Journal of Cleaner Production 486 (2025) 144363

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Construction waste management: Impact on society and strategies

for reduction
Joanna Sagan * , Aleksandra Mach
AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Krakow, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Yutao Wang In line with the adopted EU economic development strategies, construction processes, including waste man-
agement, should be carried out with respect for the natural environment and the local community. Under-
Keywords: standing and analyzing the associated burdens creates an opportunity to develop corrective actions. The aim of
Complaint this study is to analyze the impact of construction waste management processes on the communities neighboring
Ishikawa diagrams
the operational sites. The study analyzed complaints filed by individuals to the Provincial Environmental Pro-
Lean management
tection Inspectorate (PEPI) nationwide. Additionally, a correlation analysis was conducted between the com-
Social aspect
Sustainable development plaints in various voivodeships (provinces) of Poland and the number and type of construction projects for which
Waste management building permits were issued. Using Lean management tools (Ishikawa diagrams), the study explored the pos-
sibilities of reducing the impact of construction waste management processes on local communities by identi-
fying the causes of irregularities and proposing preventive actions. Dominant complaints included improper
waste management on construction sites (site pollution), abandonment of construction waste, burial of waste,
and illegal dumping. The study identified key actions that can help reduce the burdens associated with Con-
struction and Demolition Waste (CDW) management, which include establishing a dedicated organizational unit
for CDW management in construction company, implementing educational initiatives on waste segregation and
storage, introducing a system of government sanctions and incentives, and minimizing noise and dust nuisances
related to CDW during the planning phase of construction projects. The results and conclusions establish a
foundation for the development of an integrated management model that could positively influence long-term
environmental protection and the health of local communities.

1. Introduction context of sustainable development definitions, the approach to con-

struction waste management should balance economic, social, and
According to Eurostat data from 2020, waste production in the Eu- environmental dimensions (Spišáková et al., 2021). The impact of con-
ropean Union (EU) countries reached 2153 million tons, of which 37,5% struction waste on specific areas of sustainable development has been
was related to the Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) sector assessed at 28,5 % for the social aspect, 39,9% for the economic aspect,
(Eurostat, 2023). Forecast for 2021–2026 indicates an expected annual and 52,6 % for the environmental aspect (Beatrix et al., 2024).
growth of the global waste management market in this sector at the level Many studies focus on environmental issues related to CDW (Bayram
of 5,3% (Ulewicz, 2021). Considering the significant share of construc- and Greiff, 2023; Borghi et al., 2018). Analyses include methods for
tion waste and the continuous growth of the market in this sector, proper minimizing the amount of waste generated (Devaki and Shanmugapriya,
management of these is a key element of efficiency and quality of waste 2022), recycling and recovery techniques (Rema et al., 2022), and
management processes in the EU (Fikri Hasmori et al., 2020), encom- environmental benefits from the potential replacement of primary ma-
passing not only recycling processes but also selective waste collection terials with waste in construction works (Jaskowska-Lemańska et al.,
and other elements of return supply chains. The concept of circularity in 2022; Pradhan and Tiwari, 2023; Wałach and Mach, 2023). The domi-
construction waste management has become an EU economic develop- nance of environmental issues often overshadows economic and social
ment strategy, presenting society with a multidimensional and inter- analyses (Gherman et al., 2023). Therefore, effective management of
disciplinary challenge that must be considered at various levels. In CDW sector waste should aim not only to minimize environmental

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Sagan), [email protected] (A. Mach).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144363
Received 3 July 2024; Received in revised form 15 November 2024; Accepted 29 November 2024
Available online 30 November 2024
0959-6526/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J. Sagan and A. Mach Journal of Cleaner Production 486 (2025) 144363

impact but also to broadly consider other aspects. The area related to (Kordi et al., 2022) identified 9 main categories and several sub-
social issues deserves further research and a balanced approach to categories for this issue (Fig. 1). Therefore, social assessment is a
effectively address the challenges posed by construction waste man- multifaceted process dependent on the adopted perspective, making the
agement (Zhao et al., 2022). This also requires the development of evaluation more challenging due to the difficulty in expressing some of
guidelines, including categories and indicators for assessing these as- its indicators quantitatively (Radziejowska and Sobotka, 2020).
pects (Elshaboury et al., 2022). Additionally, the authors’ previous The PN-EN 15643:2021–11 standard (Polish Committee for Stan-
research has focused on economic(Sobotka and Sagan, 2016), opera- dardization, 2021) provides categories of social assessment indicators,
tional (Sobotka and Sagan, 2021a) and environmental issues (Sagan and among which the impact on the neighborhood, category is particularly
Sobotka, 2021; Sobotka and Sagan, 2017). In order to thoroughly important for construction processes including waste management. This
examine the topic of waste management at construction sites in line with category is characterized by the following indicators: noise, substance
the concept of sustainable development, a need to address a knowledge emissions, vibrations and shocks, glare, and shallow effects. A signifi-
gap related to social aspects was identified. This aspect is also important cant portion of these indicators are also classified as harmful factors in
from the perspective of construction entities, as reporting irregularities the work environment (Sagan, 2018). Specifically, noise from con-
to the Provincial Environmental Protection Inspectorates (PEPI) leads to struction processes is notably troublesome (Zou et al., 2020). The main
increased scrutiny of the entire project. Identifying key nuisances in sources of noise on construction sites are impact machines (e.g., devices
CDW management and implementing preventive measures will reduce for breaking concrete), earth-moving machines and pile drivers (Jiang
the risk of inspections and bring direct social benefits. et al., 2020). According to statistical data, approximately 41% of com-
The aim of this study is to analyze the impact of construction waste plaints pertain to noise and vibrations caused by jackhammers, and 23%
management processes on the communities neighboring the operational by other construction machinery (cranes, excavators, trucks, etc.)
sites. The study analyzed complaints filed by individuals to the Pro- (Chernyuk et al., 2021). Noise assessment is regulated by law, e.g., the
vincial Environmental Protection Inspectorate (PEPI) nationwide (Sec- EU directive on the assessment and management of environmental noise
tion 4). Additionally, a correlation analysis was conducted between the (European Commission, 2002).
complaints in various voivodeships of Poland and the number and type In construction projects, more attention is often given to safety issues
of construction projects for which building permits were issued. Using than to health (Liu et al., 2021). Air pollution, however, poses a serious
Lean management tools (Ishikawa diagrams), the study explored the threat to human health. Inhaling suspended particulate matter (PM) in
possibilities of reducing the impact of construction waste management the air can lead to long-term respiratory diseases and increase the risk of
processes on local communities by identifying the causes of irregular- premature death (Apte et al., 2018). Exposure to construction dust pri-
ities and proposing preventive actions (Section 5). The publication in- marily occurs through inhalation and skin contact. Significant amounts
cludes a literature review (Section 2), which allowed for an expanded of dust particles, which pose a threat to both construction workers and
discussion in Section 5. The adopted research methodology is described nearby residents, can be generated during construction activities. The
in Section 3. groups most exposed to dust are workers, surrounding residents, con-
struction managers and truck drivers (Wang M. et al., 2023).
2. Literature review

2.2. Social aspect in CDW management – background

2.1. Social aspect in civil engineering - background

In scientific publications concerning Construction and Demolition

Regarding construction works, many factors can be identified that
Waste, authors consider various factors that full under social aspect –
fall within the area related to social aspect. The very definition of social
Table 1 (Arroyo and Gonzalez, 2016). The categories used in the analysis
aspects is presented differently by various authors (Gurmu et al., 2022).
of social factors depend on the subject and purpose of the analysis, as
The definition emphasizes numerous evaluation dimensions, including
well as the group of people exposed to the given factor. The impact of
Quality of life, Ecological, Health & Safety Security, Cultural Diversity
waste recovery processes on society can be considered from the
and End of Life Responsibility. They also consider the perspective of
perspective of the health and safety of workers, as well as those in close
multiple participants, including the local community, employees, and
proximity (Wu et al., 2022).
other stakeholders involved in the project. The authors of the study
Beyond the aforementioned factors, issues related to toxic substances

Fig. 1. Categories of social impact assessment in construction processes. Adapted from (Kordi et al., 2022).

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Table 1 exposed to improper CDW disposal in Brazil were identified based on

Social aspects considered in various analyses. their characteristics and spatial analysis.
Analyzed social aspects Source

Public health and safety risks. (Beatrix et al., 2024; Tafesse 2.3. CDW management strategies
Traffic congestion. et al., 2022)
Flooding due to blockages by waste debris.
Disagreement between construction parties. Policies and practices regarding CDW are critical issues to consider in
Losing reputability and causing conflicts with the the context of the efficiency of the construction sector (Kabirifar et al.,
community. 2020). The strong focus on environmental aspects frequently leaves
Disease-associated with high levels of air
social dimensions underexplored (Gherman et al., 2023). Due to the
pollutants.
Employment impact. Wu et al. (2022) recognized impact of human behavior and attitudes on the effectiveness
Gaseous pollutants. Wang L. et al. (2023) of CDW management, there is a growing body of research focusing on
Particulate matter. this area (Hao et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2017). The literature also high-
Noise. Sobotka and Sagan (2021b) lights the significant influence of legal regulations on the efficiency of
Pollination.
CDW management (Yu et al., 2022). The social dimension, warrants
Health impacts (nano-particulates) on local Oliveira et al. (2019)
residents and waste workers. further investigation, requiring a balanced approach to address the
Labor practices. Brum et al. (2021) multifaceted challenges posed by CDW management (Zhao et al., 2022).
Urban space consumption. Iodice et al. (2021) Additionally, there is a need to establish guidelines, including frame-
Odor.
works for categorizing and measuring these aspects (Elshaboury et al.,
Landscape Disamenities.
Total Employment. 2022). For example, studies by (Gedik, 2020) present methods that
Occupational Health. could serve as an incentive for road administrations to develop new
technical specifications and guidelines for CDW recycling, such guide-
lines should also address social aspects.
from construction materials also deserve attention. Improper disposal This work serves as a contribution to filling the identified gap and
can lead these substances to contaminate water or soil. Additionally, aims to identify the social nuisances associated with CDW management
unpleasant odors from waste disposal sites can be problematic for on construction sites. Complaints regarding nuisances are perceived by
nearby communities (Al Zulayq et al., 2021). Some CDW contains sub- construction companies as a source of potential regulatory risk, which,
stances that make them hazardous, such as waste containing asbestos, in turn, complicates project execution (Hussain et al., 2023; AEI Con-
mineral fibers, certain paints and resins (Przydatek et al., 2022). In most sultants). The social aspect also constitutes a component of ESG (Envi-
cases, these materials are relatively safe during use but become haz- ronmental, Social, and Governance) assessment (Cruz et al., 2023), and
ardous when damaged, spilled or otherwise released (Quaranta et al., thus, complaints will negatively impact the company’s evaluation.
2010). There are also groups of waste that while not inherently Consequently, this study conducts an analysis of potential measures to
dangerous, can react to produce toxic substances, e.g., plasterboards, mitigate nuisances in the form of a set of guidelines for both construction
which can produce hydrogen sulfide when co-disposed with small entities and government institutions.
amounts of biological material. A well-known issue is asbestos which
despite being banned in most countries, still poses a health threat and
3. Methodology
causes 250,000 deaths annually (Cook et al., 2022). Moreover, accord-
ing to Szymańska and Lewandowska (2019), the public has relatively
To specify the types and assess the degree of nuisance caused by
low awareness of the dangers arising from improper asbestos disposal
waste management processes on construction sites, letters were sent
procedures and its harmful impact on health and life.
requesting information on the number and types of complaints submit-
When analyzing social aspects, improper or illegal waste manage-
ted by individuals regarding waste management processes at construc-
ment practices can also be considered, as they can affect the comfort and
tion sites. In Poland, there are 16 PEPI, responsible for overseeing and
health of nearby residents. These practices include dumping waste in
controlling compliance with environmental protection regulations and
unauthorized areas, mixing waste with municipal waste, burying waste,
monitoring the state of the natural environment. All PEPI units
disposing into watercourses and burning (Brycht, 2020; Sapuay, 2016).
responded to the request. The analysis encompassed complaints sub-
A commonly observed practice is the reuse of CDW for low-value ap-
mitted from the beginning of 2021 to the end of September 2023. A total
plications (downcycling) (Helbig et al., 2022), such as backfilling ma-
of 532 complaints from 16 Provincial Environmental Protection In-
terial or low-quality aggregates for road construction (Di Maria et al.,
spectorates (PEPI) were analyzed. The complaints were reported with
2020). These same materials can be used for purposes with higher added
varying degrees of detail and described in diverse ways by the PEPI. Data
value potential, e.g., high-quality aggregates for road surfaces (Gedik,
from 14 provinces (344 complaints) were sufficiently detailed to allow
2020; Giwangkara et al., 2019) or soil reinforcement (Mach and Wałach,
thematic grouping and frequency assessment, ultimately identifying
2024).
four main categories of nuisances. The Pareto-Lorenza diagram was
The literature also includes studies on illegal waste dumps (Wong
employed to identify the most frequent causes of complaints reported by
et al., 2019). The authors in (Yuan et al., 2023) conducted a DEMATEL
individuals.
analysis identifying critical factors contributing to the creation of illegal
To investigate the significant variation in the number of submissions,
waste dumps. In the study by (Quaglio and Arana, 2020), the main areas
the analysis first examined the correlation between the number of

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complaints and the number of building permits issued in the year pre- construction waste, burying waste, and illegal dumpsites (25%),
ceding the complaint submission (Inspectorate of Building Supervision, improper waste management on construction sites (25%) and vibra-
2021; Inspectorate of Building Supervision, 2022; Inspectorate of tions, noise, and dust (19%). The next group (pink) comprises causes
Building Supervision, 2023). The same analysis was conducted consid- that together account for the next 25% of submissions, totaling 94% of
ering only permits for road infrastructure projects. This approach stems all complaints. This category includes storing waste in inappropriate
from the unique characteristics of road projects, which often have locations (12%), using waste for filling water tanks, road repairs, etc.
extensive spatial reach and are easily observable due to the absence of (8%), and improper handling of hazardous waste (5%). The last category
construction site fencing and proximity to residential areas. Addition- includes less significant causes, which together account for only 6% of
ally, due to their linear nature, these projects often intersect various submissions.
functional zones and existing road routes, potentially leading to diverse According to the Pareto principle, corrective actions should pri-
environmental impacts. marily focus on the causes from the first group (purple). Improvements
In the subsequent sections of this paper, the term ’construction ob- in these areas will yield the greatest effect in reducing the number of
ject’, excludes detached houses. construction-related complaints.
The correlation analysis utilized Pearson’s linear correlation coeffi- The results indicate the need for increased control and oversight of
cient (Ręklewski, 2020) rxy, which measures the relationship between waste handling processes and measures aimed at minimizing the nega-
variables x (number of building permits) and y (number of complaints in tive impact of construction sites on the surrounding environment.
a given province), in the form of detailed series.
4.2. Analysis of Nuisance dependency on the Intensity of construction
4. To conduct an analysis of the potential for reducing the works carried out in the region
impact of construction waste management processes on the local
community, the lean management tool – Ishikawa diagrams In this study, a geographical analysis of complaints was conducted
(Fishbone diagram) complaint analysis (Fig. 3a). The highest number of complaints was recorded in the
lubelskie, śląskie and lubuskie voivodeships, while the lowest or no
4.1. Types and frequency of complaints complaints were recorded in the malopolskie, dolnośląskie, kujawsko-
pomorskie and świętokrzyskie voivodeships.
Based on data obtained from 14 provinces, complaints were aggre- To investigate the cause of the significant variation in the number of
gated into four main categories and 12 subcategories (Table 2). complaints, the correlation between the number of complaints and the
The analysis of construction-related complaints following the Pareto number of building permits issued in the year preceding the complaint
principle (Fig. 2) indicates that the majority of complaints (69%; purple) was analyzed first. Fig. 3b shows the number of building permits issued
originate from three causes (25%). These include the abandonment of in the years 2020–2022 in individual voivodeships and the number of

Table 2
Summary of complaints.
Category Id. Subcategory Number of Description of Complaints in the Category
Reports

Environmental 1a Odor Nuisance 3 Nuisances related to waste processing in inappropriate locations, waste burning, and
Nuisance 1b Vibrations, noise, dust 65 processes such as crushing rubble, sewer pipes, wooden pallets, and recovering copper
from cables
Safety Hazards 2a Improper handling of hazardous waste 18 Improper handling of hazardous waste (mercury, asbestos) and inadequate protection of
2b Improper secured accumulated waste 3 accumulated waste during transport and against atmospheric factors
Environmental 3a Use of waste for filling water tanks, road 28 Assessment of the harmfulness of waste recovery processes (downcycling) on the
Pollution repairs, etc. environment (soil, water)
3b Improper waste management on 85 Mainly contamination from construction sites with light fractions of waste that spread,
construction sites (contamination of the such as styrofoam, foil
area)
3c Discharging construction wastewater into 4 Assessment of water and soil pollution from construction wastewater
rivers, forests
3d Abandonment of construction waste, 86 Interventions concerning "wild dumpsites"
burying waste and illegal dumpsites
3e Storing waste in inappropriate location 42 Storing waste on the road verge or adjacent plots
Legal Violations 4a Failure to maintain waste records 4 Lack of waste records in the ministerial Waste Data Database, handing over waste to
4b Non-compliance with environmental 2 entities lacking appropriate administrative decisions for collecting or processing the
decisions given type of waste
4c Handling over waste to unauthorized 4
recipients, mixing with municipal waste

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Fig. 2. Pareto-Lorenza diagram.

road construction projects in a given region. The highest number of is necessary due to the limited amount of data and the short analyzed
permits for building objects, both overall and for road objects, is found period.
in the małopolskie, wielkopolskie, and mazowieckie voivodeships. An interesting observation is the inverse correlation coefficient,
The comparison of the number of complaints and the number of which may be caused by the community "getting used to" construction
building permits is presented in Fig. 4. processes and the resulting nuisance. Undoubtedly, the analysis should
The values of the correlation coefficient for the analyzed cases are be deepened in the area of the mentality of the population of a given area
presented in Table 3. or the types and methods of construction works, which, however, is a
In the case of the correlation analysis for the whole country in in- side issue of this study and will not be continued in this publication, but
dividual years, the existing correlations are so weak that it is impossible constitutes a direction for further research.
to draw clear conclusions about causality between these variables. For
linear objects, a consistent tendency can be observed for the number of 5. Analysis of the possibilities of reducing the impact of
complaints to decrease as the number of building permits increases. construction waste Management’s processes on the local
Correlation coefficients in individual voivodeships for linear objects community Using Lean management tools
mainly assume positive values (9 out of 15 analyzed), among which
those with a very high degree of correlation (MZ, ŚK, OP, WM, PM– 5.1. Ishikawa diagram
acronyms according to the explanation in Fig. 4) predominate.
Similarly, when all building objects were analyzed, the indices The analysis of the possibilities of reducing the impact of waste
indicating strong or very strong correlation prevailed, but in this case, management processes on the local community began with the creation
negative values dominated (9 out of 15), indicating an inverse propor- of a cause-and-effect diagram shown in Fig. 5. Quantitative analysis
tionality between the number of complaints and the number of newly shows that most of the causes of nuisance are in the area of external
built objects. environmental factors, over which the construction company has no
It is worth noting that the presented results show some discrepancies direct control. A relatively large number of factors are also found in the
between the analysis at the national level and the local level analysis. In areas of methods and people, and it is the improvement of these two
the national analysis, values indicating an inverse proportionality be- areas that seems to be the opportunity to reduce the impact of external
tween the number of issued permits and the number of reported com- factors by choosing the right waste management methods, developing
plaints for road objects prevailed, while in the local analysis, positive procedures, and fostering appropriate attitudes among employees.
values dominated. The same situation occurred for building objects. Slightly fewer factors were identified in the area of materials and ma-
Moreover, there are significant differences in correlation between chines, mainly in the area of tools for processing and collecting waste.
different voivodeships for the analysis of objects. Some regions show a In the next step, the analysis of nuisance causes was deepened and
very strong positive correlation, while others may have weaker or even enriched with proposals for corrective actions (subchapters
oppositely directed relationships, which may indicate a regional de- 5.2.1–5.2.4).
pendency of the phenomenon. The local characteristics of voivodeships
may influence the dynamics of the relationship between the number of
complaints and the number of issued permits. Further in-depth analysis

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Fig. 3. The number of a) complaints regarding construction waste b) building permits.

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Fig. 4. The relationship between the number of construction permits for a) linear objects b) building objects and the number of complaints in various provinces.

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Table 3
Correlation Coefficients.

*rxy20/21 – correlation coefficient between the number of building permits (…) in 2020, and the number of complaints in 2021.
**rxy21/22 – correlation coefficient between the number of building permits (…) in 2021, and the number of complaints in 2022.
***rxy22/23 – correlation coefficient between the number of building permits (…) in 2022 and the number of complaints in 2023.
****acronyms according to the explanation in Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. Cause-and-effect diagram of on-site CDW management irregularities.

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5.2. Analysis of the possibilities of reducing Nuisance factors performance of barriers depends on their shape, material type, texture,
and site placement (Laxmi et al., 2022).
5.2.1. General recommendations Dust monitoring equipment is available on the market, and studies
Nuisances analyzed from a social perspective have a profound show that even low-cost sensors yield satisfactory results (Cheriyan and
impact on the health, work, and life comfort of employees and the local Choi, 2020). Major dust control measures include local exhaust venti-
community. In line with the adopted EU economic development stra- lation (LEV), blowers (respirators), personal protective equipment (dust
tegies, construction processes, including waste management, should be masks), and wet methods (spraying system and manual watering) (Tao
carried out with respect for the natural environment and the local et al., 2022). Additionally, dust barriers are also an effective means of
community (Sagan and Sobotka, 2021; Schützenhofer et al., 2022; protecting areas adjacent to dust sources (Ivanov and Strizhenok, 2021).
Zhang et al., 2022). Therefore, it is worth focusing on preventive ac-
tions. Undoubtedly, in every analyzed problem, the role of education for 5.2.3. Environmental pollution
all participants in the investment process is of great importance. In the The foundation for effective waste management on construction sites
study (Jiménez-Rivero et al., 2017) all workers (gypsum plasterboard (to avoid undesirable behaviors) is the development of a waste man-
installers) agreed that training in the segregation and storage of CDW is agement plan that includes: an analysis of construction processes from
of high importance or fundamental. the perspective of waste generation, waste classification according to
Educational activities can include monitoring programs and training applicable legal regulations, segregation methods, local (on-site) storage
conducted by public authorities. The effectiveness of implementing such methods, selection of waste recovery methods or choice of their recip-
practices has been confirmed by studies based on monitoring progress ient, and a schedule of waste management activities.
and evaluating the results of actions taken by micro and small con- Waste removal should be conducted in a way that minimizes scatter
struction companies in CDW management. The results showed an and secondary dusting. Proper organization of the construction site ac-
overall positive trend of increasing awareness and improving practices cording to an established "Construction Site Development Plan" signifi-
in CDW management among participants (Ramos et al., 2023). cantly impacts maintaining order. Waste collection and removal zones
Vocational education conducted as part of studies or vocational should be appropriately fenced and marked, in compliance with appli-
schools with a construction profile should not be underestimated. It cable standards for informational and warning signs.
influences later professional practices. Only 2 out of 10 surveyed uni- Each construction site must designate individuals responsible for
versities in Poland include subjects directly related to construction waste waste cleaning and specify the frequency of this process. Adequate
issues in the curriculum for the first-degree course in Civil Engineering. quantities and locations of waste containers should be provided, and
The lack of inclusion of this issue in educational programs may lead to individuals/entities responsible for emptying them should be desig-
insufficient preparation of future construction specialists and their low nated. In work areas, smaller containers are recommended (Lindhard
awareness of challenges related to waste management. et al., 2023). Hiring specialized waste management companies is also
Undoubtedly, financial instruments are one of the main mechanisms worth considering (Villoria Sáez et al., 2019).
for improving CDW managements (Peixoto et al., 2020). Therefore, their Waste containers should be adapted to the type and quantity of
application should be considered in parallel with educational programs. stored waste. Solutions include construction containers, Big-Bag sacks,
These instruments should include both sanctions for non-compliance bulk waste collection, steel baskets, pallets (for valuable reusable
(financial fines, as well as exclusion from public procurement), and waste), and construction chutes.
incentive systems (Jiménez-Rivero et al., 2017), such as scoring or Technologies such as GIS, GPS, and RFID, increasingly used in
additional criteria in public tenders. municipal waste management, like smart waste containers that monitor
the fractions disposed of and signal the need for emptying, significantly
5.2.2. Nuisance to the environment facilitate proper waste storage processes. In the construction sector, the
Noise and vibration emissions during construction works depend on use of modern technologies in waste management is still insufficient (Jin
the type and amount of equipment used, as well as the type of material et al., 2019) and the application of full digitization is still in the early
being processed. It is necessary to pay attention to the maintenance of stages of development (Liu et al., 2022).
construction equipment, as its degradation can result in higher noise and Regarding the phenomenon of illegal dumping (‘fly-tipping’), pre-
vibration levels (Quieter Equipment, Maintenance, Modifying Existing ventive measures include publicizing incidents to discourage such
Old Equipment) (Zou et al., 2020). Where possible, the quietest equip- behavior, strengthening supervision and corrective measures, and
ment available should be used. Generally, electrically powered equip- enforcing responsibility from the main contractor (Bains et al., 2019).
ment is quieter than diesel-powered equipment, and hydraulically Transport models monitoring the logistics of waste transfer and trans-
powered equipment is quieter than pneumatic equipment. Modification port processes can also provide solutions (Wang and Yi, 2023).
possibilities for equipment include the use of damping materials, such as
mufflers for the operator’s cabin or exhaust system replacements. 5.2.4. Safety
To minimize environmental impact, construction schedules that In the context of safely handling hazardous waste, preventive mea-
could cause high levels of noise and vibration should be planned wisely sures to minimize risks to human health and the environment are
(Work Activity Scheduling), avoiding the simultaneous use of multiple particularly important. An example of such measures includes those
high-emission devices (Mir et al., 2022). Such works should be carried used during the removal of asbestos-containing products (Gualtieri,
out during the day to avoid disturbing residents and subjecting them to 2013). Isolation and securing the work area are crucial steps in mini-
excessive vibrations. Proper adjustment of workplaces is essential to mizing the risk of asbestos emission into the environment. Protective
limit exposure time to harmful emissions. Relocating workers from tasks covers should be used, and access by unauthorized persons should be
generating higher noise and vibration to those with lower exposure can restricted by fencing off the work area, maintaining a safe distance from
minimize daily exposure, allowing for adherence to safety standards. communication routes. Safe removal and dismantling play a significant
Attention to ergonomic workstation and equipment settings to minimize role in preventing asbestos dusting. Wetting materials with water before
vibration transmission to the worker’s body is crucial. Additionally, dismantling and dismantling without damaging the materials are key
noisy equipment should not be operated for longer than necessary, and practices. Additionally, air quality monitoring should be conducted if
night-time construction work should be prohibited, especially in densely permissible concentrations of asbestos dust are exceeded (United Na-
populated areas (Zou et al., 2020). tions Development Programme).
Another effective noise reduction measure is the use of acoustic
screens (Amarilla et al., 2021; Iannace et al., 2021). The acoustic

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5.2.5. Legal regulations operations of construction companies. This study identifies factors/ac-
Knowledge of legal regulations is a key element to ensuring tions that enable the reduction of nuisances related to CDW (Construc-
compliance, the main regulations conditioning the issue include Con- tion and Demolition Waste) management. The key factors include:
struction Law Act (Parliament of the Republic of Poland, 1994), Waste establishing a dedicated organizational unit for CDW management
Act (Parliament of the Republic of Poland, 2013), Environmental Pro- – overseeing and managing waste processes on construction sites and
tection Law Act (Parliament of the Republic of Poland, 2001) as well as obtaining the necessary permits for waste collection or processing
related acts, such as Environmental Noise Protection Program (Ministry (developing and implementing a CDW management plan, ensuring
of Climate and Environment, 2021), Requirements for Waste Storage appropriate containers for waste collection, and ensuring the safe
(Ministry of Climate, 2020) and others. However, in Poland, there are handling of hazardous waste); educational initiatives on waste
currently problems with the clear interpretation of the Waste Act segregation and disposal – changes in academic and vocational school
(Parliament of the Republic of Poland, 2013) and related regulations, curricula, as well as training organized by construction entities (internal
leading to abuses resulting from ambiguities that are often resolved by training) or public authorities as part of efforts to support synergies
administrative courts. In case of doubts about the interpretation of the between economic processes and society; a system of governmental
law, a construction company can use the free support of an on-call sanctions and incentives – sufficiently high penalties for failing to
inspector from the local PEPI responsible for supervising projects in comply with CDW management obligations (financial penalties, exclu-
the area. sion from bidding for public contracts) and effective incentives
It is important to define and regulate roles and responsibilities in (rewarding the development of a CDW management plan and adherence
construction waste management, ensuring clarity and understanding to it during project implementation); minimizing the nuisances of
among all stakeholders (Mach et al., 2023). In many countries, industry noise and dust related to CDW during the planning stage of con-
organizations aim to consult on construction waste management issues struction – selecting appropriate work technologies (including equip-
and promote regulatory consistency (Bains et al., 2019). ment selection) and shaping the work schedule considering the exposure
Due to the long time required to obtain permits for waste collection of the surroundings to noise and dust, as well as the use of protective
and processing, if needed, a construction company should apply for barriers and monitoring systems. Implementing the aforementioned
permits during the project preparation phase. Preparing the application actions into economic practice will contribute to reducing the negative
is time-consuming, but the company may have a set of template docu- impact of waste management processes on the environment. Synergy
ments that only need customization, reducing the time and cost of their between government institutions, construction companies, and the local
preparation. To better assess whether additional permits are needed, a community may contribute to more effective management of waste
waste management plan should be prepared during the construction processes on construction sites. This integrated management model has
production organization phase (Saad et al., 2022). This is particularly the potential to impact the long-term protection of the environment and
important for projects that significantly or potentially significantly the health of local communities. Further research directions may also
impact the environment (Islam et al., 2024), for which changes in the include the analysis of the correlation and impact of changes in legal
permit are especially cumbersome and time-consuming. regulations and the increasing emphasis on construction waste issues on
Maintaining waste records in the ministerial system (BDO – waste the assessment of waste management processes’ nuisances on the local
database) (“Database on products and packaging and waste manage- community. Synergy between government institutions, construction
ment (in Polish),” 2024) is time-consuming, and the dispersed structure companies, and the local community can contribute to better manage-
of a construction organization further complicates maintaining ment of waste processes on construction sites. The results and conclu-
up-to-date waste records, which is required by the Waste Act. However, sions establish a foundation for the development of an integrated
there are applications on the market that support this process (BDO management model that could positively influence long-term environ-
manager), including complete automation of the processes. mental protection and the health of local communities. Future research
The problem of transferring waste to unauthorized entities is not directions could include analyzing the correlation and impact of legal
always due to calculated actions; it often results from a lack of knowl- changes and increased emphasis on construction waste issues on the
edge of legal regulations. The ministerial system does not have complete perceived nuisance of waste management processes on local
and reliable information on the current decisions of entities. The solu- communities.
tion seems to be the rule that when signing contracts for waste transfer, The analysis revealed no clear correlation between the number of
the entity’s decision for waste collection, transport, or processing, whose construction projects and the number of complaints related to con-
validity and scope will be monitored, should be attached as an annex to struction waste management processes on construction sites. Therefore,
the contract. it cannot be concluded that social sensitivity to irregularities and nui-
sances associated with CDW management is linked to the number of
6. Summary and conclusions ongoing projects. More precise statistics reflecting the exact number of
construction sites might provide more representative results, but such
The study analyzed 344 social complaints submitted over a three- data were not available to the authors of this analysis. It is also impor-
year period (2020–2022) across 14 voivodeships, which were grouped tant to note that the data pertain to reported complaints, which does not
into 12 categories of nuisance. The analysis, based on the Pareto prin- mean that all of them were verified. Additionally, some complaints
ciple, shows that the majority of complaints (69%) stem from just three might stem from individual experiences or perspectives, influencing the
main causes (25% of total issues). These include the abandonment of subjectivity of the reported nuisances. Furthermore, not all cases of vi-
construction waste, burying waste, and illegal dumpsites (25%); olations or irregularities may be reported and might instead be resolved
improper waste management on construction sites (25%); and nuisances amicably. It is important to emphasize that some nuisances have un-
such as vibrations, noise, and dust (19%). Similar examples are doubtedly not been reported due to the existing barriers, such as lack of
mentioned in studies addressing irregularities and illegal actions time, engagement, fear, or lack of knowledge about the relevant au-
(Brycht, 2020; Sapuay, 2016). thorities to which complaints should be directed. These factors should be
Analyzing collected complaints can stimulate corrective actions, considered when interpreting the results and conclusions drawn from
including regulatory improvements, increased oversight, and enhanced the analysis. It is highlighted that the analysis presented in this study
employee training. The analysis of collected complaints may stimulate primarily addresses the nuisances reported by individuals, rather than
corrective actions, including improvements to legal regulations, evaluating their actual impact on the community (e.g., health, comfort).
increased oversight by the Provincial Environmental Protection This distinction clearly indicates a significant avenue for future research.
Inspectorate (PEPI), and the implementation of remedial actions in the An interesting observation is the inverse correlation, which might be

10
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