SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry: It is a branch of science, which deals with occurrence composition,

preparations, properties,uses, structure of matter and their transformations.
Matter: Any thing which occupies space, which has mass.
Constituents of matter: Atoms and molecules are basic constituents of matter.
Branches of chemistry:
1) Organic chemistry: Study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
2) Inorganic chemistry: Study of compounds other than carbon compounds.
3) Physical chemistry: Study of laws and theories to explain properties of
compounds.
4) Biochemistry: Study of chemical reaction brought by enzymes (Biological
process)
5) Analytical chemistry: Study of qualitative and quantitative analysis of
various substances.
6) Industrial Chemistry: Study of chemistry involved in industrial processes.
7) Nuclear Chemistry : Study of nuclear reactions.
Importants of Chemistry:Chemistry plays an important role in daily life. Some of
major contribution of chemistry to the life are
a) Medicines: Modern chemical discoveries done a lot to eradicate diseases
and to improve health.
Ex: Taxol and cisplatin used in cancer therapy. Azidothymidine for AIDS
victims etc.
b) In industries: Chemistry plays an important role in the manufacture of
rayons, decrons, teflons, paints, varnishes, cement, glass, ceramics and
extraction of metals etc.
c) Chemistry in agriculture: The contribution of chemistry in the field of
agriculture is the use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and preservatives.
d) Chemistry in comfort, convenience and pleasure: In daily life chemistry
contributes lot to the happiness of man. So it helps us in getting domestic
requirements, air conditioning and films made by celluloid coated with
suitable materials etc.
e) Chemistry and energy resources: Energy resources in the world are being
exhausted at a fast rate. So chemist utilise nuclear and solar energy for our
requirements and in future hydrogen from seawater (inexhaustible).
But we have big environmental problems and synthesis of new exotic
materials from the production of chemicals by enzymes are some of
intellectual challenges for future generation chemists, so a developing
country like India need talented and creative chemists to accepting
challenges.
Nature of Matter:We know that anything which occupies space which has mass
called matter.
Ex: Water, air, metals etc.

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Classification of matter: Based on physical state, matter is of three types.
1) Solids: These are substances, which have definite shape and volume. Ex:
stone.
2) Liquids: These are substances, which have no definite shape but they have
definite volume. Ex: Milk
3) Gases: These are substances neither have definite shape nor have definite
volume. Ex:- O2, N2, etc
In solids, particles are arranged in ordered manner ie closely packed and they
have less freedom of movement. In liquids, particles are closed to each other and
can move around.But in gases, particles are for apart and can move freely.
These three can be interconverted one another by changing temperature

Solids ⎯ ⎯ → ⎯h⎯eat→
h eat
⎯⎯liquids ⎯⎯ gases
cool cool

Based on chemical composition: Based on this, matter is of two types.

1) Pure substances (2) mixtures
Pure substances are of two types
1) Elements: These are substances, which cannot decomposes into two or
more substances by ordinary chemical method.
Ex: Nitrogen, carbon etc
2) Compounds: These are substances, which can decomposes into two or more
simple substances by ordinary chemical method.
Ex: H2O, CH4, etc.
Mixtures: There are two types of mixtures
1) Homogeneous mixture: These are mixtures in which components
completely mixed with each other and its composition is uniform.
Ex: Sugar solution, air etc.
2) Heterogeneous mixture: These are mixtures, in which components donot
completely mixed with each other and its composition is not uniform
Ex: Salt and sugar.
Atoms: These are smallest particles of an elements, which cannot be further
divided.
Molecules: These are smallest particles of compounds

+
atom atom molecule

Properties of matter and their measurements:

Every substance has characteristic properties. There are two types properties of
matter.

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 1) Physical properties: These are properties, which can be measured with out
changing the composition of substance.
Ex: Colour, odour, melting point etc.
2) Chemical properties: These are properties, the measurement or
observation of these, requires a chemical change.
Ex: Combustibility, Neutralisation etc.
Measurements: Measurable properties of substances are called physical
quantities. There are many system to express physical quantities. They are C.G.S,
F.P.S, M.K.S and SI units. Among these, international system of units is a
common standard system to measure physical quantities, because it involves
seven base physical quantities.

Base Physical quantities Name of SI Units Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Derived physical quantities: These are quantities, which are derived from the
combination of base physical quantities and their units are derived units.
Ex: 1) Volume :- Volume = l  b  h
= (length)3
SI units of volume is m3
But we use smaller volume in laboratories, so we use cm3 or dm3 or litre
1 litre = 1000cm3 = 1000ml = 1 dm3
The solutions can be measured by using measuring cylinders and they can be
prepared by using volumetric flask.
mass
Density: It is the amount of mass in unit volume i,e Density = = kg / m3
volume
It is quite large, so we can use g/cm3
Temperature: There are three scales to measure temperature. They are (1) 0C (2)
0F (3) Kelvin

Relationship between degree Celsius & degree Fahrenheit

0
F=
9
5
( C) + 32
0

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Relation ship between 0C & Kelvin:
K = 0C +273
Temperature below O0C is possible but below OK is not possible

Prefixes for fractions and multiples in SI system

Fraction prefix

10–1
10–2 deci 10–12 pico
10–3 centi 10–15 femto
10–6 milli 10–18 atto
10–9 micro 10–21 zepto
nano 10–24 yocto

Multiples and prefixes:

10+1 deca 10+12 tera

10+2 hecto 10+15 peta
10+3 kilo 10+18 exa
10+6 mega 10+21 zetta
10+9 giga 10+24 yotta

Mass and weight:

Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it.
Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
Mass is constant & weight vary from place to place due to change in gravity.
 = mg
Mass can determined accurately by using analytical balance. SI unit of mass is kg.
But in laboratories use of chemicals is in smaller amount, so we can use gram.
Uncertainty in measurement:
In the study of chemistry, one has to deal with both experimental data and
theoretical calculations.These should be present realistically with certainty to the
extent possible with certain ideas.
1) Scientific notation: Chemistry is the study of atoms & molecules, which
have extremely low masses andlarge numbers.
Ex: 2g of hydrogen contains 6022000000000000000000000 molecules, and
mass of hydrogen atom is 0.00000000000000000000000166g. So there is
always difficulty in handling such numbers. This problem is solved by using
scientific notation for such numbers.

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 Scientific notation is a exponential notation in which any number can be
represented in the form of Nx10n .where N is a number between 1.000 to
9.999 and n is exponent having +ve and –ve values.
Example: 1) write 232508 in scientific notation ie 2.32508105
Write 0.000042 in scientific notation ie 4.2 10–5
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of scientific notations
1) Addition: Add these numbers 6.65  104&8.95103
6.65104 +8.95103 = 6.65104 + 0.895104
= (6.65+ 0.895)104
= 7.545  104
2) Subtraction: subtract 4.8  10-3 from 2.5  10–2

2.5  10–2 – 4.8  10–3 = 2.5 10–2 – 0.48  10–2

= ( 2.5 – 0.48) 10–2
= 2.02  10–2
3) Multiplication: Multiply the numbers 5.6 105and 6.9 108
5.6 105and 6.9 108 = (5.66.9)  105+18
= 38.64 1013
=3.864 1014

4) Division : Divide 2.7  10–3 by 5.5  104

2.7 10−3
2.7
=  10−3+−4 = 0.4909  10−7
5.5104 5.5
= 4.909 10−8

Significant figures:- Experimental measurement has some amount of

uncertainty. But one would like the results to be precise and accurate.
a) Precision: It is how closely the individual measurement agree with one
another.
b) Accuracy: It is how close the experimental measurement and exact value
are.
These two depends on measuring device and skill of the operator.
Ex: If the true value is 2.00g, if student „A‟ reports the result as 1.95g and 1.93g.
These are precise because they are close but not accurate.
If student „B‟ reports the result as 1.94g and 2.05g. These are neither precise nor
accurate.If student „C‟ reports 2.01g and 1.99g as the result, these are both
precise and accurate.
The magnitude of uncertainty depends on accuracy of the scale used. If centimeter
scale is used, and the length of the article is 14.6cm, in this measurement 14 is
certain and the last digit (six) is uncertain. Generally uncertainty would be ± 1 in
last digit.

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But convenient method of expressing the uncertainty in measurement in terms of
significant numbers.
Significant figures: It is the number of figures that are known with certainty plus
one that is uncertain, if it has uncertainty.
Rules to determine significant figures
1) All non zero digits are significant
Ex: 285cm, it has 3 significant figures
0.25ml, it has 2 significant figures
2) Zeros proceeding to non zero digit are not significant
Ex: 0.03, it has one significant figure
0.0052, it has two significant figures
3) Zeros between the two non zero digits are significant
Ex: 2.005, it has four significant figure
4) Zeros at the end are not significant, if thereis no decimal point.
Ex: 100, it has one significant figure
100. it has 3 significant figure
100.0, it has 4 significant figure
5) If the numbers are exact integral numbers such as 2 balls or 20 eggs, have
infinite significant figures.
These can be represented by writing infinite number of zero after decimal point.
i,e 2.00000
20.00000
6) If the numbers written in scientific notation, all digits are significant
Ex: 1.5  103,it has 2 significant figures
1.50 103,it has 3 significant figures
1.500 103,it has 4 significant figures
Calculation with significantion figures
1) Addition and subtraction: In addition & subtraction, final result should be
same number of decimal places as the number with minimum number of decimal
places.
Ex: 1) 35.52
10.3
45.82 ⎯⎯→45.8

Because 10.3 has least number of decimal places.

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Ex 2) 3.56
0.021
3.539 ⎯⎯→3.54

Because 3.56 has least number of decimal places.

Multiplication and division of significant figures:
In multiplication and division, the final result should be same number of
significant figure with least significant figures.
Ex: 2.5  1.25 = 3.125 = 3.1, because 3.1 has significant figure equal to least
significant figure 2.5.
5.27
Ex = 0.439 = 0.44 because 0.44 has significant figure equal to least significant
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figure 12.
Roundingoff:
1) If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than five, the proceeding number is
increased by one
Ex: 1.38(6) → 1.39
2) If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than five, the proceeding number is
not changed.
Ex: 4.33 (4) → 4.33
3) If the right most digit to be removed is five, the proceeding number is not
changed, if it is even and increased by one, if it is an odd number.

6.35 ⎯⎯→6.4
Ex:
6.25 ⎯⎯→6.2

Dimensional analysis :
There is a need to convert unit from one system to other. The method used is
called unit factor method or dimensional analysis.
Ex: A piece of metal is 3 inch long, what is its length in cm?
1 inch 2.54cm
From this, we can write = = 1.Both of these are unit factors
2.54cm 1 inch

2.54cm
 3 inch = 3 inch 
1 inch

 3 inch 2.54cm = 7.52cm

Ex: A jug contains 2 L milk, calculate its volume in m 3.
WKT 1 m = 100 cm
1m 100cm
From this = =1
100cm 1m

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 3
 1m 
To get m3,    =1 =1
3
100cm 
WKT 2L = 2  1000cm3
Multiplied it by the unit factor
3 1m3 2m3 −3 3
 21000 cm  = = 210 m
106 cm3 103

3) How many seconds in 2 days?

WKT 1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 min
& 1 min = 60 S
1day 1hour 1min
 = = =1
24hours 60 min 60s
24 hours 60 min 60s
2days = 2 days    = 172800s
1 day 1 hour 1 min

Law of chemical combinations: Formation of compounds from its elements

follows five basic laws.
1 law of conservation of mass: it states that “matter can neither be created nor
destroyed ie mass of the reactant is equal to mass of the product”.

C + O2 ⎯⎯→CO2
Ex :
12 + 32 ⎯⎯→44
2. Law of definite proportions or constant compositions: It states that “given
compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight”
Ex: pure water obtained from different sources such as river, well, sea etc always
contains hydrogen and oxygen combined together in the ratio 1:8 by mass
3. Law of multiple proportions: It states that “If two elements can combine to
form two or more products, the mass of one element combine with a fixed mass of
the other element are in the ratio of whole numbers.

Ex:
1
H + O 2 ⎯⎯→H O
2 2
2
2 +16 ⎯⎯→18

H2 + O2 ⎯⎯→H2O2
2 + 32 ⎯⎯→34

These reactions shows that, masses of oxygen which combines with fixed mass of
hydrogen is in the ratio 16:32 or 1:2

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Ex 2: In CO & CO2, the mass of oxygen combine with fixed mass of carbon is in
the ratio of 16:32 or 1:2, which is simple whole number ratio.
4. Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes: It states that “gases combine or
produced in a chemical reaction,they do so in a simple ratio by volume provided
all gases are at same temperature and pressure”. Or „Gases combining together,
they do so in volumes, which are in simple whole number ratio and also volume of
the product, if it is gas.‟
Ex: 100ml of hydrogen combine with 50 ml of oxygen to give 100ml of H2O
1
H2(g) + O2 g ⎯⎯→H2O (l)
2 ()
100 50 ⎯⎯→100

Thus volume of hydrogen and oxygen combine together is in ratio 100:50 ie 2:1
which is in simple whole number ratio.
5. Avogadro’s law: it states that “at same temperature and pressure, equal
volumes of gases should contain equal number of molecules”
Ex: 22400cm3 of any gases at same temperature and pressure contains
6.0221023 molecules
Daltons atomic theory of matter:
By observing law of chemical combinations, Jhon Dalton proposed atomic theory
of matter. So the postulates of atomic theory of matter are
1) Matter consists of individual atoms.
2) Atoms of a given element have identical properties and identical mass.
3) Compounds are formed, when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed
ratio.
4) Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms, that is mass neither be
created nor destroyed.
1
Atomic mass: it is the ratio of mass of one atom of an element to the th the
12
mass of 1 atom of C-12 isotope
mass of oneatom of an element
ie atomic mass=
1
th the mass of 1 atom of C −12 isotope
12
1
Note: 1) Amu= the mass of 1 atom of C-12 isotope
12
2) Standard isotope used to express atomic mass of an element is C-12 isotope
amu has been replaced by u. (united mass)
Average atomic mass:
If the elements exist in more than one isotopes, average atomic mass can be
computed.
Ex: If carbon has 98.892% of C-12, 1.108% of C-13 and 210–4 of C-14.

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The average atomic mass of carbon
= 0.9889212u+0.0110813.00335u+210–614.00317u =12.011u
Molecular mass: it is sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule
Ex: calculate the molecular mass of CH4.
12+4=16g
1
Molecular mass: it is the ratio of mass of 1 molecule of a compound to the th
12
the mass of one atom of C-12 isotope
mass of one moleculeof a compound
ie molecular mass =
1
th the mass of oneatom of C −12 isotope
12
Formula mass:
Some substances does not exist as a single entity, so the formula (NaCl) does not
represent a molecule but it represents ratio of ions. ie formula unit. So formula
mass of NaCl = 23.0u+35.5u=58.5u.
Mole : It is the amount of substance, that contains Avogadro‟s number of particles
ie 6.0221023
Avogadro’s number: it is equal to number of particles present in 12 g of carbon
12 isotope
Atomic mass = 1 mole, molecular mass = formula mass = 1 mole
atomic mass weight
Mass of an atom = mole = in elements
avogadros number At. mass
molecular mass weight
Mass of molecule = mole = in compounds
avogadros number mol. mass
Molar mass: mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called molar mass.
Ex: 12g of carbon is molar mass of carbon, molar mass of NaCl = 58.5g
Gram molar volume: It states that, one mole of any gas is found to occupy a
volume of 22.4 dm3 at STP”
It mean mass of 22400cm3 of CO2 at STP = 44= molecular mass= 6.0221023
molecules.
Percentage composition:
total mass of an element 100
Mass % of an element :
molar mass of compound

Ex: calculate the % of carbon, Hydrogen & oxygen in C6H12O6

10
 72 100
%C = = 40%
180
12 100
%H = = 6.66%
180
96 100
%O = = 53.33%
180
Empirical formula and molecular formula
Empirical formula is the simplest formula, which indicates relative number of
atoms present in a compound
Ex: Empirical formula of benzene is CH [ CH(1:1)]
6 6

CH3 COOH is CH2O

Molecular formula: it is an integral multiple of empirical formula
ie MF = n  EF
By knowing EF and molar mass or EF and vapour density, molecular formula can
be calculated.
Note: VD  2 = molar mass
Problem: Calculate the empirical formula and molecular formula if compound
contains 40%C, 6.7% hydrogen and rest being oxygen and molar mass found to be
180.
Rules & calculation of empirical formula:
1) Divide the ratio by their atomic masses
Number of number of number 40 6.7 53.3
=: :
C : H : of O 12 1 16
= 3.33 : 6.7 : 3.33
2) Divide the number by there small number & the simple ratio represents EF
3.33 6.7 3.33
= = :
3.33 3.33 3.33
= 1: 2.01:1
= 1: 2 :1
EF = CH2O

Calculation of MF:MF = n  CH2O

 n (CH2O) = 180
30n=180
n=6
 MF = 6  CH2O = C6H12O6
Stoichiometry:It is a branch of chemistry, which deals with calculation of masses
and volumes of reactant and products involved in a chemical reactions.
Ex: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ⎯⎯→CO2(g) + 2H2O(g). It shows that 16g or 22.4L or 1molecule or
1mole of CH4 reacts with 2 mole or 64 g or 44.8L or 2 molecule of oxygen forms 1

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mole or 44g or 22.4L or 1 molecule of CO2 and 2 mole or 44.8L or 2 molecule or
36g of H2O.
Limiting reagent: The reactant which gets completely consumed and limits the
amount of product formed is called limiting reagent.
Ex: 112g of nitrogen combines with 6g of hydrogen forms ammonia, calculate the
NH3 formed, and identity the limiting reagent.
1mole
112g of nitrogen = 112 g  = 4mol
28 g
1mole
6g of hydrogen = 6 g  = 3mol
2g

Formation of NH3 can be represented by a equation

N2 + 3H2 ⎯⎯→2NH3

According to this equations, 1 mole nitrogen requires 3 mol of hydrogen, so 4 mole

of nitrogen requires 12 mol of hydrogen, but we have only 3 mol of hydrogen, so it
is limiting reagent.
Since 3 mol of hydrogen gives 2 mol of NH3=
34g
2 mol = 34g of NH
3

Concentration of a Solution: Solution is a homogenous mixture of solute and

solvent. The concentration of a solution can be expressed by following terms.
mass of solute
1) mass per cent = 100
mass of solution

Ex: A solution contains „2‟g of solute in 18g of H2O.Calculate mass percent of

the solute.
2100 5
Mass percent = = 2  = 10%
2 +18

Mole fraction: It represents fraction of number of mole of solute and solvent in a

solution. If a solution contains nA mole of solute and nB mole of solvent. Total
number of mole of solution is nA+nB.
nA
Mole fraction of solute =
nA + nB
nB
Mole fraction of solvent =
nA + nB
Higher the mole fraction of solute, higher is the concentration of solution.

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Molarity(M): it is defined as number of moles of a substances present in one litre
of a solution.
number of moles of solute
Molarity =
volume of a solution in litre

Molality: (m): it is defined as number of mole of a substances in one kg of a

solution
number of moles of solute
Molality =
mass of a solvent in kg

Formality: it is defined as number of formula mass of a substance in one litre of a

solution.
number of formula mass of solute
Formality =
volume of a solution in litre

Standard solution: A solution whose concentration is known called standard

solution.
Dilution of solution or molarity equation: When solution is diluted, volume
increases and concentration decreases. If a solution of volume V1 and molarity M1
is diluted, volume increases to v2 and malarity decreases to M2
But mass of the solute before dilution is equal to mass of the solute after dilution.
 M1V1 = M2V2
Note:The molarity of a resulting mixture, by adding two solutions of volume and
morality V1 and M1 and V2 and M2 is

M1V1 + M2V2
 M3 =
V1 + V2

Calculation of mass:
Molarity  M.Massgiven volume
Mass required =
1000
Automaticity: it is equal to number of atoms present in one molecule of
elementary gases
Ex :

O2 ⎯⎯→2
O3 ⎯⎯→3
Cl2 ⎯⎯→2
He ⎯⎯→1
Chemical equations: These are scientific method of representing both physical
changes and chemical changes in terms of symbols and formulas of reactants and
products.

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Balancing of chemical equation:
Rule: 1. Write skeleton equation ie write all the possible reactants and products
2. Balance the reaction by trial and error method until the mass of
reactants is equal to mass of products
Ex1) melting of ice:
H2O(s) ⎯⎯→H2O(l)

2) Burning of white phosphorus

4p + 5O2 ⎯⎯→2P2O5
3) Combustion of CH4:
CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯→CO2 + 2H2O
4) Photosynthesis reaction:
6CO 2+ 6H O
2 ⎯ ⎯ →C
h 
6 H12 O6 + 6O 2

5) Displacement reaction:
Zn + CuSO4 ⎯⎯→ZnSO4 + Cu

******************

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