficiency of iron in the

body. It is characterized by a decrease in the red blood cell count or
hemoglobin in the body, resulting in fatigue, weakness, dyspnoea and
paleness of the body. It can be easily treated by changing to a healthy diet and
 consuming iron supplements on a regular basis. Squashes, nuts, tofu, bran
etc are rich sources of iron for the body.

3. Goitre: Iodine in the body is essential for normal cell metabolism in the body
and deficiency of iodine may cause goitre. Goitre leads to enlarged thyroid
glands causing hypothyroidism, poor growth and development of infants in
childhood, cretinism and even mental retardation. This disease is commonly
found to occur in places having iodine deficit soil. Iodised salt and saltwater
fish are rich sources of iodine, and must be consumed regularly to avoid
goitre.

4. Beri Beri:
Lack of Vitamin B1 or thiamine in the body leads to the disease called beri
beri. The most common symptoms of this illness are altered muscle
coordination, nerve degeneration and cardiovascular problems. Meat, eggs,
whole grains, dried beans etc are rich in thiamine and thus, should be
consumed in proper amounts everyday to avoid this painful ailment.

5. Xerophthalmia or Night Blindness:

Xerophthalmia or night blindness is characterized by blindness due to the
poor growth, dryness and keratinisation of epithelial tissue or chronic eye
infection. The cause of this disease is attributed to the deficiency of Vitamin
A in the body. In worsened situations, night blindness can aggravate to
complete loss of vision. The safest way to enhance the Vitamin A levels in the
body is by consuming natural food sources like carrots, green and leafy
vegetables, cantaloupes etc
6. pellagra

Dementia, diarrhea, dermatitis and death are “the four Ds” that characterize Pellagra,
a disease caused by the lack of Niacin or B3 in the body. The deficiency of niacin is
also accompanied by a short supply of the amino acids, tryptophan and lysine or the
excessive presence of lysine in the body. Foods enriched with niacin are tuna, whole
grains, peanuts, mushrooms, chicken etc. These should be consumed regularly to
ward off this disease.

7. Scurvy:
Alarmingly reduced levels of Vitamin C or ascorbic acid in the body can cause scurvy.
Scurvy basically inhibits the production of collagen in the body which is the structural
protein that connects the tissues. Decaying of the skin and gums, abnormal
formation of teeth and bones, delay or inability to heal wounds and bleeding are the
effects of scurvy on the body. One must ensure optimal consumption of Vitamin C
by having citrus fruits like oranges, lemon, strawberry etc and broccoli regularly.

8. Rickets:
Deficiency of Vitamin D along with calcium and potassium in the body causes rickets.
Rickets is characterized by weak and soft bones, bowed legs and bone deformities.
Fish, fortified dairy products, liver, oil and sunlight are some rich sources of Vitamin
D. One may need to resort to dietary supplements for making up for the lack of the
“sunshine vitamin” in the body.
NUTRITION AND THE CONSUMER

NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
A nutritional deficiency occurs when the body doesn’t absorb or get from food the
necessary amount of a nutrient. Deficiencies can lead to a variety of health problems.
These can include digestion problems, skin disorders, stunted or defective bone
growth, and even dementia.
Iron deficiency

The most widespread nutritional deficiency worldwide is iron deficiency. Iron

deficiency can lead to anemia, a blood disorder that causes fatigue, weakness, and a
variety of other symptoms.

Iron is found in foods such as dark leafy greens, red meat, and egg yolks. It helps
your body make red blood cells. When you’re iron-deficient, your body produces
fewer red blood cells. The red blood cells it produces are smaller and paler than
healthy blood cells. They’re also less efficient at delivering oxygen to your tissues
and organs.

Vitamin A deficiency

Vitamin A is a group of nutrients crucial for eye health and functioning and
reproductive health in men and women. It also plays a part in strengthening
the immune system against infections.

For newborn babies, the best source of vitamin A is breast milk. For everyone else,
it’s important to eat plenty of foods high in vitamin A. These include:

 milk

 eggs

 green vegetables, such as kale, broccoli, and spinach

 orange vegetables, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, and pumpkin

 reddish-yellow fruits, such as apricots, papaya, peaches, and tomatoes

Thiamine (vitamin B-1) deficiency

Another common nutritional deficiency occurs with thiamine, also known as vitamin
B-1. Thiamine is an important part of your nervous system. It also helps your body
turn carbohydrates into energy as part of your metabolism.

A lack of thiamine can result in weight loss and fatigue as well as some cognitive
symptoms such as confusion and short-term memory loss. Thiamine deficiency can
also lead to nerve and muscle damage and can affect the heart.
Niacin (vitamin B-3) deficiency

Niacin (vitamin B-3) is another mineral that helps the body convert food into energy.
A severe deficiency of niacin is often referred to as pellagra. Niacin is found in most
animal proteins, but also in peanuts. As a result, this condition is rare in developed
countries or in meat-eating communities.

Symptoms of pellagra include diarrhea, dementia, and skin disorders. You can
usually treat it with a balanced diet and vitamin B-3 supplements.

SEMINAR TWO
ACIDS BASES AND SALTS
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
• water is a neutral substance • when substances dissolve in water, the solution may
become… ACIDIC or ALKALINE or stay
pH SCALE Used to compare the relative acidity (and alkalinity) of solutions. The
value is related to the concentration of H+ ions, in solution.
The term acid comes from Latin term ‘accre’ which means sour. It was first used in
the seventeenth century by Robert Boyle to label substances as acids and bases
according to the following characteristics:
Acids
(i) taste sour
Bases
(i) taste bitter
(ii) (ii) are corrosive to metals
(iii) (ii) feel slippery or soapy
(iv) (iii) change blue litmus red
(v) (iii) change red litmus blue
(vi) (iv) become less acidic on mixing
(vii) (iv) become less basic on mixing with with bases acids While Robert Boyle
was successful in characterising acids and bases he could
1. An acid is a substance that forms hydrogen (H+ ) ions as the only positive ion
when dissolved in water
2. 2. There are two types of acids: mineral acid (or inorganic acid) and organic
acid. a. Mineral acids are acids that are derived from one or more mineral
elements or inorganic matter and can normally be prepared in the laboratory.
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCI),
carbonic acid (H2CO3) and nitric acid (HNO3) are examples of mineral acids.
b. Organic acids are obtained from plants and animals and are mainly
naturally occurring organic compounds with acidic properties. They include
malic acid (C4H6O5) which is found in apples, ethanoicFor thousands of
years, people have known that vinegar, lemon juice, Amla, tamarind and many
other food items taste sour. However, only a few hundred years ago it was
proposed that these things taste sour because they contain ‘acids’. The term
acid comes from Latin term ‘accre’ which means sour. It was first used in the
seventeenth century by Robert Boyle to label substances as acids and bases
according to the following characteristics: Acids Bases (i) taste sour (i) taste
bitter (ii) are corrosive to metals (ii) feel slippery or soapy (iii) change blue
litmus red (iii) change red litmus blue (iv) become less acidic on mixing (iv)
become less basic on mixing with with bases acids While Robert Boyle was
successful in characterising acids and bases he could n acid (C2H4O2) that
can be found in vinegar and citric acid (C6H8O7) that is present in citrus fruits
like lime and lemon.
3. 3. Strength of an acid refers to the extent to which an acid molecule
dissociates or ionises in an aqueous solution to form ions. a.
4. Strong acids are acids that are completely dissociated in water to produce a
high concentration of hydrogen ions. Hence, strong acids ionise completely.
Strong acids have a pH in the region of about 1. Sulfuric acid, nitric acid and
hydrochloric acid are examples of strong acids. HCI (aq) H+ (aq) + CI (aq)
(dilute hydrochloric acid contains only hydrogen and chloride ions; no HCl
molecules are present) H3PO4 (aq) 3H+ (aq) + PO4 3- (aq)
b. Weak acids are acids that are partially dissociated in water to produce a
low concentration of hydrogen ions. E.g. carbonic acid and ethanoic acid
where only a few of its molecules ionises.
Weak acids have a pH in the region of about >2.5. Other examples include
citric acid and malic acid. CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO (aq) (dilute
ethanoic acid contains mainly acid molecules that remain unchanged in the
water; very few molecules dissociate to produce hydrogen ions) C6H8O7 (aq)
3H+ (aq) + C6H5O7 3- (aq) citric acid citrate ion
Physical Properties of Acids
a. have a sour taste.
b. turn damp blue litmus paper red, with pH value less than 7, due to the
presence of hydrogen ions.
c. Acid conducts electricity due to its abundance of mobile hydrogen ions and
anions when dissociated in water. But in other solvents, it would not conduct
electricity. For example, hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene: hydrogen
chloride does not ionise to produce ions and remains as molecules. Hence, it
does not conduct electricity.
d. Acid is a mixture of a covalent compound and water.

Acids are used

a. to remove rust; the industrial process to strip rust from steel is known as
pickling where the rusted steel is dipped into phosphoric acid 2H3PO4 (aq) +
3Fe2O3 (s) 2Fe3(PO4)2 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
b. as food preservatives and flavor enhancers like in vinegar (ethanoic acid –
CH3COOH).
c. for cleaning metals and in leather processing (hydrochloric acid).
d. to make car batteries, manufacture of fertilisers and detergents (sulfuric
acid).

Base / Alkali
9. A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water only.
10. Bases form a class of chemical substances which include all metal oxides
and metal hydroxides. E.g. magnesium oxide (MgO), copper (II) oxide (CuO),
and calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
a. Soluble bases are called alkalis. An alkali is a substance that forms
hydroxide ions (OH) when dissolved in water. e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], aqueous ammonia (NH4OH). b. Insoluble bases
would be unable to produce hydroxide ions in water and thus would not cause
pH indicators to change colour.
11. Strength of an alkali refers to the extent to which an alkali molecule
dissociates or ionises in an aqueous solution to form ions. a. Strong alkalis
are alkalis that are completely dissociated in water to produce a high
concentration of hydroxide ions. Hence, strong alkalis ionise completely.
Strong alkalis have a pH in the region of about 13. Sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide (KOH) and calcium hydroxide are examples of strong
alkalis.

Properties of Bases
 Alkalis and insoluble bases react with acid to form salt and water
have a bitter taste and a soapy feel.
b. turns damp red litmus paper blue with a pH value greater than 7 due to the
presence of hydroxide ions.
c. conduct electricity in aqueous solutions due to its abundance of mobile hydroxide
ions and cations when the base dissolves in water.
d. An alkali is a mixture of ionic compound and water.

Alkalis are used to a. dissolve dirt and grease (sodium hydroxide), like in eye lotions
and household cleaning agents (aqueous ammonia).
b. relieve gastric pain and for making refractory bricks (magnesium oxide).

Salts
A salt is substance formed when one or more hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced
by a metallic ion or an ammonium ion. E.g. the salt sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed
when the hydrogen ion of the hydrochloric acid (HCl) is replaced by the sodium ion, a
cation (metallic ion) of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) +
H2O (l)
32. The anion of a salt comes from an acid. E.g. Chlorides (Cl) can be formed using
dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); Sulfates (SO4 2-) can be formed using dilute sulfuric
acid (H2SO4); Nitrates (NO3 - ) can be formed using dilute nitric acid (HNO3);
Phosphate (PO4 3-) can be formed using dilute phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

SEMINAR THREE
Organic chemistry is a chemistry sub discipline involving the scientific study of the
structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e.,
matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms.[1]
Study of structure includes many physical and chemical methods to determine
the chemical composition and the chemical constitution of organic compounds and
materials. Study of properties includes both physical properties and chemical
properties, and uses similar methods as well as methods to evaluate chemical
reactivity, with the aim to understand the behaviour of the organic matter in its pure
form (when possible), but also in solutions, mixtures, and fabricated forms. The
study of organic reactions includes probing their scope through use in preparation of
target compounds (e.g., natural products, drugs, polymers, etc.) by chemical
synthesis, as well as the focused study of the reactivity of individual organic
molecules, both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study.
HYDROCARBONS
The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry
include hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen), as well as
myriad compositions based always on carbon, but also containing other
[1][2][3]
elements, especially oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus (these included in
many organic chemicals in biology) and the radiostable elements of the halogens.
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely
of hydrogen and carbon,[1] and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons, from
which one hydrogen atom has been removed, are functional
groups called hydrocarbyls.[2] Because carbon has 4 electrons in its outermost shell
(and because each covalent bond requires a donation of 1 electron, per atom, to the
bond) carbon has exactly four bonds to make, and is only stable if all 4 of these
bonds are used.
Most hydrocarbons found on Earth naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed
organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded,
can catenate to form seemingly limitless chains.
Hydrocarbons can
be gases (e.g. methane and propane), liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene), waxes or
low melting solids (e.g. paraffin wax and naphthalene)
or polymers (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene).

Types of hydrocarbons

1. Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They

are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen.
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between
carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one
double bond have the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic
structures).[9] Those containing triple bonds are called alkyne.

3. Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at

least one aromatic ring.
Saturated hydrocarbons have as many hydrogen atoms as possible attached
to every carbon. For carbons on the end of a molecular chain, three can be
attached. For carbons in the middle of a chain or a ring, two can be attached.
For a carbon atom all by itself, four hydrogen atoms can be attached.
Saturated hydrocarbons have only single bonds between adjacent carbon
atoms.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons have double and/or triple bonds between some of
the carbon atoms.

Usage

Oil refineries are one way hydrocarbons are processed for use. Crude oil is
processed in several stages to form desired hydrocarbons, used as fuel and in
other products.
Hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The
 predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. In their
solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt (bitumen).
Butane (C4H10) is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for
small pocket lighters.
The C6 through C10 alkanes, alkenes and isomeric cycloalkanes are the top
components of gasoline, naphtha, jet fuel and specialized industrial solvent
mixtures.
Simple hydrocarbons

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4 (one atom
of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen) It is a group-14 hydrideand the
simplest alkane, and is the main constituent of natural gas. The relative abundance
of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel.

Ethane is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C2H6. At standard

temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. Like
many hydrocarbons, ethane is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas and as

a petrochemical byproduct of petroleum refining. .

Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8. It is a gas
at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid.
A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used
as a fuel for barbecue grills. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum
gases (LP gases). The others
include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof.

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

1. Natural gas and fuels - Many of the natural fuel sources we use are hydrocarbons.
Compounds like methane, butane, propane, and hexane are all hydrocarbons. Their
chemical formulas consist of only carbon and hydrogen atoms, in a variety of ratios
and chemical configurations.
2. Plastics - Many of the plastics we use in everyday life and in industry are made
from long chains of monomers, formed from petrochemicals. These petrochemicals
are simply hydrocarbons of different chemical compositions.
3. Paraffin - The wax that we use for a variety of industries, everything from candle
making and food preservation to medical and industrial uses, contains hydrocarbons.
4. Isopropyl alcohol - This common medical chemical is interesting in that it
contains a hydrocarbon that is then bonded to further carbon atoms. The initial
hydrocarbon, CH3, bonds to other atoms to form (CH3)2CHOH.
5. Asphalt - the common substance that most people are familiar with is actually a
hydrocarbon that has been heated to form the substance tar. It is then mixed with
other key industrial ingredients to form the mixture that makes up the road's surface.

SEMINAR FOUR

Nutrients can be divided into 2 categories: macronutrients, and micronutrients.

Macronutrients are those nutrients that the body needs in large amounts. These
provide the body with energy (calories). Micronutrients are those nutrients that the
body needs in smaller amounts.

MACRONUTRIENTS

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats

MICRONUTRIENTS

Water Soluble Vitamins

 Vitamin B1
 Vitamin B2
 Vitamin B6
 Vitamin B12
 Vitamin C
 Folic Acid

Fat Soluble Vitamins

 Vitamin A
 Vitamin D
 Vitamin E
 Vitamin K

Minerals
  Calcium
 Potassium
 Sodium
 Iron
 Zinc

Water

 Water

Carbohydrates

Role in the Body

1. Fuel during high intensity exercise

2. Spares protein (to preserve muscle mass during exercisee)
3. Fuel for the Central Nervous System (your brain!)

Recommended Allowance

1. Sedentary Individuals: 40-50% of your total daily calories should be

carbohydrates
2. Exercises Regularly: 60% of your total daily calories should be carbohydrates
3. Athletes or persons involved in heavy training: 70% of your total daily calories
should be carbohydrates (3.5-4.5 grams of carbohydrate per pound of body
weight)

NOTE: 1 gram of carbohydrate = 4 Calories

Food Sources

1. Grains (choose mostly whole grains for added benefits)

2. Dairy (choose low-fat or non-fat most often)
3. Fruit (choose whole fruits more often than fruit juices)

Proteins

Role in the Body

1. Tissue structure (part of organ tissues, muscle, hair, skin, nails, bones,
tendons, ligaments and blood plasma)
2. Part of cell plasma membranes
3. Involved in metabolic, transport, and hormone systems
4. Make up enzymes that regulate metabolism
5. Involved in acid/base balance to maintain a neutral environment in our bodies

Recommended Daily Allowance

1. Sedentary Individuals: 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight

2. Recreationally Active: 0.45-0.68 grams of protein per pound of body weight
 3. Competitive Athlete: 0.54-0.82 grams of protein per pound of body weight
4. Teenage Athlete: 0.82-0.91 grams of protein per pound of body weight
5. Body Builder: 0.64-0.91 grams of protein per pound of body weight
6. When restricting Calories: 0364-0.91 grams of protein per pound of body
weight
7. Maximum amount of protein the body can utilize: 0.91 grams of protein per
pound of body weight

NOTE: 1 gram of protein = 4 Calories

Food Sources

1. Legumes (beans)
2. Lentils
3. Soy products, such as tofu
4. Peanuts and nuts
5. Whole grains (quinoa, oats, brown rice)
6. Seeds
7. Meat alternative products
8. Some vegetables
9. Animal sources

Fats

Role in the Body

1. Energy reserve
2. Protects vital organs
3. Insulation
4. Transport fat soluble vitamins

Recommended Allowance

1. 20-35% of your total daily calories should come from fat

Less than 10% of total daily calories should come from Saturated Fat
(coconut and plam kernal oil, shortening, butter, cream cheese, full fat dairy
products)

NOTE: 1 gram of fat = 9 Calories

Food Sources

1. Oils
2. Nuts
3. Seeds
4. Meat, fish, dairy
5. Micronutrients
Vitamin B1: Thiamin

Function

1. Needed to release energy in food

2. Prevents beriberi

Food Sources

1. Whole grains
2. Dried beans
3. Peas
4. Peanuts
5. Animal proteins

Vitamin B2: Riboflavin

Function

1. Needed to build and maintain body tissues

Food Sources

1. Whole grains
2. Green and yellow vegetables
3. Animal proteins

Vitamin B6: Pyridoxine

Function

1. Helps the development of the nervous system

2. Involved in the production of blood
3. Helps break down protein and glucose to produce energy for the body

Food Sources

1. Potatoes
2. Chickpeas
3. Yeast
4. Nuts
5. Bulgur
6. Fish
7. Rice
8. Bananas

Vitamin B12: Cobalamine

Function
 1. Promotes proper growth and development of the nervous system

Food Sources

1. Fortified cereals
2. Nutritional yeast
3. Algae
4. Animal products

Vitamin C: Ascorbic Acid

Function

1. Helps form growth hormones

2. Needed to build strong gums, teeth, and bones
3. Antioxidant

Food Source

1. Citrus fruits
2. Cabbage
3. Berries
4. Peppers

Folic Acid

Function

1. Helps build DNA and protein

2. Helps maintain intestinal tract
3. Aids in bone growth
4. Prevents nervous system birth defects

Food Sources

1. Dark green leafy vegetables

2. Yeast
3. Wheat germ

Vitamin A: Retinal

Function

1. Vision
2. Healthy skin
3. Healthy hair

Food Sources

1. Animal products
 2. Body can make vitamin A from vegetables that have carotene
1. Carrots
2. Sweet potatoes
3. Other red-orange vegetables

Vitamin D

Function

1. Promotes strong teeth and bones

2. Prevents rickets

Food Sources

1. Mushrooms
2. Dairy Milk & Fortified Non-Dairy Milk
3. Fortified cereals
4. Cod liver oil
5. Tuna
6. Salmon
7. Egg yolks
8. Produced by the body when exposed to sunlight

Vitamin E

Function

1. Prevents damage to cell membranes

2. Protects vitamin A
3. Aids in blood production

Food Sources

1. Seeds and Nuts

2. Vegetable oil

Vitamin K

Function

1. Aids in blood clotting

Food Sources

1. Green leafy vegetables

2. Produced by bacteria in the large intestine

Calcium

Function
 1. Maintains teeth and bones
2. Helps blood clot
3. Helps nerves and muscles function

Food Sources

1. Dairy Milk & Fortified Non-Dairy Milks

2. Dark green vegetables
3. Sardines
4. Clams
5. Oysters
6. Legumes
7. Almonds

Potassium

Function

1. Regulates water balance in cells

2. Helps nerves function
3. Important for heart rhythm

Food Sources

1. Oranges
2. Bananas
3. Cereal
4. Potatoes
5. Dried beans

Sodium

Function

1. Regulates water balance

2. Stimulates nerves

Food Sources

1. Table salt
2. Bread
3. Almost everything

Iron

Function

1. Forms blood cells

2. Transports oxygen throughout the body
Food Sources

1. Dark green vegetables

2. Whole-grain cereals
3. Whole grains, such as brown rice & quinoa
4. Legumes
5. Lentils
6. Nuts
7. Seeds
8. Dried fruits
9. Animal proteins

Zinc

Function

1. Aids in transport of carbon dioxide

2. Aids in healing wounds
3. Forms enzymes

Food Sources

1. Whole grains
2. Dairy Milk & Fortified Non-Dairy Milks
3. Legumes

Water

Functions

1. Moistens tissues such as those in the mouth, eyes, and nose

2. Protects body organs and tissues
3. Helps prevent constipation
4. Helps dissolve minerals and other nutrients to make them accessible to the
body
5. Regulates body temperature
6. Lubricates joints
7. Lessens the burden on the kidneys and liver by flushing out waste products
8. Carries nutrients and oxygen to cells

Effects of heat on nutrients

Carbohydrates

Moist heat Starch grains soften and swell. Near boiling point, the cellulose
framework bursts, releasing the starch, which thickens the liquid.
Of the carbohydrates in food, starch is the most affected by heat. If water is used in
cooking, the starch grains absorb water and swell and eventually rupture the
cellulose walls of the cells. The starch is then said to be gelatinous.

Dry heat converts starch into a soluble form, eventually into dextrin. This is
responsible for the brown colour and slightly sweet taste of baked cereals foods, e.g.,
the crust of bread.

Cellulose is not digested in man, but must be broken down in order for the cell
contents to be digested. Cooking softens the cellulose, but it is the swelling of the
starch grains inside which is largely responsible for breaking in the cellulose.

Proteins

Protein Heat causes protein in liquids to coagulate (change to a solid or semi-solid

state) gradually. Examples in cookery include:

● Egg white: it thickens, becoming opaque and then firm, when it is cooked.

● Gluten (wheat protein) in bread forms the crust on a loaf.

● Coatings on fried food (e.g. batter, breadcrumbs) also contain gluten, which
coagulates. If protein is heated too much, it will become hard, tough, shrunken and
unpalatable
The effect of heat on proteins is to coagulate them. This takes place at a
temperature of about 600C. Above that temperature, the protein of most animal
foods, with the exception of eggs, shrinks and become slightly less digestible.
Vegetable proteins also coagulate on cooking, but they are usually found along with
starch with wells in moist heat and bursts the cellulose covering. Cooking thus
makes vegetable protein more digestible.

Fats
Fat is not affected by heat so much as protein and carbohydrate. As it is heated, fat
melts, but at high temperatures it begins to decompose (break down into elements,
decay) and may be irritating to the stomach. Fats melt into oils when heated. Water
is given off with a bubbling noise. When all the water is gone a faint blue haze
appears. If the fat is heated even more, it will smoke and burn. Burning fat has an
unpleasant smell caused by fatty acids.

Minerals
Minerals are little affecting by cooking, but may be lost by solubility in water.

Vitamins
Vitamins vary in their stability in cooking. This has been dealt with in detail under the
individual vitamins, but may be summarized briefly….
  Vitamins A and D and Nicotinic Acid are little affected by home cooking
processes. Vitamin A Carotene Insoluble (does not dissolve) in water. This
means they are not lost when food is cooked by a moist method: boiled
vegetables contain as much carotene as raw vegetables.
 Thiamine, Riboflavin and Vitamin K are destroyed in the presence of alkali, e.g.,
soda bi carbonate, and may also be lost by solubility in water.
 Vitamin c is the most unstable of the unknown vitamins and can be easily lost or
destroyed in food preparation.
Vitamin C is very easily lost during cooking, as shown in the table below. Try to
preserve the vitamin C in foods by following these guidelines:
● Do not soak vegetables in water.
● Cook vegetables in small quantities and as quickly as possible.
● Cover them with a lid during cooking, to minimise oxidation.
● Use foods that are as fresh as possible; do not store them for longer than
necessary.
● Put vegetables into boiling water; the enzyme will be destroyed between 65°C and
88°C.

SEMINAR FIVE
FOOD COMMODITIES
Food commodities generally refer to ingredients required to produce different
varieties of foods. They are mostly raw/ core form of edible materials. According
to Food Act-2023 food means any unprocessed, semi-processed, processed or
produced food or drinking substance which the human being generally consumes
and drinks, and includes any species, food additives, colour or flavour to be used in
any food or drinking substance
Food commodities can be either raw agricultural commodities or processed
commodities, provided that they are the forms that are sold or distributed for human
consumption.
Examples include;
Types of food commodities: Tinned goods, bottled goods, dry goods, fresh goods
(meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, and dairy products), chilled goods, frozen goods, pre-
cooked products.
 Fats and oils;
 Fresh fruits and fruit juices;
 Fresh vegetables;
 Herbs and spices;
 Jams and jellies;
 Meat products;
 Snack foods;
 Soups; and
 Sugars.
EGGS
Quality of eggs

 The shell should be unbroken, clean, strong and slightly rough.

 The yolk should be round and Firm.
 There should be no air pocket or only a very small one.
 The white should be clear and not watery.

How to test eggs

The quality and age of eggs is tested in two ways:

 Candling: The egg is held against a strong tight or with the use of a candle
and defects can be seen as well as the size of air pocket and position of egg
yolk.
 Salt water test: The egg is dropped in a solution of salt water at the bottom. If
the egg floats in the solution it means it is stake / old.

Storage

 Eggs must be stored in their packing trays with the pointed end facing
downward.
 Always store in a cool room at 2°C to 5°C.
 Keep away from strong smelling food such as cheese, onions, garlic, ginger,
 fish, etc.
 Egg should never be washed before being stored, as washing would remove
its natural protective coating.
 Do not stock eggs for more than a week.

POULTRY
It refers to any domestic bird’s uses for various dishes like chicken, turkey, duck etc.
It contains protein, fact and provides heat and energy. It helps in building and
repairing the body.
Types
Poultry consists of many varieties of domesticated birds. These types of
poultry include guineas, geese, duck, pigeons, turkeys and chickens

Chickens

Broiler/Fryer

Young and with a tender meat and smooth skin, the fryer chicken is typically 6-8
weeks in age and is relatively lean.

A capon is a surgically castrated male (Caponette will mean chemically castrated). It

has tender meat with soft smooth skin. It is bred for good flavored meat and
contains a high proportion of light meat to dark meat and has a relatively high fat
content. A Capon is typically 4-6 months old and weight between 2-4 kg.

Storage
Fresh poultry must hang indrawn for 24 hours in a cool room. It will keep in fridge 4-5
days. For longer storage, the poultry must be frozen.
Quality of poultry

 The breast of chicken should be plump.

 The breast bone of chicken must be pliable.
 The flesh must be firm.
 The skin must be white and unbroken.
 The leg must be smooth, small scales and small spurs.
 The feet and bills of duck should be bright yellow and web feet easy to tear.
 The legs of turkey should be black and smooth.
 The breast of turkey should be large, the skin undamaged with no sign of
Stickiness.

Food value
Poultry is easily digestible than other meat and fat content is very low. It Contains
proteins and fat, which provides heat and energy and it helps in building and
repairing body tissues.
Uses
Roasting, grilling, braising, stew, curries, snacks etc.
Game
‘Game’ is the word used to describe animals and birds that are traditionally hunted
for food instead of raised on a farm.
Typically, it falls into two categories: ‘feathered’ or ‘furred’. Feathered game or game
birds include grouse, pheasant, partridge, quail, snipe, wild duck, woodcock and
wood pigeon. Furred game includes hare, rabbit, venison and ‘wild’ boar.
Game meat is lean and lower in fat and cholesterol than many other red meats and is
a good source of protein and vitamins.
Pheasant and partridge are particularly high in protein and low in fat, cholesterol and
sodium. Both also contain high levels of iron, Vitamin B(6) and selenium. Venison is
high in protein, low in fat and has fewer calories than other red meats. Venison is
particularly low in saturated fatty acids and contains higher iron levels than other
meats.
Certain wild birds and animals, which are hunted for sports, are called the game.
Feathered game includes pheasant, wild duck, partridge, woodcock, grouse, snipe,
quill etc. furred game includes venison. Hare, rabbit, boar etc

Fat is essential food commodities that are available in many forms. Fats at solid in a
room temperature and melt when heated. Oils are liquid fats. They are liquid at room
temperatures but it gets solidify when cool.
Quality
Fats and oils should contain little or no moisture, otherwise, they splutter, fats, and
should have a pleasant smell or no smell at all. The best Oil is olive Oil, because of
its taste
Storage
Fats must be stored in a cool place. Butter-margarine in the refrigerator and oil in
closed cans. They should be stored carefully, away from direct heat. Fats that are old
become rancid and cannot be used any more.
Types of Fats
1) Animal fats
a) Dripping: It is produced from the rendered down fat of beef and pork carcass.
b) Butter: Butter is made from the fatty parts of cow's milk. It is used mostly for its
pleasant flavour.
c) Lard: Lard is produced from rendered far from pigs.
d) Suet: Suet is the hard solid fat, deposit around the kidneys of animals. Beef sure is
the best then other animal's suet.
2) Vegetable fats
a) Pastry margarine: It is a semi-hard Fat blended, especially for pastry making
b) Block margarine: It is a hard and semi-hard fat for use in sauces.
C) Table margarine: It soft fat used as a substitute for butter in sandwiches.
d) Vegetable oils/shortening: Those are liquid fats, which is obtained from soybean,
sunflower, sesame, corn, mustard, olive, almond, peanut etc.
Uses
Used in roasting, frying, baking, pasta, soup, shallow frying, deep frying, dressings etc.
Vegetables
Vegetables are good for the diet because they provide a valuable source of vitamin,
protein carbohydrate and minerals. They have an effect on the flavour, colour and
general palatability of cooked products. Vegetables are plants or parts of plants
served as the main course, appetizer or as an accompaniment to the main dish. All
the amino acids needed to synthesize protein are available in vegetables. Fresh
vegetable quickly age and spoil, but their storage life can be extended by some
preservation methods as dehydration, canning, freezing fermenting and pickling.
Vegetables are classified according to structure, composition flavour or colour. The
quality of a vegetable depends on:
Quality
The quality of a vegetable depends on flowing things

 Climatic conditions in growing time

 Size of vegetables
 Vegetable growing season
 Stage of maturity period
 The manner and time of storage before cooking
 The variety of vegetables

Storage

 Leafy and fruit vegetables loose in bins or racks.

 Root vegetable-loose in bins or racks.
 Green vegetable-on well- ventilated racks.
 Salad vegetable in containers in a cool place.
 Leave potatoes in sacks.
 Leave mushrooms in containers. Remove any vegetables that show decay.

Vegetable preparation

 Properly wash vegetable before cutting.

 Vegetable should not be soaked in water.
 Use as little water as possible in cooking. This prevents the loss of vitamins,
minerals, flavour and texture of food.
 Baking powder should not be added while cooking, but salt may be added.
 Cook or bake vegetables in their jackets.
 Fruits

Fresh Fruits are very useful food and matured ovaries of the plants, which
may contain seeds. They are rich in food value, containing cellulose minerals
and vitamins. It is an important source of fibre too. They come in various
textures, colours, flavours and aromas. Fruits are important sources of
Vitamin A and C. Each of these varieties can again be eaten in many different
ways. Most fruits are delicious and refreshing. They are served as dessert
after the main course or for breakfast. Fruits are used in hot or cold pastry
and sponge based dishes. Ripe fruits can also be cooked, stewed, jellied, and
can be preserved as jam and marmalade.

Classification of fruits

 Soft: Strawberry, raspberry, and gooseberry.

Convenience product: Jam, syrups, squash, jellies, canned, frozen pie, filling, etc.

 Hard: Apple, pear, cherry and olive.

Convenience product: Solid pack, canned, frozen, dried rings, flakes, and juice.

 Citrus: Orange, lemons, grapefruit, sweet lime, lime, etc.

Convenience product: Marmalade, jams, juice, canned, jellies, andsegments.

 Tropical: Pineapple, melon, banana, date, guava, leeches, mango, papaya, etc.

Convenience product: Canned, juice, jam, Jellies, frozen, dried.

Storage

 Hard fruits are left in boxes and kept in a cool store.

 Soft fruits should be left in their pun nets or baskets in a cool room.
 Stone fruits are best placed in trays so that any damaged fruit can be seen
and discarded.
 Citrus fruits are left in their delivery trays or boxes. Bananas should not be
stored in too cool a place because the skin turns black.

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which
are used in food. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources.
Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as
dextrose), fructose, and galactose. The "table sugar" or "granulated sugar" most
customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar
is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes) and is added to some foods and
beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). In the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple
sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain,
and lactose from milk. Longer chains of sugars are
called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such
as glycerol and sugar alcohols may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as
sugars. Diet food substitutes for sugar include aspartame and sucralose, a
chlorinated derivative of sucrose.

Types
Monosaccharides
Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the
general formula C6H12O6. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group
(C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as
several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to
diverge to the right or the left.[34]

 Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane
sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components
of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is
manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn
syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.[35]

 In general, galactose does not occur in the Free State but is a constituent with
glucose of the disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It
is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that
determine blood groups.[36]

 Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar, occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is
the primary product of photosynthesis. Most ingested carbohydrates are
converted into glucose during digestion and it is the form of sugar that is
transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. It can be
manufactured from starch by the addition of enzymes or in the presence of acids.
Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture
of foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.[37]
Disaccharides
Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the
general formula C12H22O11. They are formed by the combination of two
monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.[34]

 Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is

formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of
glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the
enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no
longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.[38]

 Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable
being barley, which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A
molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose.
It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.[34] It is formed in the body
during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down
during digestion by the enzyme maltase.[39]
 Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also
occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular
fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found
in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating
them.[34] A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of
glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its
constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.

1. Cereals

Cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a
type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran.

2. Fruits:
Fruits contain different sugars, organic acids and are fair to good sources of
ascorbic acid. Most of the fruits contain vitamin-B complex, C, A, potassium, Pectin,
Sugar and active enzymes etc.
Fruits contents water, acids, carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, vitamins,
pigments, flavours, polyphenol, cellulose and pectin.
Classification of fruits:
1. Berries:
Numerous pericarp layers become pulpy and juicy and enclose seeds. Examples:
Strawberry, gooseberry, blueberry, black currant, raspberry
2. Drupe:
Thin exocarp, thick and fleshy mesocarp and stony endocarp. Examples: Mangoes,
apricots, peaches, cherries, plums.
3.Citrus fruits:
Fruits of genus citrus, with high amounts of Vit-C and fibrous in nature. Examples:
Oranges, lemons, grapefruits, tangerines, pummelo.
4.Melons:
Family Cucurbitaceae, with 95% water and 5% sugar content. Highly fleshy and
supply plenty of water. Examples: Watermelon, muskmelon, cantaloupes, honey dew.
5.Tropical fruits, subtropical fruits:
Grown in the tropical region like Tarai of Nepal, India, and Thailand etc. Examples:
Avocado, Banana, jackfruits, guava, dates, mango, papaya, pineapple, pomegranate,
sapota, lychee etc.
6.Pomes:
Receptacle surrounding the ovary enlarges and becomes the juicy fruits. Examples:
Apples, pears
7.Complex fruits:
Not a single mature ovary but a complex aggregation to form fruits. Examples:
Custard apple
8.Grapes: Examples: Green, black, seedless grapes
3. Vegetables:

A major portion of a vegetarian diet is composed of all kinds of vegetables. It

mainly supplies the body with the needed vitamins and minerals, which are
supportive of different diseases control. It also supplies the fiber that helps to
constipation and other useful functions.

Classification of Vegetables:

 Green leafy vegetables: Leaf vegetables, also called potherbs, greens,

vegetable greens, leafy greens, salad greens, are plant leaves eaten as a
vegetable. They come from a very wide variety of plants, most shares a great
deal with other leaf vegetable in nutrients and cooking they are fair sources of
proteins (2-7%). They are rich in vitamin A and ascorbic acid and good
sources of folic acid and calcium E.g.: Asparagus, Spinach, celery, cabbage,
Broccoli, Arugula, Bitter leaf, Beet greens, Turnip greens
 Roots and tubers: They are good sources of starch and poor source of
vitamins and protein. Examples: Potato, carrots, tapioca, colocasia, yam etc.
 Pod Vegetables: Pod vegetables are a type of fruit vegetables where pods are
eaten, much of the time as they are still green. Examples of pod vegetables
are American groundnut, Asparagus pea, Black beans, Common beans, Green
beans, Kidney beans, Lentils, Soybean etc.
 Bulb and steam vegetables: It includes botanical fruits such as pumpkins, and
does not include herbs, spices, cereals and most culinary fruits and culinary
nuts. Edible fungi are not included in this list. E.g. : Asparagus, celery, garlic,
leek, onion, shallot etc.

Classification of Vegetable according to botany:

1. Roots: Carrots, beet root, radish, turnip, colocasia

2. Tubers: Potatoes, sweet potatoes, tapioca
3. Bulb: Onion, garlic leeks
4. Leaves: Cabbage, lettuce, spinach, amaranth, fenugreek leaves, coriander
leaves, mint leaves
5. Flowers: Plantain flower, cauliflower, neem flower, broccoli
6. Stems: Plantain stem ginger amaranth stem, celery stem, lotus stem
7. Legumes( pods and seeds): Peas, beans, choli, broad beans, French beans,
double beans, Bengal gram tender, red gram tender
8. Fungi: Mushroom
9. Algae: Spirulina

4. Cereals Group:
Cereals which are various species of the grass family cultivated for their seeds are
used as foods. The name derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of grains and
agriculture.
The most extensively cultivated grains are wheat, barley, rye, oats, rice, corn or maize,
millets, sorghums etc. They are rich sources of starch (carbohydrate) and fair
sources of protein, certain minerals, and B group of vitamins.
As an inexpensive and readily available source of protein and carbohydrates, cereals
are a staple food throughout the world.
Importance of Cereals:

 Rich source of carbohydrate and fair source of protein

 Excellent source of B- group vitamins
 Use as thickening agents
 Coating agents
 Source for dietary fibre
 Use for malting e.g. Beer, malted whiskey
 Different cereal products e.g. macaroni, flaked, puffed
 Fermentation for beer or rice wine
 For energy yielding foods

5. Legumes
Pulses are the seeds of plants belonging to the family Leguminosae, which gets its
name from the characteristic that pod or legume protects the seeds while they are
forming and ripening.
It is the rich source of plant protein so sometimes called poor man’s meat.
Types of Legumes:

 Grams- Benal gram (Chana dal), red gram, green gram (Mung dal), Black gram
(Kalo dal), lentil (Masur dal), etc.
 Peas- green peas, chick pea,
 Beans- Soybean,
 Pulses are known as leguminous seeds. The split pulses are known as dal.

Importance of Legumes:

 Source of plant protein

 Source of dietary fibre
 Lowers the blood cholesterol level
 Some beans are source for oils e.g. soybean
 Beneficial for diabetes person

Uses of fruits and vegetables:

 Texture: Fruits and vegetables add colour and texture to the food and makes
them more eye appealing
 Jam–making: add the rinds from lemons, oranges, etc. to make an easy
marmalade.
 Hair Dye: Use potato peels and boil them for about 30 minutes and then strain
out the peels. Using this water to rinse your hair after shampooing will
 gradually and naturally darken your hair.
 Polishing Metal– Citrus, such as lemon and lime, are full of citric acid which
makes a great polisher.
 Chicken Tastiness– Stuff a chicken, preferably free-range, with a mixture of
rinds and scraps from all your fruit and vegetables to give it extra flavour. As
an added bonus, the baking of these scraps actually helps them break down
faster in the compost pile.

6. Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along

with carbohydrate and protein.[1]

Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and
the alcohol glycerol. The terms "lipid", "oil" and "fat" are often confused.

"Lipid" is the general term, though a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. "Oil"
normally refers to a lipid with short or unsaturatedfatty acid chains that is
liquid at room temperature, while "fat" (in the strict sense) may specifically
refer to lipids that are solids at room temperature – however, "fat" (in the
broad sense) may be used in food science as a synonym for lipid. Fats, like
other lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents and
insoluble in water.

Saturated Fat Examples

Saturated fat is found mainly in animal foods -- meat and dairy products are often
high in saturated fat. Examples include fatty beef, lamb, pork, and chicken with skin,
whole milk, cream, butter, cheese and ice cream. Additionally, baked goods and fried
foods can be high in saturated fat because they are made with ingredients loaded
with saturated fats, such as butter, cream and lard.

Unsaturated Fat Examples

Unsaturated fats are found in plant foods and fish -- monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats are unsaturated fats. These good fats are found in liquid
vegetable oils, but not tropical oils, according to the American Heart Association.
Stick with canola oil, olive oil, peanut oil and sunflower oil for cooking and food
preparation to ensure you’re getting unsaturated fats. Oily fish – salmon, tuna,
mackerel, herring and trout – contain a type of unsaturated fat called omega-3 fatty
acids, while most nuts and seeds contain a type of unsaturated fat called omega-6
fatty acids.

7. MEATS

As lamb comes from a fairly young animal, it is natural that it would not be marbled
with fat and hence, it becomes very tricky for chefs to cook the lamb to utmost
tenderness and ju iciness
BEEF
The carcass of the beef is huge and hence it is processed into smaller cuts often
known as ‘retail cuts’. The tenderer cuts come from the less exercised part of the
animal such back loin, flanks, etc. and the tougher cuts are obtained from the leg and
the rump. Meat obtained from a young animal is tenderer, compared to meat of the
older animal. Beef is said to be the most fortifying and the most nourishing meat
amongst all the edible meats.
The quality of beef can be judged from the following points.

i. The meat should be firm and bright red.

ii. It should be well marbled, i.e. it should have a good showing of flecks of white fat.

iii. It should have a good outside covering of fat, creamy white in colour and of firm
texture.

iv. The bones should be shiny and pinkish with a blue tinge. There should be little or
no gristle on steaks.

v. Yellowish fat is always a sign that the animal is older or of a dairy breed.

Poultry "Poultry" is a term used for any kind of domesticated bird, captive-raised for
its utility, and traditionally the word has been used to refer to wildfowl (Galliformes)
and waterfowl (Anseriformes) but not to cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots.
"Poultry" can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and
ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the
flesh of these birds used as food.[1] Poultry also includes other birds that are killed
for their meat, such as the young of pigeons (known as squabs) but does not include
similar wild birds hunted for sport or food and known as game. The word "poultry"
comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus,
which means small animal.
SEMINAR SIX
ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein molecules in cells which work as catalysts.[1] Enzymes speed
up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get used up in the process.
Almost all biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes. With an enzyme,
chemical reactions go much faster than they would without the enzyme.[2]p39
The substances at the start of the reaction are called substrates. The substances at
the end of the reaction are the products. Enzymes work on the substrates, and turn
them into products.

Characteristics of enzymes are as follows:

 Enzymes possess great catalytic power.

 Enzymes are highly specific.
 Enzymes show varying degree of specificities.
  Absolute specificity where the enzymes react specifically with only one
substrate.
 Stereo specificity is where the enzymes can detect the different optical
isomers and react to only one type of isomer.
 Reaction specific enzymes, these enzymes as the name suggests reacts to
specific reactions only.
 Group specific enzymes are those that catalyse a group of substances that
contain specific substances.
 The enzyme activity can be controlled but the activity of the catalysts cannot
be controlled.
 All enzymes are proteins.
 Like the proteins, enzymes can be coagulated by alcohol, heat, concentrated
acids and alkaline reagents.
 At higher temperatures the rate of the reaction is faster.
 The rate of the reaction involving an enzyme is high at the optimum
temperature.
 Enzymes have an optimum pH range within which the enzymes function is at
its peak.
 If the substrate shows deviations larger than the optimum temperature or pH,
required by the enzyme to work, the enzymes do not function such conditions.
 Increase in the concentration of the reactants, and substrate the rate of the
reaction increase until the enzyme will become saturated with the substrate;
increase in the amount of enzyme, increases the rate of the reaction.
 Inorganic substances known as activators increase the activity of the enzyme.
 Inhibitors are substances that decrease the activity of the enzyme or
inactivate it.
 Competitive inhibitors are substances that reversibly bind to the active site of
the enzyme, hence blocking the substrate from binding to the enzyme.
 In competitive inhibitors are substances that bind to any site of the enzyme
other than the active site, making the enzyme less active or inactive.
 Irreversible inhibitors are substances that from bonds with enzymes making
them inactive.

Classification of enzymes
Enzymes are classified based on the reactions they catalyse into 6
groups: Oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases.

Oxidoreductases - Oxidoreductase are the enzymes that catalyse oxidation-

reduction reactions. These enzymes are important as these reactions are
responsible for the production of heat and energy.

Transferases - Transferases are the enzymes that catalyse reactions where transfer
of functional group between two substrates takes place.

Hydrolases - Hydrolases are also known as hydrolytic enzymes, they catalyze the
hydrolysis reactions of carbohydrates, proteins and esters.

Lyases - Lyases are enzymes that catalyse the reaction involving the removal of
groups from substrates by processes other than hydrolysis by the formation of
double bonds.
Isomerases - Isomerases are enzymes that catalyse the reactions where
interconversion of cis-trans isomers is involved.

Ligases - Ligases are also known as synthases, these are the enzymes that catalyse
the reactions where coupling of two compounds is involved with the breaking of
pyrophosphate bonds.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
Biological Functions of Enzymes:

 Enzymes perform a wide variety of functions in living organisms.

 They are major components in signal transduction and cell regulation, kinases
and phosphatases help in this function.
 They take part in movement with the help of the protein myosin which aids in
muscle contraction.
 Also other ATPase’s in the cell membrane acts as ion pumps in active
transport mechanism.
 Enzymes present in the viruses are for infecting cell.
 Enzymes play a important role in the digestive activity of the enzymes.
 Amylases and proteases are enzyme so that breakdown large molecules into
absorbable molecules.
 Various enzymes work together in a order forming metabolic pathways.
Example: Glycolysis.

Industrial Application of Enzymes:

 Food Processing - Amylases enzymes from fungi and plants are used in
production of sugars from starch in making corn-syrup.
 Catalyse enzyme is used in breakdown of starch into sugar, and in baking
fermentation process of yeast raises the dough.
 Proteases enzyme help in manufacture of biscuits in lowering the protein
level.
 Baby foods - Trypsin enzyme is used in pre-digestion of baby foods.
 Brewing industry - Enzymes from barley are widely used in brewing industries.
 Amylases, glucanases, proteases, betaglucanases, arabinoxylases,
amyloglucosidase, acetolactatedecarboxylases are used in prodcution of beer
industries.
 Fruit juices - Enzymes like cellulases,pectinases help are used in clarifying
fruit juices.
 Dairy Industry - Renin is used inmanufacture of cheese. Lipases are used in
ripening blue-mold cheese. Lactases breaks down lactose to glucose and
galactose.
 Meat Tenderizes - Papain is used to soften meat.
 Starch Industry - Amylases, amyloglucosidases and glycoamylases converts
starch into glucose and syrups.
 Glucose isomerases - production enhanced sweetening properties and
lowering calorific values.
 Paper industry - Enzymes like amylases, xylanases, cellulases and liginases
lower the viscosity, and removes lignin to soften paper.
 Biofuel Industry - Enzymes like cellulases are used in breakdown of cellulose
 into sugars which can be fermented.
 Biological detergent - proteases, amylases, lipases, cellulases, asist in
removal of protein stains, oily stains and acts as fabric conditioners.
 Rubber Industry - Catalase enzyme converts latex into foam rubber.
 Molecular Biology - Restriction enzymes, DNA ligase and polymerases are
used in genetic engineering, pharmacology, agriculture, medicine, PCR
techniques, and are also important in forensic science.

Enzymes necessary for digestion

 Salivary amylase: Carbohydrate digestion also initiates in the mouth. Amylase,

produced by the salivary glands, breaks complex carbohydrates to smaller chains,
or even simple sugars. It is sometimes referred to as ptyalin.

 Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme. It is produced by the stomach cells called
"chief cells" in its inactive form pepsinogen, which is a zymogen. Pepsinogen is
then activated by the stomach acid into its active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks
down the protein in the food into smaller particles, such as peptide fragments
and amino acids. Protein digestion, therefore, first starts in the stomach, unlike
carbohydrate and lipids, which start their digestion in the mouth.

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl): This is in essence positively charged hydrogen

atoms (H+), or in lay-terms stomach acid, and is produced by the cells of the
stomach called parietal cells. HCl mainly functions to denature the proteins
ingested, to destroy any bacteria or virus that remains in the food, and also to
activate pepsinogen into pepsin.

 Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar cells, is
made up of the following digestive enzymes.

 Maltase: converts maltose into glucose.

  Lactase: This is a significant enzyme that converts lactose into glucose and
galactose. A majority of Middle-Eastern and Asian populations lack this
enzyme. This enzyme also decreases with age. As such lactose intolerance is
often a common abdominal complaint in the Middle-Eastern, Asian, and older
populations, manifesting with bloating, abdominal pain, and osmotic diarrhea.

 Sucrase: converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

Alimentary canal are the channel through which the food we consume passes
through. The wall of the alimentary canal consist of four distinct layer, which are the
mucous membrane, sub mucosa, muscular layer and serous layer. The alimentary
canal includes
1) The mouth
2) Pharynx
3) Oesophagus
4) Stomach
5) Small intestine
6) Large intestine
7) Rectum and
8) The anus

Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here
when taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more
easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down
into a form your body can absorb and use.

Oesophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the oesophagus receives food
from your mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions
called peristalsis, the oesophagus delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed
with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form.
Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that
are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are
sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine.

Small intestine

Made up of three segments - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - the small intestine
is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by
the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving
food through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The
duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the
jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after
passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the
change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food
residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large
intestine, or colon.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of
the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The
pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the
chief hormone for metabolizing sugar.

Liver

The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is
to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver
secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In
addition, the liver is the body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials
absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to
function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and
secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum
to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon (large intestine)

The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the
rectum. The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the
transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which
connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The
large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste
so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by
means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool
passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped)
colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It
normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is
mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions,
such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles,
and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of
stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of
elimination.

Rectum

The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the
anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know
that there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the
brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can,
the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents
cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that
the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of
the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The
lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know
whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter
muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle
creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out
when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool
enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of
the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our
external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to
release the contents.

SEMINAR SEVEN
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste,
appearance, or other qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries; for
example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon,
preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as with wines. With the advent of
processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many more additives
have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.
Categories
Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap
because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a
preservative as well as a flavour.
The importance of food additive includes:
*To maintain product consistency
*To improve or maintain nutritional value
*To maintain palatability and wholesomeness
*To provide leavening or control acidity/alkalinity
*To enhance flavor or impart desired color
Types and uses
Acidulates
Confer sour or acid taste. Common acidulates include vinegar, citric
acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
Acidity regulators
Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to
affect activity of enzymes.
Anticaking agents
Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming and foaming agents
Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do
the reverse.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation
of food by oxygen.
Bulking agents
Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food
without affecting its taste.
Food colouring
Colourings are added to food to replace colours lost during preparation or to
make food look more attractive.
Fortifying agents
Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional value
Colour retention agents
In contrast to colourings, colour are used to preserve a food's existing colour.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as
in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk.
Flavours
Flavours are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be
 derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.
Flavour enhancers
Flavour enhancers enhance a food's existing flavours. A popular example
is monosodium glutamate. Some flavour enhancers have their own flavours
that are independent of the food.
Flour treatment agents
Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its colour or its use
in baking.
Glazing agents
Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.
Humectants
Humectants prevent foods from drying out.
Tracer gas
Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being
exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
Preservatives
Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and
other microorganisms.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for
example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they
help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners
Sweeteners are added to foods for flavouring. Sweeteners other
than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they
have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhoea.
Thickeners
Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase
its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.

Labeling of food additives and products containing food additives

To ensure compliance to the principle of protecting consumers from being misled,

declaration of food additives used in any product in Kenya is mandatory. This also
applies to prepackaged food additives to be offered for sale. In all food products
specification standards which have allowed the use of food additive, a mandatory
clause is included requiring declaration of the food additives used by name.

REGULATIONS CONCERNING FOOD ADDITIVES

The law requires that manufacturers label their products and provide a list of all
additives included. Some do that using names while others prefer to use a
recognised numbering system to identify the additives.

For instance, citric acid may be written as E330, aspartame as E951, and nitrites as
E249 or 250 on certain products originating from Europe.

The choice of labelling format may differ from country to country. For example,
acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe but is simply known as
additive 260 in some countries. It could also be referred to as INS 260 in other
nations using the international numbering system.

Despite the differences in letter prefixes (E or INS) food additives numbers (figures)
are similar. Products sold in Kenyan food stores comprise of these different labelling
formats, as the country imports goods from various nations, a practice said to
confuse to consumers.

To address this challenge, Mr Mutua notes that the country has adopted the CODEX
Standards which are championed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the
UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). These guidelines are recognised and
accepted globally in international trade.

Thus, Kenya’s food additives national standards and regulations are hinged on
CODEX standards.

Labelling

“This will help us to unify the labelling format of products in the country.

According to the CODEX standards, it is mandatory for manufacturers to include on

the ingredients list, the name of each food additive used in their products (and not
just give numbers).

“But still, the public needs to be sensitised on various types of food additives so that
they can make informed choices on what they consume.”

At a recently concluded conference on food additives, experts stressed the need for
regular market surveillance by Kebs to ensure that Kenyans are not exposed to
dangerous food additives by shrewd companies.

For instance, delegates were concerned that certain banned additives such as
sodium cyclamate (also available as calcium cyclamate) – an artificial sweetener
known to expose the bladder to cancer – can still be found in certain products in the
country.

Another risky additive is sodium saccharin whose use is only limited to dietetic
products.

Despite this, there’s evidence of its rampant use especially as a sweetener in

processed juices. Laboratory studies have also linked it to the development of
bladder cancer in rats.
Even though food additives included in the CODEX standards are approved for use,
they are continuously monitored for safety. If any are found to be hazardous, then
they are delisted.

SEMINAR EIGHT
FOOD CONTAMINANTS
Food contaminants are any harmful substances unintentionally added to food, which
may be chemicals from natural sources, environmental pollution, or formed during
food processing.

Substance added intentionally or unintentionally that (1) makes food unfit for human
consumption, such as animal droppings, biocides, disease causing microorganisms
or insects, dust, pests, and other foreign bodies or impurities,

Biological Contamination
Biological contamination is when bacteria or toxins contaminate food and is a
common cause of food poisoning and food spoilage.

Food poisoning can happen when harmful bacteria, also called pathogens, spread to
food, and are consumed. Bacteria are small microorganisms that split and multiply
very quickly. In conditions ideal for bacterial growth, one single-cell bacteria can split
so many times that in just seven hours, it has multiplied into two million.

Some bacteria such as salmonella, staphylococcus and listeria are extremely toxic
by themselves. And, sometimes it’s not the bacteria that’s toxic to humans, but the
process of the bacteria multiplying and producing waste. However, not all bacteria
are harmful to humans; many are quite beneficial, such as those found in yoghurt.

As a food handler, it’s your job to control the spread of harmful bacteria by
maintaining food safety. Bacteria can be found everywhere and are impossible to
see with the naked eye. Some of the most common places for bacteria to grow are:

 The human body

 Dust
 Raw meat
 Pets and pests
 The air
 Kitchen cloths
 Food handler's clothing

 Chemical Contamination
 Chemical contamination occurs when food comes into contact with
chemicals and can lead to chemical food poisoning.

 Some common sources of chemical contamination can include:

 Kitchen cleaning agents: Proper storing of kitchen cleaning chemicals is

essential. Never keep food stored in the same place as your cleaning
 chemicals, and always use cleaning products designed especially for kitchen
use.

 Unwashed fruits and vegetables: The pesticides and fungicides often used on
fruits and vegetables to help them grow free from diseases are harmful if
consumed. Which is why it’s vital to properly wash all fruits and vegetables
before eating them.

 Food containers made from non-safe plastics: Single use items - such as
plastic containers - are not designed to be reused again and again. Always
store food in containers that are specially designed to safely be reused.

 Pest control products: Items like fly spray and rat poison are extremely
hazardous if consumed. Always store these products away from food items.

 Chemicals used in equipment maintenance: Some kitchen machines and

equipment with moving parts - such as slicers and mixers - can need regular
oiling. Always use food-safe oil to help make sure this doesn’t contaminate
the food you use them to prepare.

 Physical Contamination
 Physical contamination happens when actual objects contaminate foods.
Sometimes when a food is physically contaminated, it can also be biologically
contaminated. This is because the physical contamination might harbour
dangerous bacteria, for example a fingernail.

 Common sources of physical contamination are:

 Hair: Always wear hair neatly tied back and use a hair net if possible.

 Glass or metal: This can occur when kitchen items are not maintained.
Cracked or broken crockery and utensils should be thrown away, as well as
any food that might have come into contact with it.

 Pests: Pests - such as mice, rats and cockroaches - leave droppings that can
contaminate food. Also, pests themselves - such as flies and insects - can
also make their way into food.

 Jewellery: Always keep jewellery to a minimum when preparing and handling

food.

 Dirt: Because dirt is so small, it’s easy not to notice that it’s contaminating
your food. It usually gets into the food from unwashed food and vegetables.

 Fingernails: Always keep nails short and clean to prevent contamination. Also,
avoid wearing fake nails as these can fall off and may contaminate food.

 Cross-Contamination
 Cross-contamination occurs when bacteria or pathogens are transported
from one object to another. This can happen in many different ways and some
 of the more common sources of cross-contamination include:

 Clothing: Dirty clothes can transport bacteria from one place to another. If
possible, clothing should be replaced when moving from one work area to
another. You should also thoroughly wash your face and hands. This is
especially important when working with allergens or high-risk foods.

 Utensils: Separate utensils should always be used to prepare different types

of foods. For example, never use the same chopping board or knife to prepare
raw meat and ready-to-eat foods.

 Personal hygiene: Coughing, sneezing or even touching your face and hair
before handling food can also result in cross-contamination. Washing hands
regularly when handling food is essential.

 Pests: Flies, cockroaches, mice and rats carry harmful bacteria, which they
can transport from one place to another. Pest control is vitally important in
the workplace when it comes to preventing cross-contamination.

 Raw food storage: One of the most common types of cross-contamination is

when raw food comes into contact with cooked or ready-to-eat food. If this
happens, it’s a good idea to assume the raw food has been contaminated.
Raw food should always be covered and stored below cooked foods to
prevent this type of contamination.

 Waste control: Garbage should be stored and sealed correctly to prevent

cross-contamination. It should always be stored away from other items in the
kitchen to ensure it never comes into contact with food preparation. Regular
cleaning and sanitising of waste bins should also be carried out to prevent the
risk of pest infestation.

Critical point of food contamination

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a system which provides the
framework for monitoring the total food system, from harvesting to consumption, to
reduce the risk of foodborne illness.
HACCP TERMINOLOGY

Critical Control Point (CCP) – A procedure/practice (control) in food

handling/preparation that will reduce, eliminate or prevent hazards. It is a “kill” step
that kills microorganisms or a control step that prevents or slows their growth.
Hazard – Unacceptable contamination, microbial growth, persistence of toxins or
survival of microorganisms that are of a concern to food safety.
Monitoring – Checking to determine if the criteria established by the critical control
point(s) (CCP) have been achieved.
Risk – Probability that a condition(s) will lead to a hazard.
Severity – Seriousness of the consequences of the results of a hazard.
HACCP SEVEN STEPS
1. Conduct a hazardous analysis.
The purpose of a hazardous analysis is to develop a list of hazards which are
likely to cause injury or illness if they are not controlled. Points to be
 considered in this analysis can include: skill level of employees; transport of
food; serving elderly, sick, very young children, immune-compromised; volume
cooling; thawing of potentially hazardous foods; high degree of food handling
and contact; adequacy of preparation and holding equipment available;
storage, and method of preparation.
2. Determine Critical Control Points (CCP’s)
A critical control point is any step in which hazards can be prevented,
eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels. CCP’s are usually
practices/procedures which, when not done correctly, are the leading causes
of foodborne illness outbreaks. Examples of critical control points include:
cooking, cooling, re-heating, holding. To determine CCP’s ask the following
questions:
 At this step in preparation can food become contaminated and/or can
contamination increase?
 Can this hazard be prevented through corrective action(s)?
 Can this hazard be prevented, eliminated or reduced by steps taken later in the
preparation process?
 Can you monitor the CCP?
 How will you measure the CCP?
 Can you document the CCP
Establish Critical Limits
A critical limit ensures that a biological, chemical or physical hazard is controlled by
a CCP. Each CCP should have at least one critical limit. Critical limits must be
something that can be monitored by measurement or observation. They must be
scientifically and/or regulatory based. Examples include: temperature, time, pH,
water activity or available chlorine.
4. Establish Monitoring Procedures
Monitoring is a plan which includes observations or measurements to assess
whether the CCP is being met. It provides a record of the “flow of food” through the
establishment. If monitoring indicates that the critical limits are not being met, then
an action must be taken to bring the process back into control. The monitoring
system should be easy to use and meet the needs of the food establishment, as well
as the regulatory authority. It is important that the job of monitoring be assigned to a
specific individual and they be trained on the monitoring technique.
5. Establish Corrective Actions
If the criteria for a CCP is not being met, some type of corrective action must be
taken. They must meet the standards established in Step 3, must be based on facts
for normal working conditions and be measurable. Corrective actions may range, for
example, from “continue cooking until the established temperature is reached” to
“throw out the product,” depending on the severity of the situation.
HACCP plans should include the following: who is responsible for implementing the
corrective action and what corrective action was taken. They should be established
in advance as part of the HACCP plan.

6. Establish verification procedures

These procedures are activities, other than monitoring, that determine the validity of
the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the plan. An important
aspect of verification is to determine if the plan is scientifically and technically sound.
Also, that all the hazards have been identified and that, if the HACCP plan is properly
implemented, these hazards can be effectively controlled. Verification can be
accomplished by expert advice and scientific studies and observations of the flow of
food, measurements and evaluations. Another means of verification is an onsite
review of the established critical limits. Each CCP will have one independent
authority. This verification step provides an opportunity to make modifications to the
plan if necessary.
7. Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures
Record-keeping and documentation procedures should be simple to complete and
include information that illustrates that the established standards are being met.
Employees need to be trained on the record-keeping procedures and why it is a
critical part of their job. Examples of records include time/temperature logs,
checklists, forms, flowcharts, employee training records, and SOP’s.
(“Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Principles and Application Guidelines”,
Adopted August 14, 1997, National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria
for Foods)

Practical haccp seven steps

1. Review menu and highlight potentially hazardous foods
2. Review recipes that include potentially hazardous foods and highlight problem
ingredients.
3. Include critical temperatures and times in the recipes/procedures.
(Note critical temperatures may be somewhat different for the food industry and are
based on state/federal regulations.)
4. Check food temperatures during preparation, holding, cooking and cooling.
Food temperatures should be checked using a bi-metallic food thermometer.
Remember, when cooling food, time is critical. The food needs to be cooled to 40° F
in no more than two hours.
5. Correct if required temperatures are not being met.
Specific steps to be taken should be previously established and could be included in
SOP’s. For example, when roasting a chicken, if at the end of the prescribed cooking
time, if the temperature has not reached 180°F, the correction is to continue cooking
until that temperature is reached. However, in some cases, the “correction” may
involve throwing the food item away because throughout the preparation process,
the food may have been mishandled.
6. Verify that the previous steps are being followed.
 Review plan
 Review deviations and corrections
 Visual inspection
7. Record time and temperatures.
A system for recording temperatures should be developed. This system can be in the
form of a notebook or charts that includes the intervals at which the temperatures
should be taken and recorded.

SEMINAR NINE
FOOD SPOILAGE
Food spoilage means undesirable changes that have taken place in a food which
have made it unfit to eat • Deterioration of food caused by natural decay or
contamination with micro-organisms
Food spoilage can be defined as a disagreeable change in a food's normal state.
Such changes can be detected by smell, taste, touch, or sight. These changes are
due to a number of reasons -- air and oxygen, moisture, light, microbial growth, and
temperature.
Characteristics of food not fit for consumption
Appearance: look at the food carefully – Check if there is any abnormal colour
change, e.g. • spoiled beef darkened in colour; • bruised spot on rotten pear – Check
if there is abnormal curds, e.g. • curdling of spoiled milk.
– Check if there are green, white or blue spots on food surface, e.g. • mouldy bread
usually has green spots on its surface – Check canned foods for signs of swelling or
damage.
Taste and odour – Think about the normal taste and smell of the food, throw it out if
it smells really bad or unusual, e.g. • spoiled milk smells sour • rotten eggs have a
very distinct and unpleasant smell.
• Feel – Check if the texture of the food has changed, e.g. • slimy texture on meat
Food fit for human consumption
1. Minimally processed- Choose foods that are close to the way they naturally
occur. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, meats, beans, nuts and seeds. These
are easier to digest and tend to be free from fake ingredients.
2. Organic- Organic produce is not sprayed with any pesticides or chemicals. There
are no artificial substances added, and nothing is genetically modified. Choose
organic whenever possible.
3. Contains real ingredients- If you can’t pronounce an ingredient, or aren’t sure what
it is, it’s probably not a real ingredient. A perfect example is “natural flavouring”.
Sounds good, but do you actually know what it is? You may be surprised to know
that these natural flavourings are usually artificial additives that are highly addictive
and neurologically toxic.
4. Local- Local produce is always healthier than shipped produce. Many imported
foods are picked before they are ripe and are delivered weeks after. The longer fruits
and vegetables have been cut off from their life source, the less nutrients they
contain.
5. Seasonal- Seasonal food is higher in nutrients than food that is artificially grown
out of season. Buying seasonal foods usually means the taste will be much better
and your fruits and vegetables will be less expensive.

Causes and types of food spoilage

Natural decay: moisture loss
• When food is exposed in air for a long time, water comes out through the leaves
and skin of fruits and vegetables
• Moisture loss affects both the appearance and texture of foods, e.g. – the fruit
shrinks in size; – the skin becomes wrinkled
Natural decay: action of enzymes
• When fruits or vegetables are peeled or cut, the plant tissue releases some
enzymes which in the presence of oxygen from the air, chemically react with plant
compounds to give brown pigments.
• This reaction is known as enzymatic browning. What is “enzyme”? – Enzymes are
proteins that speed up chemical reactions – Enzymes are inactive until the food is
harvested or the animal is slaughtered – They are sensitive to heat; they remain
inactive at very low temperature e.g. in freezer
 The reaction makes the food unappealing and limits the shelf life of many
fruits and vegetables.

Natural decay: chemical changes

• Chemical changes begin automatically after fruits and vegetables are harvested, or
animals are killed (slaughtered)
• Oxygen in air, sunlight and high temperature can cause certain foods to undergo
undesirable chemical changes
• Chemical changes affect the colour and flavour of foods – Fats and pigments in
food are mainly affected, e.g.
• Unpleasant smell and taste of cooking oil after use at high temperature 14.
What is food poisoning?
• Eating foods contaminated with micro-organisms may cause food poisoning
• Pregnant women, elderly people, babies and those with a low resistance to
infection, are more susceptible to food poisoning or more likely to develop severer
disease or complications
• Diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, headache and fever are common symptoms of food
poisoning.

SEMINAR TEN

Classification of Micro-organisms

What Are Microorganisms?

Microorganisms are, as the name implies, microscopic organisms. They are living
things that are too tiny to see with the naked eye.
Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular,
multicellular, or cell clusters. Micro-organism are widespread in nature and are
beneficial to life, but some can cause serious harm. They can be divided into six
major types: bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
A microorganism can perform all the characteristics that all living things perform. It
can move, get nutrients from the environment, maintain homeostasis, and evolve.

Since the natural classification groups only the organisms using the relationship and
few other factors, almost all the organisms that fall outside animal and plant group
fall under Microorganisms group. There are the 5 types of microorganisms
according to the classification of microorganisms.

1. Bacteria
2. Virus
3. Algae
4. Fungi
5. Protozoa

Bacteria are single-cell organisms that are neither plants nor animals. They usually
measure a few micrometres in length and exist together in communities of millions.

• Bacteria are found in lots of places, including air, water, dusts, plants, animals,
people and food.

• Different bacteria have different shapes when we see them under a microscope.

• Most of them are spherical or rod-shaped

Bacteria are classified into 5 groups according to their basic shapes: spherical
(cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes).
They can exist aii) Streptococcus: - here the cells divide repeatedly in one plane to
form chain of cells. Example: – Streptococcus pyogenes.s single cells, in pairs,
chains or clusters.

Listeria is a common food-poisoning bacteria

• Listeria can be killed under normal cooking temperature but is able to grow slowly
at refrigerated temperature as low as 0°C

• Ready-to-eat foods with long shelf-life under refrigeration such as cheese and
meat have been involved in Listeria food poisoning cases

• Listeria can cause fever, muscle pain, headache, nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea •
Healthy individuals usually only develop mild symptoms.

• The effects on infants, young children, the elderly and people with weak immune
systems can be severe and even lead to death.

Salmonella is a type of bacteria • Salmonella is found in eggs and food of animal

origin

• Undercooked eggs and egg products and food prepared with raw eggs have been
involved in salmonella food poisoning cases

• Salmonella can cause vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea.

• The effects on infants, young children, the elderly and people with weak immune
systems can be severe and even lead to death.

• Aflatoxins are toxins produced by moulds

• They are commonly found in crops e.g. peanuts, maize, cereals etc.

• Aflatoxins can cause liver damage and cancer in human

• Conditions that favour the growth of the aflatoxins producing moulds:

• High humidity • High temperature • Poor handling and storage of crops after
harvest

Tetracoccus: - this consists of four round cells, which defied in two planes at a right
angles to one another. Example: – Gaffkya tetragena.
v) Staphylococcus: - here the cells divided into three planes forming a structured like
bunches of grapes giving and irregular configuration. Example: – Staphylococcus
aureus.
vi) Sarcina: -in this case this cells divide in three planes but they form a cube like
configuration consisting of eight or sixteen cells but they have a regular shape.
Example: –Sarcina lutea.
2) Bacilli: - this are rod shaped or cylindrical bacteria which either remain singly or in
pairs. Example: –Bacillus cereus.
3) Vibro: -the vibro are the curved, comma shaped bacteria and represented by a
single genus. Example: – Vibro cholerae.
4) Spirilla: - this type of bacteria are spiral or spring like with multiple curvature and
terminal flagella. Example: –Spirillum volutans.

Yeasts

• Yeasts are tiny single-celled fungi.

• Active in warm, moist conditions with food for growth

• Yeasts can grow without oxygen (anaerobic growth)

• Responsible for food spoilage in high sugar foods such as fruit, jam and fruit
yoghurts

• Signs of food spoilage by yeasts, e.g. – the cork of a juice bottle is popped out –
bloated cans of food and drinks.
They reproduce by “budding”, they send out a little bud that grows then breaks away
to form another yeast cell.

SEMINAR ELEVEN

What is food poisoning?

Food poisoning, also called foodborne illness, is illness caused by eating

contaminated food. Infectious organisms — including bacteria, viruses and parasites
— or their toxins are the most common causes of food poisoning.

Infectious organisms or their toxins can contaminate food at any point of processing
or production. Contamination can also occur at home if food is incorrectly handled
or cooked.

• Eating foods contaminated with micro-organisms may cause food poisoning

• Pregnant women, elderly people, babies and those with a low resistance to
infection, are more susceptible to food poisoning or more likely to develop severer
disease or complications

• Diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, headache and fever are common symptoms of food
poisoning

Food poisoning symptoms, which can start within hours of eating contaminated
food, often include nausea, vomiting or diarrhea. Most often, food poisoning is mild
and resolves without treatment. But some people need to go to the hospital.

Symptoms

Food poisoning symptoms vary with the source of contamination. Most types of
food poisoning cause one or more of the following signs and symptoms:

 Nausea

 Vomiting

 Watery or bloody diarrhea

 Abdominal pain and cramps

 Fever
Signs and symptoms may start within hours after eating the contaminated food, or
they may begin days or even weeks later. Sickness caused by food poisoning
generally lasts from a few hours to several days.

When to see a doctor

If you experience any of the following signs or symptoms, seek medical attention.

 Frequent episodes of vomiting and inability to keep liquids down

 Bloody vomit or stools

 Diarrhea for more than three days

 Extreme pain or severe abdominal cramping

 An oral temperature higher than 100.4 F (38 C)

 Signs or symptoms of dehydration — excessive thirst, dry mouth, little or no

urination, severe weakness, dizziness, or lightheadedness

 Neurological symptoms such as blurry vision, muscle weakness and tingling in

the arms

Causes

Contamination of food can happen at any point of production: growing, harvesting,

processing, storing, shipping or preparing. Cross-contamination — the transfer of
harmful organisms from one surface to another — is often the cause. This is
especially troublesome for raw, ready-to-eat foods, such as salads or other produce.
Because these foods aren't cooked, harmful organisms aren't destroyed before
eating and can cause food poisoning.

Many bacterial, viral or parasitic agents cause food poisoning. The following table
shows some of the possible contaminants, when you might start to feel symptoms
and common ways the organism is spread.

Contaminant Onset of Foods affected and means of transmission

symptoms

Campylobacter 2 to 5 days Meat and poultry. Contamination occurs

during processing if animal feces contact
meat surfaces. Other sources include
unpasteurized milk and contaminated water.
Contaminant Onset of Foods affected and means of transmission
symptoms

Clostridium 12 to 72 Home-canned foods with low acidity,

botulinum hours improperly canned commercial foods, smoked
or salted fish, potatoes baked in aluminum foil,
and other foods kept at warm temperatures
for too long.

Clostridium 8 to 16 Meats, stews and gravies. Commonly spread

perfringens hours when serving dishes don't keep food hot
enough or food is chilled too slowly.

Escherichia coli (E. 1 to 8 days Beef contaminated with feces during

coli) O157:H7 slaughter. Spread mainly by undercooked
ground beef. Other sources include
unpasteurized milk and apple cider, alfalfa
sprouts, and contaminated water.

Giardia lamblia 1 to 2 Raw, ready-to-eat produce and contaminated

weeks water. Can be spread by an infected food
handler.

Hepatitis A 28 days Raw, ready-to-eat produce and shellfish from

contaminated water. Can be spread by an
infected food handler.

Listeria 9 to 48 Hot dogs, luncheon meats, unpasteurized milk

hours and cheeses, and unwashed raw produce. Can
be spread through contaminated soil and
water.

Noroviruses 12 to 48 Raw, ready-to-eat produce and shellfish from

(Norwalk-like hours contaminated water. Can be spread by an
viruses) infected food handler.
 Contaminant Onset of Foods affected and means of transmission
symptoms

Rotavirus 1 to 3 days Raw, ready-to-eat produce. Can be spread by

an infected food handler.

Salmonella 1 to 3 days Raw or contaminated meat, poultry, milk, or

egg yolks. Survives inadequate cooking. Can
be spread by knives, cutting surfaces or an
infected food handler.

Shigella 24 to 48 Seafood and raw, ready-to-eat produce. Can be

hours spread by an infected food handler.

Staphylococcus 1 to 6 hours Meats and prepared salads, cream sauces,

aureus and cream-filled pastries. Can be spread by
hand contact, coughing and sneezing.

Vibrio vulnificus 1 to 7 days Raw oysters and raw or undercooked mussels,

clams, and whole scallops. Can be spread
through contaminated seawater.

Some types of food poisoning have potentially serious complications for certain
people. These include:

 Listeria monocytogenes. Complications of a listeria food poisoning may be

most severe for an unborn baby. Early in pregnancy, a listeria infection may lead
to miscarriage. Later in pregnancy, a listeria infection may lead to stillbirth,
premature birth or a potentially fatal infection in the baby after birth — even if
the mother was only mildly ill. Infants who survive a listeria infection may
experience long-term neurological damage and delayed development.

 Escherichia coli (E. coli). Certain E. coli strains can cause a serious
complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome. This syndrome damages the
lining of the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys, sometimes leading to kidney
failure. Older adults, children younger than 5 and people with weakened
immune systems have a higher risk of developing this complication. If you're in
one of these risk categories, see your doctor at the first sign of profuse or
bloody diarrhoea.
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES

i. Wash your hands, utensils and food surfaces often. Wash your hands well
with warm, soapy water before and after handling or preparing food. Use hot,
soapy water to wash utensils, cutting boards and other surfaces you use.

ii. Keep raw foods separate from ready-to-eat foods. When shopping, preparing
food or storing food, keep raw meat, poultry, fish and shellfish away from
other foods. This prevents cross-contamination.
iii. Cook foods to a safe temperature. The best way to tell if foods are cooked to
a safe temperature is to use a food thermometer. You can kill harmful
organisms in most foods by cooking them to the right temperature.
iv. Cook ground beef to 160 F (71.1 C); steaks, roasts and chops, such as lamb,
pork and veal, to at least 145 F (62.8 C). Cook chicken and turkey to 165 F
(73.9 C). Make sure fish and shellfish are cooked thoroughly.

v. Refrigerate or freeze perishable foods promptly — within two hours of

purchasing or preparing them. If the room temperature is above 90 F (32.2 C),
refrigerate perishable foods within one hour.

vi. Defrost food safely. Don't thaw food at room temperature. The safest way to
thaw food is to defrost it in the refrigerator. If you microwave frozen food
using the "defrost" or "50 percent power" setting, be sure to cook it
immediately.

vii. Throw it out when in doubt. If you aren't sure if a food has been prepared,
served or stored safely, discard it. Food left at room temperature too long may
contain bacteria or toxins that can't be destroyed by cooking. Don't taste food
that you're unsure about — just throw it out. Even if it looks and smells fine, it
may not be safe to eat.
MAJOR FOOD LAWS
1. Public Health Act Cap.242 Laws of Kenya.
2. Radiation Protection Act Cap.243 Laws of Kenya (In the case of irradiated foods)
3. Food Drugs & Chemical Substances Act Cap. 254
4. Agriculture Act Cap 318
5. Plant Protection Act Cap.324 (in case of fruits & vegetables)
6. Seeds & Plant Varieties Act Cap. 326 (imported seeds or seed crops with a
potential to grow when planted)
7. Dairy Industry Act Cap. 336
8. Meat Control Act Cap. 356:
SEMINAR TWELVE

FOOD PRESERVATION

Food preservation is the process of treating food to stop or slow down spoilage, loss
of quality, edibility, or nutritional value.

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down
food spoilage, loss of quality, edibility, or nutritional value and thus allow for longer
food storage.

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi (such as

yeasts), and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which
cause rancidity.

principles of food preservation

Preservation of food by any method is based on the following principles:

(A) Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition

(i). By keeping out micro-organisms (asepsis)

Methods of Food Preservation

A number of methods of prevention can be used that can either totally prevent, delay,
or otherwise reduce food spoilage. Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food
and can lengthen the time long enough for it to be harvested, processed, sold, and
kept in the consumer’s home for a reasonable length of time.

Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of

food preservation, although, historically, some methods drastically altered the
character of the food being preserved. In many cases these changes have now come
to be seen as desirable qualities, as with cheese, yogurt, and pickled onions.

Drying is one of the most ancient food preservation techniques, which reduces water
activity sufficiently to prevent bacterial growth.

Refrigeration preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of

microorganisms and the action of enzymes which cause food to rot.

Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes for preserving a very
wide range of food including prepared foodstuffs which would not have required
freezing in their unprepared state.

Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or

bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival,
thereby slowing spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to
reduce the loss of flavor from oxidation.

Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis. Meat
is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also
often used to cure meat and contribute to the characteristic pink color, as well as
inhibition of Clostridium botulinum.

Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears,
peaches, apricots, plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is
cooked in sugar to the point of crystallisation and the resultant product is then
stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica,
and ginger. A modification of this process produces glacé fruit such as glacé
cherries where the fruit is preserved in sugar but is then extracted from the syrup
and sold, the preservation being maintained by the sugar content of the fruit and the
superficial coating of syrup. The use of sugar is often combined with alcohol for
preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other spirits. These should
not be confused with fruit flavored spirits such as cherry brandy.

Smoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable food items. This effect is
achieved by exposing the food to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood.
Most commonly subjected to this method of food preservation are meats and fish
that have undergone curing. Fruits and vegetables like paprika, cheeses, spices, and
ingredients for making drinks such as malt and tea leaves are also smoked, but
mainly for cooking or flavoring them. It is one of the oldest food preservation
methods, which probably arose after the development of cooking with fire.

Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial. These inhibit the growth of

bacteria or fungi, including mold, or antioxidant, such as oxygen absorbers, which
inhibit the oxidation of food constituents.

Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate,

sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite,
etc.), and disodium EDTA. Antioxidants include BHA and BHT. Other preservatives
include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (kills insects), ethanol, and
methylchloroisothiazolinone.

Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling can

be broadly categorized into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation
pickling.

Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and boiling the
containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization. Foods
have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the
final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no
preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as
tomatoes require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Low acid
foods, such as vegetables and meats require pressure canning. Food preserved by
canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been
opened.