Lecture note on Electronics III (EEC 244)

Citi Polytechnic
Electrical Electronics Engineering
CHAPTER ONE
THE FEEDBACK EFFECTS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Feedback is the process whereby a signal derived in the output section of the amplifier is fed
back into the input section. In this way, the amplifier can be used to provide characteristics
which differ from those of the basic amplifier. The signal being fed back can either be a
voltage or a current, being applied in series or shunt respectively with the input signal.

Depending on the relative polarity of the signal being fed back into a circuit, one may have
negative or positive feedback. Negative feedback results in decreased voltage gain, for
which a number of circuit features are improved as summarized below. Positive feedback
drives a circuit into oscillation as in various types of oscillator circuits.
Feedback is one of the fundamental processes in nature. It is a mechanism of the control we
use to drive an automobile at constant speed, of maintaining constant internal body
temperature and of natural population control in an ecosystem.
A typical feedback connection is shown in below. The input signal is applied to a mixer
network, where it is combined with a feedback signal. The difference of these signal, is then
the input voltage to the amplifier. A portion of the amplifier output is connected to the
feedback network, which provides a reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to the
input mixer network.
If the feedback signal is of opposite polarity to the input signal as shown, then negative
feedback results while negative feedback results in reduced overall voltage gain

Feedback System Block Diagram Model

As we have seen, open-loop systems are just that, open ended, and no attempt is made to
compensate for changes in circuit conditions or changes in load conditions due to variations
in circuit parameters, such as gain and stability, temperature, supply voltage variations
and/or external disturbances. But the effects of these ―open-loop variations can be
eliminated or at least considerably reduced by the introduction of Feedback.
A feedback system is one in which the output signal is sampled and then fed back to the
input to form an error signal that drives the system.
The feedback portion if appropriately applied, tends to make systems self regulating.
Depending on the relative polarity of the signal being fed back into a circuit, one may have
negative or positive feedback.
Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators, process
control systems as well as other types of electronic systems. But for feedback to be an
effective tool it must be controlled as an uncontrolled system will either oscillate or fail to
function.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
It occurs when the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal i.e., the feedback signal
will add to or “regenerate” the input signal. The result is a larger amplitude output signal
than would occur without feedback. Positive Feedback (PFB) amplifies an effect by it having
an influence on the process which gave rise to it. For example, when part of an electronic
output signal returns to the input, and is in phase with it the system gain is increased.

When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase with the input signal and thus
aids it, it is called positive feedback. This is illustrated in the figure above. Both amplifier
and feedback network introduce a phase shift of 180°. The result is a 360° phase shift
around the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with the input signal Vin.
The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier. However, it has the disadvantages
of increased distortion and instability. Therefore, positive feedback is seldom employed in
amplifiers. One important use of positive feedback is in oscillators. As we shall see later, if
positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations. As a matter of fact, an oscillator
is a device that converts d.c. power into a.c. power of any desired frequency.

Negative feedback
When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase with the input signal and
thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback. This is illustrated in figure below.
As you can see, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° into the circuit while the
feedback network is so designed that it introduces no phase shift (i.e., 0° phase shift). The
result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of phase with the input signal Vin.
Negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, the advantages of negative
feedback are: reduction in distortion, stability in gain, increased bandwidth and improved
input and output impedances. It is due to these advantages that negative feedback is
frequently employed in amplifiers.

A feedback amplifier has two parts viz an amplifier and a feedback circuit. The feedback
circuit usually consists of resistors and returns a fraction of output energy back to the input.

COMPARISON BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDEBACK

S/NO Negative feedback Positive feedback
1. Feedback energy is out of phase with Feedback energy is in phase
the input signal. with the input signal.
2 Gain of the Amplifier decreases. Gain of the Amplifier
increases.
3. Gain stability increases Gain stability decreases
4. Noise and distortion decreases Noise and distortion
increases
5. Increases the bandwidth Decreases the bandwidth
6. Used in Amplifiers Used in Oscillators

FEEDBACK CONNECTION TYPES

There are four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both voltage and current can
be fed back to the input either in series or parallel. Specifically, there can be:
1. Voltage-series feedback
2. Voltage-shunt feedback
3. Current-series feedback
4. Current-shunt feedback
In the list above, voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback
network; current refers to tapping off some output current through the feedback network.
Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input signal voltage; shunt
refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an input current source.
Series feedback connections tend to increase the input resistance, while shunt feedback
connections tend to decrease the input resistance. Voltage feedback tends to decrease the
output impedance, while current feedback tends to increase the output impedance.

Summary of Gain, Feedback, and Gain with Feedback

EFFECT OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ON AMPLIFIER PERFORMANCE

The effect of negative feedback on an amplifier is considered in relation to gain, gain
stability, distortion, noise, input/output impedance and bandwidth and gain-bandwidth.
Gain:
The gain of the amplifier with feedback is given by

Af = A/ (1+Aβ)

Hence, gain decreases with feedback.

Gain Stability:
An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that the resultant gain of the
amplifier can be made independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage variation.

Af = A/ (1+Aβ)

For negative voltage feedback in an amplifier to be effective the designer deliberately makes
the product Aβ much greater than unity. Therefore in the above equation, “1” can be
neglected as compared to Aβ and the expressions becomes
AF = A/ (1+Aβ) = 1/β
It may be seen that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction β, i.e., on the
characteristics of feedback circuit.
Distortion:
A power amplifier will have non-linear distortion because of large signal variations. The
negative feedback reduces the non-linear distortion. It can be proved mathematically that:
DF = D/ (1+Aβ)
Where D = distortion in amplifier without feedback
Df = distortion in amplifier with negative feedback
It is clear that by applying negative feedback, the distortion is reduced by a factor
(1+Aβ)
Noise:
There are numbers of sources of noise in an amplifier. The noise N can be addition of
another stage, it is quite possible that the overall system will be noisier that it was at the
start. If the increases in gain can be accomplished by the adjustment of circuit parameters, a
definite reduction in noise will result from the use of negative feedback.
Input/output Impedance:
The input and output impedances will also improve by a factor of (1+Aβ), based on feedback
connection type.
Bandwidth and Gain-bandwidth Product:

Each of higher and lower cut-off frequencies will improve by a factor of (1+Aβ). However,
gain-bandwidth product remains constant.
 CHAPTER TWO
THE PROPERTIES OF A PID CONTROLLER & APPLICATION
A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller or three-term controller) is a
control loop mechanism employing feedback that is widely used in industrial control
systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control.

A PID controller continuously calculates an error value {\display style e(t)}e(t) as the
difference between a desired setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and
D respectively), hence the name.

PID Controller is a most common control algorithm used in industrial automation &
applications and more than 95% of the industrial controllers are of PID type. PID controllers
are used for more precise and accurate control of various parameters.
Most often these are used for the regulation of temperature, pressure, speed, flow and
other process variables. Due to robust performance and functional simplicity, these have
been accepted by enormous industrial applications where a more precise control is the
foremost requirement.
It gets the input parameter from the sensor which is referred as actual process variable. It
also accepts the desired actuator output, which is referred as set variable, and then it
calculates and combines the proportional, integral and derivative responses to compute the
output for the actuator.

Working of PID Controller

In manual control, the operator may periodically read the process variable (that has to be
controlled such as temperature, flow, speed, etc.) and adjust the control variable (which is
to be manipulated in order to bring control variable to prescribed limits such as a heating
element, flow valves, motor input, etc.). On the other hand, in automatic control,
measurement and adjustment are made automatically on a continuous basis made to
produce one or combination of control actions. These control actions include

 ON-OFF Controller
 Proportional Controller
 Proportional-Integral Controller
 Proportional-Derivative Controller
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
In case of ON-OFF controller, two states are possible to control the manipulated variable,
i.e., either fully ON (when process variable is below the set point) or Fully OFF (when
process variable is above the set point). So the output will be of oscillating in nature. In
order to achieve the precise control, most industries use the PID controller (or PI or PD
depends on the application). Let us look at these control actions.

P-Controller
Proportional control or simply P-controller produces the control output proportional to the
current error. Here the error is the difference between the set point and process variable
(i.e., e = SP – PV). This error value multiplied by the proportional gain (Kc) determines the
output response, or in other words proportional gain decides the ratio of proportional
output response to error value.
For example, the magnitude of the error is 20 and Kc is 4 then proportional response will be
80. If the error value is zero, controller output or response will be zero. The speed of the
response (transient response) is increased by increasing the value of proportional gain Kc.
However, if Kc is increased beyond the normal range, process variable starts oscillating at a
higher rate and it will cause instability of the system.
Although P-controller provides stability of the process variable with good speed of response,
there will always be an error between the set point and actual process variable. Most of the
cases, this controller is provided with manual reset or biasing in order to reduce the error
when used alone. However, zero error state cannot be achieved by this controller. Hence
there will always be a steady state error in the p-controller response as shown in figure.

I-Controller
Integral controller or I-controller is mainly used to reduce the steady state error of the
system. The integral component integrates the error term over a period of time until the
error becomes zero. This results that even a small error value will cause to produce high
integral response. At the zero error condition, it holds the output to the final control device
at its last value in order to maintain zero steady state error, but in case of P-controller,
output is zero when the error is zero.
If the error is negative, the integral response or output will be decreased. The speed of
response is slow (means respond slowly) when I-controller alone used, but improves the
steady state response. By decreasing the integral gain Ki, the speed of the response is
increased.

For many applications, proportional and integral controls are combined to achieve good
speed of response (in case of P controller) and better steady state response (in case of I
controller). Most often PI controllers are used in industrial operation in order to improve
transient as well as steady state responses. The responses of only I-control, only p-control
and PI control are shown
D- Controller Response
A derivative controller (or simply D-Controller) sees how fast process variable changes per
unit of time and produce the output proportional to the rate of change. The derivative
output is equal to the rate of change of error multiplied by a derivative constant. The D-
controller is used when the processor variable starts to change at a high rate of speed.
In such case, D-controller moves the final control device (such as control valves or motor) in
such direction as to counteract the rapid change of a process variable. It is to be noted that
D-controller alone cannot be used for any control applications.
The derivative action increases the speed of the response because it gives a kick start for the
output, thus anticipates the future behaviour of the error. The more rapidly D-controller
responds to the changes in the process variable, if the derivative term is large (which is
achieved by increasing the derivative constant or time Td).
In most of the PID controllers, D-control response depends only on process variable, rather
than error. This avoids spikes in the output (or sudden increase of output) in case of sudden
set point change by the operator. And also most control systems use less derivative time td,
as the derivative response is very sensitive to the noise in the process variable which leads
to produce extremely high output even for a small amount of noise.

Real-Time PID Controllers

There are different types PID controllers available in today‘s market, which can be used for
all industrial control needs such as level, flow, temperature and pressure. When deciding on
controlling such parameters for a process using PID, options include use either PLC or
standalone PID controller.
Standalone PID controllers are used where one or two loops are needed to be monitored
and controlled or in the situations where it difficult to access with larger systems. These
dedicated control devices offer a variety of options for single and dual loop control.
Standalone PID controllers offer multiple set point configurations and also generates the
independent multiple alarms.
Some of these standalone controllers include Yokogava temperature controllers, Honeywell
PID controllers, OMEGA auto tune PID controllers, ABB PID controllers and Siemens PID
controllers.
Most of the control applications, PLCs are used as PID controllers. PID blocks are inbuilt in
PLCs/PACs and which offers advanced options for a precise control. PLCs are more
intelligent and powerful than standalone controllers and make the job easier. Every PLC
consist the PID block in their programming software, whether it can Siemens, ABB, AB,
Delta, Emersion, or Yokogava PLC.

ASSIGNMENT
1 .Explain the principle of operation of PID
2. Differentiate between PLC and PID? And what are the similarities among the two?
3. State five application of PID controller

QUIZ
1. State the different types of real time PID
2. Sketch a diagram to display how a PID functions
 CHAPTER THREE
OSCILLATORS (TYPES & APPLICATIONS)
What is an Oscillator?
An oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any external input
signal generates an output signal at a desired frequency.

Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a specific frequency which may range
from a few Hz to several MHz. This is achieved by an electronic device called an oscillator.
Oscillators are extensively used in electronic equipment. For example, in radio and
television receivers, oscillators are used to generate high frequency wave (called carrier
wave) in the tuning stages. Audio frequency and radio-frequency signals are required for
repair of radio, television and other electronic equipment. Oscillators are widely used in
radar, electronic computers and other electronic devises.
An electronic oscillator may be defined in any one of the following four ways:
1. It is a circuit which converts dc energy into ac energy at a very high frequency;
2. It is an electronic source of alternating current or voltage having sine, square or sawtooth
or pulse shapes;
3. It is a circuit which generates an ac output signal without requiring any externally applied
input signal;
4. It is an unstable amplifier.
Although we speak of an oscillator as ―generating a frequency, it should be noted that it
does not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It receives dc energy and
changes it into a.c. energy of desired frequency. The frequency of oscillations depends on
the constants of the device.

Comparison between an Amplifier and Oscillator

An amplifier produces an output signal whose waveform is similar to the input signal but
whose power level is generally high. This additional power is supplied by the external dc
source. Hence, an amplifier is essentially an energy converter i.e., it takes energy from the
de power source and converts it into ac energy at signal frequency. The process of energy
conversion is controlled by the input signal. If there is no input signal, there is no energy
conversion and hence there is no output signal.
An oscillator does not require an external signal either to start or maintain energy
conversion process. It keeps producing an output signal so long as the dc power source is
connected. Moreover, the frequency of the output signal is determined by the passive
components used in the oscillator and can be varied as desired.

Classification of Oscillators
Electronic oscillators may be broadly divided into following two groups:
(i) Sinusoidal (or harmonic) oscillators-which produce sinusoidal output signal.
(ii) Non-sinusoidal (or relaxation) oscillators-which produce square, rectangular or sawtooth
waveform signal or of pulse shape signal at the output.
Sinusoidal oscillators may be further subdivided into:
(a) Tuned-circuits or LC feedback oscillators such as Hartley, Colpitt’s and Clapp etc.
(b) RC phase-shift oscillators such as Wien-bridge oscillator.
(c) Negative-resistance oscillators such as tunnel diode oscillator.
(d) Crystal oscillators such as Pierce oscillator.
(e) Heterodyne or beat-frequency oscillator (BFO).

Sinusoidal oscillators serve a variety of functions in telecommunications and in electronics.

The most important application in telecommunication is the use of sine waves as carrier
signal in both radio and cable transmissions.
Sine wave signals are also used in frequency response testing of various types of systems
and equipment including analogue communication channels, amplifiers and filters and
closed-loop control systems.
Non-sinusoidal Waveforms
Any waveform whose shape is different from that of a standard sine wave is called non-
sinusoidal waveform. Examples are: square, rectangular, sawtooth, triangular waveforms.
Barkhausen Criterion

Basic block diagram of oscillator circuit

Consider an amplifier circuit with a feedback network connected between output and input
as shown above. The feedback is selected in such a way that the voltage derived from
output Vf using feedback network is in phase with input voltage Vi. Since the inverting
amplifier introduces 180° phase shift, the feedback network must introduce a phase shift of
180° while feeding back the voltage from output to input. This ensures positive in phase
which is the first condition feedback.
Consider a fictitious voltage VI applied at the input of the amplifier. The output voltages is
VO = AVI
The feedback factor β decides the feedback voltage to be given to input,
VF = βVO
Substituting we get,
VF = βAVI ----------------- (1)

For the oscillator, the feedback voltage should drive the amplifier and hence V F must act as
VI. From the above equation we can write that, V F is sufficient to act as V I when the product
of open loop gain and feedback factor is units. i.e,
[Aβ] = 1 -------------- (2)

Equation 2 gives the second condition in sustained oscillation.

The above two conditions required to produce oscillation in an oscillator are called
Barkhausen Criterion for oscillation. They are summarized below:
1. The total phase shift around the amplifier and feedback network should be 0° or 360°.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and feedback
factor β must be unity. i.e., |Aβ| = 1

The Oscillatory Circuit

It is also called LC circuit or tank circuit. The oscillatory circuit below consists of two reactive
elements i.e. an inductor and a capacitor. Both are capable of storing energy. The capacitor
stores energy in its electric field whenever there is potential difference across its plates.
Similarly, a coil or an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field whenever current flows
through it. Both L and C are supposed to be loss-free (i.e. their Q-factors are infinite).
Suppose the capacitor has been fully-charged from a dc source.

Different types of Transistor Oscillators

A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous undamped oscillations of any
desired frequency if tank and feedback circuits are properly connected to it. All oscillators
under different names have similar functions i.e. they produced continuous undamped
output. However the major difference between these oscillators lies in the method by which
energy is supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses.

The following are the transistor oscillators commonly used at various places in electronic
circuits:
(i). Tuned collector oscillator
(ii). Hartley oscillator
(iii). Collpitt‘s oscillator
(iv). Phase shift oscillator
(v). Wein Bridge oscillator
(vi). Crystal oscillator

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Hartley Oscillator is an electronic circuit, produces sinusoidal signal. It consists two parts as
(1) an amplifier and (2) a tank or tuned circuit with positive feedback.
Principle
In Hartley oscillator, the transistor inverting amplifier produces 180° phase difference and
the tank circuit consisting of two series centre tapped inductors L1 & L2 in parallel with a
capacitor C provides another 180o phase difference, so that there is 360°/0° phase
difference along the loop with positive feedback.

Circuit

Hartley oscillator using BJT

The basic circuit of BJT Hartley oscillator is shown above. The resistances R 1, R2 and RE
provide necessary bias to the circuit. The capacitors C C1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The
feedback network consists of a tank circuit made up of two inductors L 1 and L2 and capacitor
C. The radio frequency choke (RFC) is used to achieve isolation between a.c and d.c
operations.

Working
The transistor CE amplifier provides a phase shift of 180°. When VCC is switched on, the
capacitor C gets charged and oscillatory current is set up in the tank circuit. As the point 3 is
earthed, when point 1 is positive then at the same instant point 2 is negative with respect to
point 3 and vice versa. Thus there exists a phase difference of 180° between points 1 and 2.
This is additional 180° phase shift introduced by tank circuit to satisfy oscillator condition.
Thus when feedback is adjusted such that Aβ = 1, the circuit works as an oscillator. The
oscillating frequency is decided by the tank circuit elements L1, L2 and C.
Frequency of Oscillation
The frequency of oscillations produced by LC tank circuit is,

There are two inductors L1 and L2 in series hence equivalent inductance of the tank circuit is,
Leq = L1 + L2
It should be noted that if there exists a mutual inductance M between two inductors, it
must be considered while calculating equivalent inductor.
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M if M exist
Hence the frequency of oscillations produced by Hartley oscillator is given by,

The feedback fraction = β = VF / VO = XL2 /XL1 = L2 /L1

The value of L1 and L2 is chosen in such a way that Aβ = 1 to satisfy Barkhausen second
criteria.

Applications
The Hartley oscillators are widely used in the radio receivers as local oscillators.

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Colpitts Oscillator is an electronic circuit, produces sinusoidal signal. It consists two parts as
(1) an amplifier and (2) a tank or tuned circuit with positive feedback.

Principle
In Colpitt’s oscillator, the transistor CE amplifier produces 180 o phase difference and the
tank circuit consisting of two series centre tapped Capacitors C 1 & C2 in parallel with an
inductor L provides another 180o phase difference, so that there is 360 o/0o phase difference
along the loop with positive feedback.
Circuit
Amplifier produces 1800 phase shift

Colpitt’s oscillator using BJT

The amplifier stage uses an active device as a transistor in common emitter (CE)
configuration as shown above. The R1 and R2 are the biasing resistances. The resistance R E is
the stabilization resistance. The CC1 and CC2 are the coupling capacitors. The capacitive
divider, C1 and C2 in the tank circuit provides the necessary feedback for oscillations. The
RFC is radio frequency choke due to which the isolation between a.c. and d.c. operation is
achieved.

Working
When the supply VCC is switched on, the oscillatory current is set up in the tank circuit. It
produces a.c. voltages across C1 and C2. The terminal 3 is grounded hence it is at zero
potential. Thus with respect to terminal 3, when terminal 1 is positive, the terminal 2 is
negative and vice versa. Hence, at any instant there exists a phase difference of 180 o
between terminals 1 and 2. The amplifier produces a phase shift of 180 0 between input and
output. The tank circuit adds further 1800 phase shift between output and feedback input so
that there is 360°/0° phase difference between output and input. This satisfies the required
oscillating conditions.

Frequency of Oscillation
The frequency of oscillations produced by LC tank circuit is,
But in Colpitt’s oscillator there are two capacitors connected in series in tank circuit. The
equivalent capacitance Ceq of C1 and C2 in series decides the frequency of oscillations.

Hence the frequency of oscillations produced by Colpitt’s oscillator is given by,

The feedback factor = β = VF/Vo = XC2/XC1 = C1/C2

The value of C1 and C2 is chosen in such a way that Aβ = 1 to satisfy Barkhausen second
criteria.

Applications
The Colpitt’s oscillator is very commonly used as local oscillator in superheterodyne radio
receiver.

Solved problems
Question 1:
A negative feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 300 and a feedback factor of 0.1. If
the open-loop gain changes by 10% due to temperature, find the percentage change in
closed- loop gain.

Solution:
Given: AV = 300, β = 0.1
(i). Closed loop gain = AF = AV/ (1+AVβ) = 300/ (1+ (300 x 0.1)) = 9.667
(ii). If AV decreases by 10%, new AV = 270;
Then, AF = AV/ (1+AVβ) = 270/ (1+ (270 x 0.1)) = 9.643
(iii). If AV increased by 10%, new AV = 330;
Then, AF = AV/ (1+AVβ) = 330/ (1+ (330 x 0.1)) = 9.706
It is observed that while the open-loop amplifier gain varies by ±10%, the amplifier gain with
feedback varied by only ± 0.35%, i.e., an improvement of 10/0.35 = 29 times.
Question 2:
A phase shift oscillator has 3 similar phase–advancing sections, each containing a 100KΩ
resistor and a 0.0001µF capacitor. Calculate the frequency of oscillations.

Solution:
Given, Resistor R = 100KΩ = (100 x 103) Ω
Capacitor C = 0.0001µF = (0.0001 x 10-6) Farads
Frequency Oscillations: f = 1/ (2π√6RC) = 1/ (2 x 3.14 x √6 x 100 x 10 3 x 0.0001 x 10-6) =
6500HZ

Question 3:
For a transistor Colpitt’s Oscillator, L = 100 micro Henry, C 1 = 0.005 micro farad and C2 = 0.01
micro farad. Calculate the frequency of oscillations generated.

Solution:
Given, L = 100 µH = 100 x 10-6 H
The frequency of oscillation is given by f = 1/2π√LC

Question 4:
In a Colpitt’s Oscillator if the desired frequency is 500 KHz, estimate the values of L and C.

Solution:
The frequency of oscillation is given by
f = 1/2π√LC
Question 5:
In a Colpitt’s Oscillator, C1 = C2 = C and L = 100 µH, frequency of oscillation = 500 KHz.
Determine C.

Solution:

Where
Given: C1 = C2 = C and L= 100 µH, frequency of oscillation = 500 KHz.

C = 0.002µF

Question 6:
Calculate the period of oscillations of a Hartley Oscillators having L1 = 1mH, L2 = 2mH and
C = 0.1 microfarad.

Solution:
Given: L1 = 1mH = 1 x 10-3 Henry,
L2 = 2mH = 2 x 10-3 Henry
C = 0.1µF = 0.1 x 10-6 Farad
Period of Oscillations T = 1/F = 1/9192 = 0.00011sec

Assignment
1. What is an Amplifier? Explain classification schemes of Amplifiers?
2. Explain the principles of negative feedback in amplifiers?
3. List the advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers?
4. Explain in detail, the effect of negative feedback on (a) gain, (b) bandwidth (c) input
impedance and (d) output impedance of an amplifier?
5. What is an Oscillator?
6. How do you compare Amplifiers & Oscillators? Explain various classification schemes
of Oscillators?
7. With a block diagram of an Oscillator with feedback, explain Barkhausen Criterion?
8. With principle and neat circuit diagram, explain the working of Hartley Oscillator.
Obtain an expression for frequency of oscillation? What are its applications?
9. With principle and neat circuit diagram, explain the working of Colpitt’s Oscillator.
Obtain an expression for frequency of oscillation? What are its applications?
10. Compare positive feedback amplifier with negative feedback amplifier with the help
of a neat block diagram.
11. Explain with neat block diagram, Barkhausen criterion to generate oscillations, with
special reference to the condition Aβ < 1, Aβ > 1, Aβ = 1.
12. In a phase-shift oscillator, if the phase shift network uses R = 3.3 KΩ and C = 0.47
microfarads, find the frequency of oscillations.
13. Calculate the frequency of oscillations of Colpitt’s Oscillator having C 1 = C2 = 1000
Pico-farads and L = 1mH in the tank circuit.
14. For a transistor Colpitt’s Oscillator, L = 100 microhenry, C1 = 0.005 microfarad and C2
= 0.01 microfarad. Calculate the frequency of oscillations generated.
15. Calculate the frequency of oscillations of a Colpitt’s Oscillator with C 1 = C2 = 500 pF
and L = 1mH.
16. Determine the frequency of oscillation of a Colpitt’s Oscillator if the parametric
values of its tank circuit are C1 = 750 pF, C2 = 2500 pF, L = 40mH.
17. In a Colpitt’s Oscillator, C1 = C2 = C and L = 100 µH, frequency of oscillation = 500 KHz.
Determine C
18. A Hartley Oscillator has L1 = L2 = 100 microhenry, C = 1000 pico-farads. Calculate the
frequency of oscillations.
19. Calculate the frequency of oscillation of a Hartley Oscillator which has L 1 = L2 = 0.1mH
and C = 0.1 microfarad.
20. Calculate the period of oscillations of a Hartley Oscillator having L 1 = 1mH, L2 = 2mH
and C = 0.1 microfarad.
21. In a Hartley Oscillator, L1 = 100 µH, L2 = 1mH, and the mutual inductance between
the coils is M = 20 µH; C = 10 pF. Determine its frequency of oscillation.
22. Calculate the frequency of oscillations of a Hartley oscillator having L 1 = 0.5mH, L2 =
1mH, & C = 0.2 µF.