Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945: Stages, Strategies,

and Policies in Korea and Manchuria

Introduction

Japan’s rise from a semi-feudal society in the mid-19th century to a

modern imperial power by the early 20th century was one of the most
transformative developments in global history. Driven by a mix of
nationalism, security concerns, militarism, and a quest for equality with
the West, Japanese imperialism was shaped by its unique historical
trajectory.

According to E.H. Norman, Japanese nationalism was “reactive,”

emerging in response to Western imperial encroachment. The perceived
need to match the global powers in strength and status led Japan to
construct a modern industrial and military state under Meiji leadership.
Korea and Manchuria became the key theatres of this expansionist policy.

Phase I: Foundations of Imperial Expansion (1874–1895)

Early Tensions with China and the Ryukyu Islands Dispute

The Treaty of Amity with China in 1871 marked Japan’s entry into the
diplomatic order as an equal to China. However, this relationship quickly
deteriorated over the Ryukyu Islands, which had been conquered by
Japan’s Satsuma clan in the 17th century. In 1879, Japan incorporated
the islands into Okinawa Prefecture, provoking Chinese protest.

A diplomatic compromise failed, and from then on, Sino-Japanese

relations were tense. This conflict over a small island chain reflected
deeper rivalries for influence over Korea, which both nations claimed
historically and strategically.

Korean Question and the Treaty of Kanghwa (1876)

Korea’s strategic importance was immense. Japanese leaders believed

that a vulnerable Korea would attract Western intervention. In 1876,
Japan imposed the Treaty of Kanghwa on Korea, styled on the “unequal
treaties” that Japan itself had suffered. The treaty opened Korean ports
to Japanese trade and declared Korea “independent,” thereby eroding
Chinese suzerainty.

Toward War: The Tientsin Convention (1885) and Failed Diplomacy

Amid rising tensions, China and Japan signed the Tientsin (Li-Ito)
Convention in 1885, agreeing to withdraw troops from Korea and not to
send forces without notifying the other. However, the convention failed to
provide lasting stability, as Korea remained politically unstable.

James McClain notes that from Japan’s perspective, Korea’s domestic

disorder created a constant threat of foreign intervention, particularly by
Russia or Britain. This concern culminated in the First Sino-Japanese
War.

Phase II: The First Sino-Japanese War and Its Aftermath (1894–1905)

War with China (1894–95)

War erupted when Korea’s King Kojong sought Chinese help to suppress
a peasant uprising. China’s troop deployment, in violation of the Tientsin
Convention, prompted Japan to retaliate. Japan’s military, now
modernized, quickly overwhelmed Chinese forces at Pyongyang, Port
Arthur, and Weihaiwei.

Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): Japan’s First Imperial Gains

The Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed on April 17, 1895, granted

Japan:

•Recognition of Korean independence (effectively ending Chinese

influence)

•Cession of Taiwan, the Pescadores, and the Liaodong Peninsula

•A large war indemnity (500 million yen)

•Commercial rights in China’s treaty ports

This victory made Japan the first non-Western imperial power, granting it
territory, prestige, and confidence.

Triple Intervention and Repercussions in Korea

However, Japan was forced to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China

under pressure from Russia, France, and Germany—known as the Triple
Intervention. This deeply humiliated Japan and intensified anti-Western
sentiment.

In response, Japanese agents murdered Korea’s Queen Min in 1895, after

she turned to Russia for support. Subsequently, the Korean king sought
Russian protection, further complicating Japanese ambitions.

Phase III: Russo-Japanese Rivalry and the Annexation of Korea (1902–

1910)

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)

To counterbalance Russia, Japan signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the
first time a Western power treated an Asian nation as an equal. This shift
in diplomacy paved the way for a more aggressive foreign policy.

According to Morinosuke Kajima, Japan faced two options:

•Compromise with Russia

•Align with Britain to resist Russian expansion

Japan chose the latter, influenced by military leaders and Emperor Meiji,
who favored confrontation over compromise.

The Russo-Japanese War (1904–05)

Japan declared war in 1904, aiming to eliminate Russia as a rival in

Manchuria and Korea. Japanese forces triumphed at Tsushima and
Mukden, establishing naval and land superiority.

The Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore

Roosevelt, recognized Japan’s dominance in Korea and handed over
Russia’s rights in southern Manchuria and the southern half of Sakhalin
Island.

Korean Protectorate and Annexation (1905–1910)

Following this victory:

•In 1905, Japan made Korea a protectorate via the Korean Japanese
Convention.

•By 1907, it had forced the abdication of King Kojong and

disbanded the Korean military.

•In 1910, the Treaty of Annexation turned Korea into a Japanese

colony renamed “Chosen,” governed by a military governor-general.

This marked the full colonization of Korea, achieved through diplomacy,

coercion, and military intervention.

Phase IV: Imperial Consolidation and Expansion (1910–1931)

World War I and the 21 Demands (1915)

Japan, as an ally of Britain in World War I, took German concessions in

Shandong and increased its presence in China.

In 1915, Japan issued the 21 Demands to China. These included:

•Control over German rights in Shandong

 •Greater influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia

•Control over Chinese industries and railways

Although China’s reluctant compliance was partial, the demands

signalled a shift from defence to outright imperial ambition.

Washington Conference and the “Soft China Policy”

From 1921 to 1922, Japan participated in the Washington Conference,

where it agreed to limit naval armament and respect China’s territorial
integrity. This period, marked by Shidehara Diplomacy, saw Japan adopt a
less aggressive, more cooperative foreign policy.

However, internal divisions between the military and civilian government,

economic strain from the Great Depression, and the rise of fascist
ideologies globally rekindled expansionist tendencies in the 1930s.

Phase V: Manchuria, Militarism, and Total War (1931–1945)

Manchurian Incident and Creation of Manchukuo (1931–32)

The Kwantung Army engineered a railway sabotage incident in 1931 and

used it as a pretext to seize Manchuria, despite civilian government
objections. By February 1932, Japan had created the puppet state of
Manchukuo, installing Pu Yi, the last Qing emperor, as its figurehead.

The League of Nations condemned Japan’s actions through the Lytton

Report, but Japan responded by withdrawing from the League in 1933.
This marked its final break with the international order.

Manchuria was seen as a model colony, rich in resources and ideal for
Japan’s vision of a regimented, totalitarian empire.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45)

War erupted in 1937 at the Marco Polo Bridge. Japan’s campaign rapidly
escalated:

•It captured major cities—Beijing, Shanghai, Nanking

•The Nanking Massacre (1937) became a symbol of Japanese

brutality

Despite military success, Japan was bogged down by Chinese guerrilla

resistance, especially from Communist forces. Japan attempted to justify
its actions with the notion of a “New Order in East Asia”, promoting Pan-
Asianism and joint opposition to communism.
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and WWII

With its entry into World War II as an Axis power, Japan pursued the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere—a Pan-Asian bloc led by Japan,
supposedly for mutual prosperity. This was imperialism disguised as
liberation, as Japan exploited occupied nations economically and
culturally. FC Jones emphasized that this sphere was driven as much by
imperial goals as by ideals of Asian unity.

Japan’s empire expanded rapidly across Southeast Asia, including:

•Burma, Malaya, Philippines, Indonesia

However, defeat in 1945 and subsequent American occupation ended this

imperial adventure.

Nature of Japanese Imperialism: Ideology and Contradictions

Imperialism as State Ideology

Japanese expansion was rationalized through a blend of ideology and

realpolitik:

•Pan-Asianism justified intervention as liberation

•Social Darwinism and cultural superiority portrayed Japan as a

civilizing force

•Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo described Japan’s need to

defend its “line of sovereignty” and extend a “line of advantage” beyond
its borders

These ideas fed into a militarized state ideology, where imperialism was
inseparable from national identity.

Assimilation vs. Japanization

Two schools of thought existed within Japanese imperial circles:

•Assimilationists, like Hara Takashi, promoted civil liberties and

education in colonies

•Hardliners pursued Japanization—imposing Japanese language,

culture, and administration

By the 1930s, the latter dominated, resulting in intense cultural

suppression in Korea and Manchuria.

Japanese vs. Western Imperialism

While structurally like Western empires, Japanese imperialism had
unique features:

• It targeted culturally related Asian nations (e.g., Korea,

Taiwan)

• It lacked a strong capitalist motivation initially, unlike Britain

or France

• It was largely state driven, not led by private enterprise

However, like Western powers, Japan subjugated local interests, imposed

military rule, and exploited resources and labor.

Conclusion: Legacy of Japanese Imperialism

From 1894 to 1945, Japan’s imperial journey progressed from regional

power to continental conqueror and ended in total defeat. Within five
decades, it had built an extensive empire spanning Korea, Taiwan,
Manchuria, and Southeast Asia—driven by nationalism, militarism, and a
desire for global parity.

Historians like John K. Maki and Robert Pollard argue that imperialism
was a natural expression of Japan’s militarized state structure. Others
emphasize reactive nationalism, as proposed by E.H. Norman, which saw
Japan’s rise as a defense against Western domination.Ultimately,
Japanese imperialism ended in destruction and discredit. Yet it reshaped
East Asia, left enduring scars in Korea and China, and provides a potent
lesson in the costs of aggressive nationalism masked as modernization.