Table of Contents

Introduction
Chapter I Measurements and Units 1
Length Measurements; Measured Quantities and Exact Quantities; Round-Off
Error,
The Aspect Ratio of an Airplane Wing; Changing Units

Chapter II Matter, Mass, Force, Weight, Density,

Pressure, and Temperature 9
Matter; Molecules; Mass; Force; Weight; Distinction Between Mass and Weight;
Density; Specific Gravity; Pressure; Atmospheric Pressure; Absolute Pressure
and Gage Pressure; Temperature

Chapter III The Gas Laws 17

Boyle's Law; Charles' Law; Gay-Lussac's Law; The General Gas Law; Alternate Form
of the General Gas Law; Application of the General Gas Law to Compressors

Chapter IV The Atmosphere 25

Cabin Altitude; Absolute and Relative Humidity; Absolute Humidity; Relative
Humidity; Humidity and Comfort; The Dew Point; Avogadro's Law

Chapter V Motion and Acceleration 31

Definition; Special Formulas Dealing with Straight-Line Motion; Accelerated Motion
of a "Freely Falling" Body; Centripetal Acceleration

Chapter VI Newton's Laws 37

Newton's First Law; Newton's Second Law; Newton's Third Law

Chapter VII Work, Friction, Energy, Power, and Bernoulli's Principle 47

Work; Friction; Energy; Gravitational Potential Energy; Momentum; Power;
Alternate Form for Power; Reciprocating Engine Power; Indicated Horsepower;
Bernoulli's Principle

Chapter VIII Simple Machines and the Principle of Work 59

General Theory of All Machines; The Lever; The Pulley; The Wheel and Axle; The
Inclined Plane; The Screw Jack; The Hydraulic Press

Chapter IX Rotational Motion 67

Radian Measure

Chapter X Archimedes' Principle and Dirigibles 73

Archimedes' Principle; Archimedes' Principle Applied to Bodies thatFloat;
Hydrometers; Archimedes' Principles as Applied to Dirigibles

Chapter XI Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 81

Linear Expansion; Area Expansion; Volume Expansion

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Chapter XII Heat 85
Heat Exchange; Change of State; Heat Exchange Involving Change of State;
Heat Transfer; Methods of Heat Transfer

Chapter XIII Sound 91

Sound Waves and the Response of the Human Ear; Intensity of Sound; Sound
Waves and Resonant Vibrations; Supersonic Speeds

Chapter XIV Review of Basic Trigonometry 95

The Cosine Law; The Sine Law

Chapter XV Vectors 105

Definition of a Vector; The Components of a Vector; The Addition of Vectors;
The Trigonometric Method for Adding Vectors; Force Vectors

Chapter XVI Navigation Problems 115

More Complicated Navigation Problems

Chapter XVII Applications of Bernoulli's Principle to Aircraft 119

Basic Definitions; Cruising Flight; Aerodynamic Characteristics of an Airfoil;
Turning Flight

Chapter XVIII Newton's Law of Gravitation 127

Earth Satellites; Satellites In Geosynchronous Orbits; Weightlessness

Chapter XIX Momentum and Collision Problems 133

Definition of Momentum; Conservation of Momentum; Recoil Problems;
Collision Problems; Inelastic Collisions

Chapter XX Statics 139

Tension in Cables and Compression in Beams

Chapter XXI Torque, Moment of Inertia and Angular Momentum 145

Torque; Moment of Inertia; Angular Momentum

Chapter XXII Some Properties of Solids and Liquids 151

Stress and Strain; Elastic Limit and Ultimate Strength; Torsion Forces;
Ductility; Malleability

Chapter XXIII Wave Motion 155

Resonance

Chapter XXIV Light 161

The Speed of Light in Various Substances

Chapter XXV The Doppler Effect 167

Doppler Radar; Ground Speed Measurement Using the Doppler Effect;
Weather Prediction Using the Doppler Effect

Answers to Problems 173

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 Introduction
To Chapter One

The year 1901 saw Wilbur and Orville Wright This short historical sketch illustrates one in-
rapidly gaining experience piloting the second of stance in which careful measurement aided in bring-
their gliders. In designing this glider, the Wrights had ing about a profound advance in the field of aviation.
adhered to aeronautical information reported over The modern aviation industry utilizes measurement
the previous century by other flight enthusiasts. By in all aspects of research, development, mainte-
the end of the year, however, frustrated by the nance, and operation of aircraft.
mediocre performance of their craft, the brothers The aviation mechanic is routinely call .1:1 upon to
abandoned all second hand information and set out make measurements in a variety of circumstances
on their own investigation. They built a wind tunnel for the purpose of testing, maintaining, and repair-
and a force balance with which they measured the ing aircraft systems. For example, compression
lift and drag on over two hundred airfoil shapes. The checks have to be made on aircraft engine cylinders,
result of these measurements was a third glider track check measurements are routinely performed
which had its maiden flight on the last day of sum- on airplane propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
mer in 1902. Over one thousand successful flights Feeler gauges are used to measure turbine blade
of this glider were made in the remainder of that year clearances. Manifold pressure gauges and altime-
setting new distance and time records while produc- ters are calibrated using barometers. The proper
ing two very capable pilots and placing the Wright loading of aircraft requires weight and balance
brothers at the threshold of powered flight. checks utilizing scales and length measurement.

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 Chapter I
Measurements and Units
Length Measurements Whenever a measurement is recorded the last
Let us measure the length of the bar shown in figure recorded digit is always an estimated digit. The
1-1. Suppose that it is measured with the meter stick same procedure is used for the measurement of
placed next to the bar. Note that the meter stick has any quantity. The examples that follow should clarify
a length that can be expressed as 100 centimeters. the procedure.
We can judge that the length of the bar is 76 Measured Quantities
cm. We are sure of the digit 7 but have estimated
that the second digit is a 6. We write the measurement and Exact Quantities
as 76 cm. We have expressed the length of the bar There are two different kinds of quantities: mea-
with a measurement having two significant digits. sured quantities and exact quantities. Exact quan-
In figure 1-2, we can see that the second digit tities are quantities that can be counted. For
was a 5 and we can estimate a third digit to be example, there are exactly 24 students in a given
an 8. Our measurement this time, using a different physics class. It is meaningless to speak of 24.23
ruler, is expressed as 75.8 cm. Note that we now students. Measured quantities are quantities that
have three significant digits in our measurement. are obtained by a system of measurement such as
that discussed above.
In our first measurement (figure 1-1) we have
written two significant digits and in the second When a measured quantity is multiplied or divided
(figure 1-2) we have used three significant digits. by an exact quantity, the result is a quantity that
In one case we wrote 76 cm and in the other case has the same number of significant digits as the
we wrote 75.8 cm. Engineers are very careful in measured quantity. For example, if the measure-
recording measurements. A measurement of 76 cm ment 23.4 cm is multiplied by the exact number
indicates that the measuring instrument that was 2, the product is 46.8 cm.
used was capable of telling us that the 7 was a When two measured quantities are multiplied or
certain digit and the 6 was an estimated digit. That divided by each other, the result obtained should
was the best that particular ruler could do! When be rounded off to the number of significant digits
the second ruler was used it was possible to record as in the least accurate of the two measured quantities.
7 and 5 as certain digits. The 8 was an estimated For example, if the length of a rectangle is mea-
or uncertain digit. sured as 4.32 cm and the width of this rectangle

Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-2.

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 METRIC 1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

THE READING IS 85 CM
Figure 1-3.

METRIC 1
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

THE READING IS 85.3 CM

Figure 1-4.

is measured as 1.21 cm, the area can be calculated a decimal point is significant only if it also follows
by multiplying the two dimensions. another significant digit. In the examples below,
we will clarify the method of dealing with zeros
4.32 The last digit is uncertain. in our calculations.
1.21 The last digit is uncertain. In our course, we will assume that all measure-
432 This entire line is uncertain. ments given in any problem are measured with in-
864 The last digit is uncertain. struments that are capable of giving a result
accurate to three significant digits. This means
432 The last digit is uncertain.
that in calculating results we will round off all an-
5.2272 The last three digits in this
swers to three significant digits.
line are uncertain, since at
In figure 1-5, we will calculate areas of rectangles
least one of the added digits by multiplying the measured length by the mea-
is uncertain. sured width.

It is meaningless to express the area with three Round-Off Error

uncertain digits. Instead, we write the area as 5.23 Sometimes there is a difficulty when a series of
sq. cm or 5.23 cm 2 . Note that writing the area calculations must be performed.
in this way indicates that the 5 and 2 are certain
digits and the 3 is an uncertain digit. Note also Suppose that, as in the type of calculation that
that we wrote the final uncertain digit as a 3 and will follow in the next section, a series of calcula-
not a 2. We did this because the fourth digit was tions must be performed. For example, it may be
5 or more. necessary to square one measured quantity and
divide by another measured quantity.
You may have noticed that in all of the above
examples we have dealt with the digits 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. We have not included the digit (one measured number) 2
answer =
zero in any of our examples. The zero digit presents another measured number
difficulties that the other nine digits do not present.
The zero digit has two functions. Sometimes it is When this type of calculation is done it is best to
a significant digit and other times it is merely a square the number in the numerator, and then,
"place holder". A place holder tells us the correct without clearing your calculator, divide by the
size of a number. It must be in a number to tell number in the denominator. However, sometimes
us the "order of magnitude" of this number. One it is helpful to some students to write down the an-
important rule to remember is that a zero following swer obtained by squaring the number in the nu-

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merator first, rounding off that result, and doing The Aspect Ratio
the problem in two steps. Both methods are ac- of an Airplane Wing
ceptable. However, the answers obtained may dif-
Some simple calculations relating to airplane wings
fer slightly in the third significant digit. Since the
will now give us an opportunity to apply what we
third significant digit is always an uncertain digit
have discussed about significant digits. Figure 1-6
anyway, we can understand why this difference oc-
shows the projection of a wing. The distance (b) from
curs. An example will illustrate the difficulty.
wing tip to wing tip, is referred to as the span. The
distance from the leading edge of the wing to the
trailing edge is called the chord. Since the chord of
EXAMPLE 1-A.
most wings is not a constant, a mean or average
Suppose that we must calculate the result of chord (c) is defined.
squaring 15.5 and then dividing by 25.8.
Early in the history of aviation, it became evident
that the ratio of the span to the average chord
(15.5) 2 was an important parameter for determining the
Method 1: 25. 8 = 9.31
aerodynamics of a wing. This ratio is referred to
Calculator not cleared until final result. as the aspect ratio (AR) and can be written.

(15.5) 2 240 b
AR = -
Method 2:= 9.30
25.8 - 25.8
The rounded-off result of the operation of
A Boeing 747 has a wing span of 59.64 meters
squaring was written in the middle step. and an average chord of 8.57 meters. Determine
the aspect ratio.

Both results would be considered correct. Note

AR =
59.64 m
= 6.96
that the difference in the last significant digit is 8.57 m
only one unit. Recall also that the zero in 9.30
and the one in 9.31 are both uncertain digits. There- The product of average chord and the span is the
fore we should not be disturbed about the fact area of the wing (S). Note that the wing area can
that both results give a "correct" answer. be expressed algebraically by the expression bc.
Finally, remember that there will be a difference Therefore, we can form a new formula for the
of only one, or possibly two, digits in the last sig- aspect ratio by multiplying numerator and denom-
nificant digit. inator by b.

ANSWER ROUNDED OFF TO

(LENGTH) (WIDTH) CALCULATOR READING
THREE SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
(4.35 cm) (1.30 cm) 5.655 5.66 cm2

(35.9 m) (450 m) 16155 16200 m 2

(0.123 mm) (0.217 mm) 0.026691 0.0267 mm 2

(3420 mi) (1210 mi) 4138200 4140000 m12

(4.12 m) (0.186 m) 0.76632 2

0.766 m

(34.8 ft.) (12.7 ft) 441.96 442 ft. 2

(1.0034 in.) (2.284 in.) 2.2917656 2.29 in.2

(3.45 ft.) (1.739 ft.) 5.99955 6.00 ft.2

(87.9 yd.) (123.8 yd.) 10882.02 10900 yd.2

Figure 1-5.

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 LEADING EDGE

Figure 1-6.

b bb and denominator). We put in the conversion in such

AR = — = a way that the unit that we do not want cancels
c cb
out. We recall that we can cancel a unit in the
numerator with the same unit in a denominator.
b2
AR = We could also have used the other conversion
factor for our calculation.
In words, this formula tells us that the aspect
ratio can be found by dividing the square of the L = 45.6 x 1ft'= 150 ft.
span of the wing by the area of the wing. 0.3048 ill-

Changing Units This conversion factor also has a meter unit in

the denominator. Also note that we multiplied in
One is often required to express a measurement
the first case since the 3.281 was in the numerator.
written in the metric system to an equivalent unit in
In the second case, we divided by 0.3048 since
the English (engineering) system. Sometimes one
this number was in the denominator.
must change an English or metric unit to an equiv-
alent but smaller or larger unit. A table of "conver- Sometimes it is necessary to use several con-
sion factors" is essential for all of these unit changes. version factors to accomplish the necessary con-
Figure 1-8 is a table of "conversion factors". Use this version.
table for reference whenever you need to convert Suppose we wish to change a mass of 3.78 slugs
from one unit to another. to grams. From our table, we note that there is
Note that any unit of length can be converted no direct conversion factor. However, we see that
to any other unit of length. The same holds for the two conversion factors below will be needed.
area, volume, mass, force, speed, acceleration, pres-
sure, time, energy, and power. 1 slug = 14.59 kg
Suppose that a length is measured as 45.6m 1,000 g = 1 kg
and you need to know this length in feet. The con-
version can be done by looking up a conversion
factor that relates these two units. Two different
ORDINARY SCIENTIFIC
conversion factors can be found in the table.
NOTATION NOTATION
45,000,000 4.50 x 107
11 m = 3.281 ft. or 1 ft. = 0.0348m
0.000345 3.45 x 10-4
Either of these conversion factors can be used. 350,000 3.50 x 105
Study the following two calculations:
0.0674 6.74 x 10-2
3. 281 ft.
L = 45.6fn- x - 150 ft. 12,000,000,000 1.20 x 1010
1 lit
0.00000783 7.83 x 10-6
Note that multiplication by the fraction is mul-
tiplication by a quantity equal to one (equal numerator Figure 1-7.

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 TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS
LENGTH VELOCITY

1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 MPH = 1.47 ft./sec.

1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft. 1 m/sec. = 3.281 ft./sec.

1 ft. = 0.3048 m 60 MPH = 88 ft./sec.

12 in. = 1 ft 1 knot = 1.688 ft./sec.

3 ft. = 1 yd. 1 knot = 1.151 MPH

1 yd. = 0.9144 m 1 knot = 1.852 km/hr.

1 km = 0.621 mi. 1 MPH = 1.61 km/hr.

1 mi. = 1.609 km = 5,280 ft.

PRESSURE

AREA 1 atm = 76.0 cmHg

2 2 1 atm = 14.7 lb./in.2
1m = 10.76 ft.
2 1 Pa = 0.000145 lb./in.2
1 m 2 = 10,000 cm

1 ft.2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in.2 1 bar = 14.5 lb./in.2

1 in. 2 = 6.452 cm2

TIME

VOLUME 1 year = 365 days

3 1 day = 24 hr. = 1,440 min.
1m = 1,000,000 cm 3

1 ft. 3 = 1728 in.3 = 0.0283 m3

1 liter = 1000 cm 3 = 1.0576 qt. ENERGY

1 ft. 3 = 7.481 gal. 1 J = 0.738 ft. lb .

1 gal. = 3.786 liters = 231 in. 31 cal = 4.186 J

1 Btu = 252 cal.

MASS

1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27kg POWER

1000 kg = 1 metric ton 1 HP = 550 ft lb./sec.

1000 g = 1 kg 1 HP = 0.746 kW

1 slug = 14.59 kg 1W = 1 J/sec.

1 W = 0.738 ft. lb ./sec.

FORCE AND WEIGHT 1 Btu/hr. = 0.293 W

1 N = 0.2248 lb.

1 lb. = 4.448 N FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANT

1 lb. = 16 oz. g = 321b./slug

= 9.8N/kg

Figure 1-8.

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 We set up our conversion as follows: tion. The positive exponent tells us that the num-
ber written in ordinary notation can be found by
14.59 kg 1,000 g moving the decimal in the first factor four places to
m = 3.78 slugs x x = 55,200 g the right.
1 -s4tig- 1 kg
Scientific notation can also be used to express very
We see that the kilogram and slug units both cancel small numbers. In this case the exponent of ten is a
out. Note that we multiplied by both 14.59 and 1,000 negative number. This exponent tells us to move the
since both of these numbers were in the numerator. decimal in the first factor to the left.
The answer could also be written 5.52 x 104. Study figure 1-7, a table of numbers written both
This form of notation is known as scientific nota- in scientific notation and in ordinary notation.

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Chapter I Problems
WING WING ASPECT 13. The wing span of a Learjet Model 24 is 10.84
SPAN AREA RATIO meters. Express this wing span in feet.

1. 12.4 m 21.3 m2 14. The cabin door width of a Learjet Model 24 is 3.00
feet. Express this door width in meters.
2. 43.41 m 268 m2
15. The wing area for a Boeing 747 is 5,500 ft.2
11.2 m 16.4 m2 Express this area in m 2.

84.0 ft. 4150 ft.2 16. The floor area of a Boeing 707-230 is 106 m2.
Express this area in ft.2
5. 93.0 ft. 980 ft.2
Convert a speed of 45 MPH to ft. /sec.

ORDINARY SCIENTIFIC The Silver Sabre has a maximum rate of climb of

NOTATION NOTATION 4,800 ft. / min. Determine the rate of climb in
ft. /sec.
6. 456,000
19. The maximum speed of a Piper Saratoga fitted
7. 0.000457
with a three blade propeller is 152 knots. Calcu-
late the speed in kilometers per hour.
8. 23,700
20. The maximum speed of a Piper Seneca III is 196
knots. What is its speed in miles per hour?
2.34 x 104

21. Determine the number of seconds in 5.5 hours.

2.34 x 10-4

4.90 x 102

7.82 x 1 0-5

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Chapter II
Matter, Mass, Force, Weight, Density,
Pressure, and Temperature
Matter In general, we can say that the size of an atom
Scientists for a long time suspected that all sub- is determined by its electron cloud, its substance
stances were composed of small particles which they is determined by the total number of protons and
called atoms. However, it wasn't until the beginning neutrons in its nucleus.
of this century that the existence of atoms was
demonstrated to everyone's satisfaction. The size of Molecules
the atom was found to be so small that a few hundred Atoms combine to form more complex structures
million, if placed side by side in a row, would form a which we call molecules. Like building blocks, these
line less than an inch long. molecules organize to form all of the materials, solid,
All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size liquid and gas, which we encounter in our daily lives.
and can be thought to consist of two main parts. Solids and liquids are materials in which the mole-
The outer part is a very sparse cloud which is cules attract one another so strongly that their
composed of one or more electrons. relative motion is severely restricted. In a gas, the
freedom of motion of the molecules is only slightly
This cloud makes up most of the volume of the influenced by their mutual attraction. This is why
atom yet contributes practically nothing to its sub- gases fill the entire space to which they are confined.
stance. The other part, located at the center, is They spread out unconstrained until they encounter
extremely small compared to the atom as a whole, the walls of their container.
yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom
can be attributed to this small speck. We call this It is important to keep in mind that when we
speck the nucleus. refer to the amount of gas in a container we are
not talking about the volume of gas but the amount
Further investigation revealed that the nucleus of material present which ultimately depends on
is actually composed of two kinds of particles of the number of protons and neutrons in all the
roughly equal size and substance packed closely nuclei of all of the atoms of all of the molecules
together. These nuclear particles are the proton in that volume of gas.
and neutron. When we refer to the amount of ma-
terial or substance in an object, we are really talking Mass
about the number of protons and neutrons in that
object. Also, what we perceive as the mass of an In physics, the term for what we have up to now
object is related directly to the number of protons referred to as the amount of substance or matter is
and neutrons contained it. The simplest atom is "mass". A natural unit for mass is the mass of a
hydrogen which has a single proton for a nucleus.
An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82 protons
and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207
(125 + 82) times as much material or substance
as an atom of hydrogen.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation
to the number of particles in its nucleus. A sodium
atom, for example, with 11 protons and 12 neutrons
is approximately the same size as an atom of mer-
cury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons.
Figure 2-2 shows a number of atoms drawn ap-
proximately to scale. Notice that the sizes are
roughly the same even though the numbers of pro-
tons (P) and neutrons (N) vary appreciably. Figure 2-1.

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proton or neutron. This unit has a special name, the A force has a certain magnitude or size. Also, a
"atomic mass unit" (amu). This unit is useful in those force is always in a certain direction. To completely
sciences which deal with atomic and nuclear matter. describe a force, it is necessary to specify both the
In measuring the mass of objects which we en- size of the push or pull and its direction.
counter daily, this unit is much too small and The units in which force are measured are the
therefore very inconvenient. For example, the mass pound (lb.) in the English system and the newton
of a bowling ball expressed in amu's would be (N) in the metric system. The newton is named for
about 4,390,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. Sir Isaac Newton, a famous British physicist who
lived in the 17th century.
One kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000 amu. Since one amu is the mass of a The relationship between the metric and English
proton or neutron we know immediately that a kilo- units is given by the conversion factor:
gram of anything has this combined number of pro-
tons and neutrons contained in it. 1 lb. = 4.448 N
The kilogram is the standard unit of mass in the
This conversion is listed in your table of con-
metric system. In the English system, the standard
version factors (figure 1-8).
unit of mass is the slug.
The conversion is: Weight
A weight is one kind of force. It is defined as the
1 slug = 14.59 kg = gravitational pull of the earth on a given body. The
8,789,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu direction of this force is toward the geometrical
center of the earth.
We will use the conveniently sized units, the slug
in the English system and the kilogram in the met- Distinction Between
ric system, for all of the problems that we will do in Mass and Weight
this course. Note that the above conversion, 1 slug = The physicist very carefully distinguishes between
14.59 kilogram, is listed with your conversion factors "mass" and "weight". As we have seen, mass is the
in the table of conversion factors (figure 1-8). quantity of matter, determined by the number of
protons and neutrons in the body, and weight is a
Force measure of the gravitational pull of the earth on this
The physicist uses the word "force" to describe any quantity of matter.
push or pull. A force is one kind of vector. A vector It may seem that this is an unimportant dis-
is a quantity that has both size and direction. tinction. However, there is one important difference.

HYDROGEN HELIUM LITHIUM BERYLLIUM

(25 P
30 N

NEON SODIUM MANGANESE MERCURY

A NUMBER OF ATOMS DRAWN APPROXIMATELY TO SCALE. NOTICE THAT

THE SIZES ARE ROUGHLY THE SAME, EVEN THOUGH THE NUMBERS
OF PROTONS (P) AND NEUTRONS (N) VARY APPRECIABLY.

Figure 2-2.

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 DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS AT 68° FAHRENHEIT

kg slug kg slug
m3 ft.3 m3 ft.3

LIQUIDS METALS

Water 1,000 1.940 Aluminum 2,700 5.25

Sea Water 1,030 2.00 Cast Iron 7,200 14.0

Benzene 879 1.71 Copper 8,890 17.3

Ethyl Alcohol 789 1.53 Gold 19,300 37.5

Gasoline 680 1.32 Lead 11,340 22.0

Kerosene 800 1.55 Nickel 8,850 17.2

Lubricating Oil 900 1.75 Silver 10,500 20.4

Methyl Alcohol 792 1.54 Steel 7,800 15.1

Sulphuric Acid 1,831 3.55 Tungsten 19,000 37.0

Turpentine 873 1.69 Zinc 7,140 13.9

Mercury 13,595 26.38 Brass 8,700 16.9

NONMETALS WOODS

Ice (32°F) 922 1.79 Balsa 130 0.25

Concrete 2,300 4.48 Pine 480 0.93

Earth, Packed 1,500 2.92 Maple 640 1.24

Glass 2,600 4.97 Oak 720 1.40

Granite 2,700 5.25 Ebony 1,200 2.33

Figure 2-3.

The mass of an object is the same wherever this earth. The word "approximately" in the previous sen-
object is in the universe. The mass of a stone is tence refers to the fact that the pull of the earth on a
the same if the stone is on the earth, on Mars, body of a given mass varies slightly with the position
in a space ship, or some place in the Milky Way of the body on the earth's surface. For example, a
Galaxy. If the stone is not on the earth but is body that weighs 57.3 lbs. at the North Pole would
in a space station orbiting the earth some distance weigh 57.0 lbs. at a place on the equator. This occurs
from the earth's surface, the weight of this stone because a body at either pole is slightly closer to the
is different from its weight on the earth's surface. center of the earth than it is at the equator. Thus, the
If the stone is on the planet Mars, we speak of pull of the earth on the body is greater at the poles
its "weight on Mars", the gravitational pull of Mars and slightly smaller at other places on the earth.
on the stone. However, we usually neglect this slight difference.
As you have probably figured out, the greater the Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies
mass of an object on the surface of the earth, the in slugs or kilograms and weights in pounds or new-
greater is the weight of this object. These two quan- tons. The equation relating mass and weight is:
tities are approximately proportional to each other
as long as the body remains on the surface of the w - mg

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 In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. on a body. These are related but not identical con-
We will use the following relations: cepts. The units of mass are slugs and kilograms.
The units of weight are pounds and newtons. A
mass can be changed from slugs to kilograms and
= 32 or g = 9.8 -k-6- vice versa. A weight can be changed from newtons
slug
to pounds or vice versa. However, one cannot say
There is a great source of confusion in American that one pound equals 454 grams. The only correct
marketing practices. For example, we often see on statement is that a body having a weight of one
a box of corn flakes the information regarding the pound has a mass of 454 grams. The equation
contents: relating mass and weight is:

24 oz. or 680 gms w = mg or m=—

We note that 24 oz. equals 1.5 lbs. and 680
grams equals 0.68 kg. We have just learned that Density
1.5 lbs. is the weight of the corn flakes and that The density of a type of material is defined as the
0.68 kg is the mass of the corn flakes. In other mass of a sample of the material divided by the
words, American packaging practices list the weight volume of the same sample. The symbol used for
of the product if we deal with the English system density is the Greek letter rho, (p).
and list the mass of the product if we are in the
metric system.
m
For example, suppose the weight of a piece of P=
cheese is marked 32 oz. and we wish to know
the number of grams. First we convert the weight Other algebraic forms of this same equation are:
in ounces to 2 lbs. Then we convert from pounds
to newtons.
V and m
m=p V= —
p
w= 2 lbs. x
4.448 N=
8.90 N
1 lb. Density is a very important and useful concept.
If a body is made of a certain kind of material
Next, we use the relation: its density is known. If the weight of the body is
also known, it is possible to determine the volume
w of this body. Similarly, if the kind of material and
w = mg or m=
g volume are known it is possible to determine the
weight of the body.
Therefore, we write: A table of densities is shown in figure 2-3. You
can refer to this table when you solve the problems
8.90 N dealing with mass, weight, and volume.
m= = 0.908 kg = 908 grams
9.8 N/kg
Note that we can convert from pounds to newtons EXAMPLE 2-A.
since both are units of weight and we can convert An order has been placed for 120 gal. of lubricating
from kilograms to slugs since both are units of oil. How much will this oil weigh?
mass. However, if we want to find a mass if we
know a weight or a weight if we know a mass
we must use the equation: V =i 120 gal. x 7.418 4% = 16.0 ft.3

m = w/g or w = mg
p= 1.75
In summary, let us note that mass is a measure ft.3
of the quantity of matter — ultimately, a measure
of the number of protons and neutrons in the body The density of the lubricating oil has been obtained
and weight is the force with which the earth pulls from figure 2-3.

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 Pressure
m=pV Pressure is defined as the force divided by the area
on which the force acts. The equation defining
m = ( 1.75 slugs) pressure is:
(16.0 ft. 3 ) = 28 slugs
ft.3
F
32 lbs. = =A
w = mg = (28 sus) ( ) 896 lbs.
Another form of this equation is:

EXAMPLE 2-B.
2-B. F = PA
An order has been placed for 150 lbs. of turpentine.
How many gallons of turpentine will be delivered?
EXAMPLE 2-C.
w 1504bs-. On a day when the atmospheric pressure is 14.8
m=—= = 4.69 slug lbs./in. 2 , what is the force acting on a desk top
g 32 lbs./slug
having an area of 240 in.2?
m 4.69 slug
V= , = 2.78 ft.3 lbs.
P 1.69 slag/ft. ° F = PA = 14.8 x 240 in72 = 3,550 lbs.

7.gal.
V = 2.78 -ft,- x = 20.8 gal.
7.481-
The molecules making up a gas are in ceaseless
motion. They collide and rebound from any solid
surface which they encounter. These collisions result
Specific Gravity in a net push or force on the surface. As we have
The term "specific gravity" is closely related to the said, this force, divided by the area of the surface
idea of density. The definition is as follows: over which it is exerted, is called pressure.
Gas molecules colliding with the walls of their
density of the substance container exert an average force per unit area (see
Specific Gravity =
density of water figure 2-4).
The metric unit of pressure is the N/m2 (newton
The calculation will give the same result (for a per square meter) which is less than the pressure
given substance) no matter what units are used. a sheet exerts on you while you lie in bed. This
The example below will calculate the specific gravity pressure (1 N/m2) has been named the pascal (Pa)
of sulfuric acid (see figure 2-3).
If we use the metric units (kg/m 3 ) we obtain:

1,831

\
Specific Gravity = = 1.83
1,000
•/"
,,Ae-A
If we use the English units (slug/ft. 3 ) we obtain:

3 . 55
Specific Gravity = 3. - 1.83
1.94

The specific gravity number (1.83) is unitless. It

tells us that, for sulfuric acid, the density is 1.83
times as dense as water.
Figure 2-4.

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in honor of the French scientist and mathematician, immediately surrounding the object under study. For
Blaise Pascal, who did much to advance our knowl- example, a tire gage registering 32.0 lbs. /in. 2 is telling
edge of fluids. The pascal is a very small unit of us that the pressure inside the tire is 32.0 lbs. /in.2
pressure and because of this gas pressures, which greater than the pressure outside the tire. On a day
are ordinarily encountered, are expressed in thou- when the atmospheric pressure is 14.6 lbs. /in. 2 , the
sands of pascals or kilopascals (kPa). For example, actual pressure the gas is exerting on the inner walls
normal atmospheric pressure is nearly 101 kPa. of the tire is 46.6 lbs./in. 2 (32.0 + 14.6).
Another unit just about equal to normal atmo- The actual pressure the gas is exerting on the
spheric pressure is the bar. One bar is defined walls of its container is called the absolute pressure.
to be 100 kPa. The general relation which connects gage pressure,
The English unit of pressure is the lb. /ft. 2 or absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure is:
the lb. /in. 2 ( p si). Another unit of pressure is the
atmosphere (atm) which equals 14.7 lbs. /in.2 Patm
Pabs = Pg

Atmospheric Pressure The zero on the absolute pressure scale is the

On our earth, we live under a blanket of air. As we pressure exerted by a perfect vacuum.
will see in chapter 4, the density of air decreases with Let us assume that the atmospheric pressure
altitude. At sea level, the average atmospheric pres-
on a certain day is 15 lbs. /in. 2 Figure 2-5 is a
sure is 14.7 lbs. /in. 2 Various types of barometers chart giving the gage pressure and the absolute
are used to measure atmospheric pressure.
pressure for several different examples.
The mercury barometer is a narrow vertical glass
Note that the equation Pabs = Pg + Patm is satisfied
tube which is inverted in a dish of mercury. The
in each entry in the chart.
small space above the mercury column is a perfect
vacuum. As the air molecules bombard the surface Temperature
of the mercury in the dish, they balance the mercury
Our common notion of hot and cold has its precise
in the column since there are no bombarding mol-
expression in the concept of temperature. As objects
ecules above the mercury in the column. The height
are heated their molecules move faster. In a solid,
of the mercury column varies slightly from day to
the molecules vibrate more rapidly. In liquids and
day as the atmospheric pressure changes. At stan-
gases the molecules move all over in the container
dard pressure (14.7 lbs./in. 2 ) the mercury column
at a faster rate of speed. These variations in speed
is 760 millimeters high. In the English system the
of the molecules cause objects to expand when they
height of the mercury column is 29.92 inches. Some-
are heated.
times we use the height of mercury (Hg) column
as a unit for stating pressure. This expansion can be used to construct instru-
ments called thermometers. The ordinary mercury
Thus, we can say:
thermometer uses the expansion of a volume of
mercury contained in a bulb to indicate temperature.
1 Atmosphere = 14.7 lb./in.2
= 760 mmHg = 29.92 in.Hg
ABSOLUTE GAGE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
It seems strange that we sometimes state a pres- (LB./IN.2)
(LB./IN.2)
sure by giving a distance (the height of the Hg
column), but it is standard practice for TV weather Inside a Tire 49 34
commentators! Note that a weather commentator
will tell us, for example, that the pressure on a Pressure
35 20
certain day is 29.3. Cooker

Outside Air 15 0
Absolute Pressure
and Gage Pressure Cabin Pressure
11 —4
All of the pressure measuring instruments which the of a Plane
airplane mechanic is likely to use are designed to Perfect
register the extent to which the pressure being mea- —15
Vacuum
sured differs from the ambient pressure. The term
"ambient pressure" refers to the pressure in the area Figure 2-5.

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 A number of temperature scales are currently There are formulas that enable us to change from
in use. The Fahrenheit scale is the one we have a centigrade reading to a Fahrenheit reading and
used most extensively. On this scale the freezing vice versa. These formulas are:
point of water is 32° and its boiling point is 212°.
The metric scale is the Celsius or centigrade scale. 5 9
On this scale the freezing point of water is zero C = - (F - 32) and F = - C + 32
5
and the boiling point is 100°.
In theory, if we cool any substance enough, we Note that there are parentheses in the first for-
can cause all molecular motion to cease. We call mula but not in the second formula. Be careful!
this lowest possible temperature "absolute zero". You have probably already used these two formulas
Ordinary gases like air would be rock solid at this in other classes. You will be given an opportunity
temperature. Low temperature physicists have to practice their use in the problems that follow.
never been able to reach this extremely low tem-
There are also formulas that change from a cen-
perature in their laboratories. However, they have
tigrade reading to a Kelvin reading and from a Fahr-
come close—down to a fraction of a centigrade de-
enheit reading to a Rankine reading. These formulas
gree. Absolute zero is a limiting temperature which
are very important to us at this time since we will
can never be reached. Two other temperature scales
have to use absolute temperatures in the gas laws
are used by engineers and experimental scientists.
which follow in chapter 3.
In both of these scales the zero of the scale is
placed at absolute zero, the coldest possible tem- These formulas are:
perature. These scales are the metric Kelvin scale
and the English Rankine scale. K = C + 273 and R = F + 460
In figure 2-6, the four temperature scales are
compared. Note that these formulas are verified in the com-
parison chart (figure 2-6).

BOILING FREEZING
POINT OF POINT OF ABSOLUTE
WATER WATER ZERO
Centigrade 100° 0° -273°
Kelvin 373° 273° 0°
Fahrenheit 212° 32° -460°
Rankine 672° 492° 0°
Figure 2-6.

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Chapter II Problems
What is the mass of a body having a weight of If the absolute pressure inside a tire is 55.0
45 IV? lbs./ in. 2 and the pressure gage reads 40.3
lbs. / in. 2, what is the atmospheric pressure?
What is the weight of a body having a mass of
23 kg? If the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 lbs. / in. 2 and
the absolute pressure is 67.0 lbs. / in. 2, what is
What is the mass of a body having a weight of the gage pressure?
350 lbs.?
Change 20 °C to degrees F.
What is the weight of a body having a mass of
23.6 slugs? Change -15 °C to degrees F.

What is the weight of the corn flakes in a box Change 86 °F to degrees C.

where the mass is listed as 680 g?
Change -4°F to degrees C.
What is the mass in grams of 2.5 lbs. of bologna?
Change 100 °F to degrees R.
What is the weight of 85 gallons of kerosene?
Change 450 °R to degrees F.
How many gallons of benzene will be delivered if
125 lbs. of this liquid are ordered? Change 100 °C to degrees K.

What is the weight of 3,000 gallons gasoline? Change 383 °K to degrees C.

What is the volume (in gallons) of 3,500 lbs. of Gas turbine engine performance is very sensitive
water? to variations in the temperature of the air. All
engines are rated with the air at a standard
What is the specc gravity of kerosene? temperature of 59 °F. What is the equivalent
Centigrade temperature?
What is the specific gravity of aluminum?
On some large commercial turbojet engines, the
What is the specific gravity of ice? temperature at the front end of the combustion
section is approximately 400 °C. What is this
temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?
What is the specific gravity of glass?
28. As air enters the combustion chamber of a turbo-
15. On a day when the barometric (or atmospheric) jet, fuel is added and the temperature is raised to
pressure is 14.9 lbs. / in. 2 and the pressure gage about 3,500 °F in the hottest part of the flame.
on a tire reads 34.6 lbs. / in. 2, what is the abso-
What is this temperature on the Centigrade scale?
lute pressure inside this tire?

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 Chapter III
The Gas Laws
We will next discuss the volume and density of gases Note that a decrease in volume produces an in-
under varying conditions of temperature and pres- crease in absolute pressure. This is characteristic
sure. Three gas laws, named after the scientists that of an inverse proportion. We write the equation as:
discovered them, will be considered.
P1 V2
Boyle's Law
P2
A cylinder containing gas is fitted with a tight piston.
This cylinder contains a certain mass of gas, and
If we cross multiply in the above equation we
therefore a certain number of molecules of gas. The
reach the form in which Boyle's Law is usually
gas has a definite absolute temperature. This tem-
written:
perature is a measure of the average speed of the gas
molecules in the sample. Some of the molecules are
moving faster and some are moving slower. The P1V1 = P2 V 2
average speed determines the temperature.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant Here P i and P2 are the absolute pressures cor-
and the volume of the gas sample is decreased, responding to the volumes V i and V2 respectively.
the molecules, still moving with the same average In working with Boyle's Law, it must always be
speed, are "squashed" into a smaller space (see remembered to use absolute pressures.
figure 3-1).
The result is that the sides of the container ex- EXAMPLE 3-A.
perience more collisions per unit time. This results A cylinder fitted with a piston contains gas at a
in an increase in the absolute pressure the mol- pressure of 35.5 lbs./in. 2 as indicated by a gage
ecules exert on the walls of the container. mounted to the outside of the cylinder. The atmo-
spheric pressure is 14.5 lbs./in. 2 If the piston is
forced down reducing the volume in the cylinder to
one fourth of its original volume while holding the
temperature of the gas constant, determine the
new reading on the pressure gage.

P 1 = (35.5 + 14.5) lbs./in.2

= lbs./in.2

1 I,
V2 = 4 v

P1V1= P2V2

(50 lbs./in. 2) (NA1 ) = P 2 ( 14 N)C1)

Solving for P2 gives,

P2 = 200 lbs./in. 2 absolute

Figure 3-1.

17
UNCONTROLLED COPY - REV. 2 - MAY 2015
 We still must express this new pressure as a gage The absolute temperatures can be either Kelvin
pressure since the problem asked for the new read- degrees or Rankine degrees.
ing on the pressure gage. Our final answer is:
EXAMPLE 3-B.
P., = (200 - 14.5) lbs./in. 2 = 186 lbs./in.2
A quantity of air occupies a volume of one cubic
foot on a day when the temperature is 15°F. What
will be the volume of this quantity of air when the
Charles' Law temperature increases to 85°F, and the pressure
Toward the end of the 18th century, investigations stays the same?
carried out by French physicists, Jacques Alexandre
Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, led to the 1 ft.3V2
discovery of a relation between the volume and 475 R° - 545 R°
absolute temperature of gases under conditions of
constant pressure. Note that we have changed the temperatures from
Let us again consider a sample of gas containing degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankine, because
a definite number of molecules. We stipulate that we must express the temperatures in absolute units.
the pressure on this sample of gas will remain Cross multiplying, we obtain:
constant. If the pressure is to remain constant,
an increase in absolute temperature must be ac- 1 ft. 3 x 545 R°
companied by a corresponding increase in volume V2 = = 1.15 ft.3
475 R°
(see figure 3-2).
We say that the volume is directly proportional Failure to convert to absolute temperatures will
to the absolute temperature, provided that the pres- always lead to incorrect answers when working
sure remains constant. We write the equation as: with the gas laws!
V.1 V2
Ti T2
Gay-Lussac's Law
This third gas law relates the absolute pressure to
the absolute temperature of a gas when its volume
is held constant.
Again we consider a certain number of molecules
of gas in a closed container where the volume of
the gas is held constant. If we increase the absolute
temperature of the gas, the average speed of the
molecules increases. As these molecules strike the
walls of the container they exert a greater pressure
since they are moving faster (see figure 3-3).

Figure 3-2. Figure 3-3.

18
UNCONTROLLED COPY - REV. 2 - MAY 2015
 Using absolute pressures and temperatures the Note that this equation gives us the three gas
following simple relationship is obtained: laws that we have studied.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant,
P1 = P2 we can cancel the temperatures in the denominators
-
T1 T2 and obtain:

This equation is referred to as Gay-Lussac's Law. P i Vi = P2V2 Boyle's Law

If the pressure remains constant, we can cancel

EXAMPLE 3-C. the pressures in the numerators and obtain:
The tire of a bicycle is filled with air to a gage
pressure of 50.0 lbs./in. at 58°C. What is the gage V1 V2
- = Charles' Law
pressure in the tire on a day when the temperature T1 T2
rises to 86°C? Assume that the volume of the tire
does not change and the atmospheric pressure is If the volume remains constant, we can cancel
14.7 lbs./in.2 the volumes in the numerators and obtain:
We must first convert to absolute temperatures
and pressures.
P 1 = P2
- Gay-Lussac's Law
T/T2
P1 = 50.0 lbs./in. 2 + 14.7 lbs./in. 2 = 64.7 lbs./in.2

T1 = 460° + 58° = 518°R EXAMPLE 3-D.

A tank of helium gas has a gage pressure of 50.2
T2 = 460° + 86° = 546°R lbs./in.2 and a temperature of 45°F. A piston de-
creases the volume of the gas to 68% of its original
Substituting these values into Gay-Lussac's Law volume and the temperature drops to 10°F. What
gives: is the new gage pressure? Assume normal atmo-
spheric pressure.
We must change both temperatures to absolute
64.7 lbs./in. 2P2
units. We must change the original gage pressure
518°R = 546°R
to absolute pressure. We remember that when the
final pressure is obtained it will be in absolute units.
Solving for P2, we obtain P2 = 68.2 lbs./in.2
We also note that V 2 = 0.68 V1.
Finally, the new gage pressure is obtained by
subtracting the atmospheric pressure from P2.
P 1 V1 P2V2
T2
68.2 lbs./in. 2 — 14.7 lbs./in. 2 = 53.5 lbs./in.2
We transfer V2 from the numerator on the right to
the denominator on the left. We also transfer T2
The General Gas Law from the denominator on the right to the numerator
The three properties, pressure, temperature, and on the left. In this way, we solve our formula for P2..
volume are interrelated for a fixed mass (number of
molecules) of gas in such a way that if two of them P1V1T2
change in value the third can immediately be deter- Ti V2 = P2
mined. Combining the three gas laws the following
general gas law can be written: Next we substitute our known values:

P i V1 P2V2 (64.9 lbs./in. 2) (VI) (470°-R)

T2 P2 = (505°44) (0.68)

19

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 P2 = 88.8 lbs./in.2 Absolute Therefore we can write:

P = pRT
P2 = 74.1 lbs./in. 2 (New Gage Pressure)
The most important application of this formula
enables us to obtain the density of any particular
kind of gas if we know its absolute pressure and
Alternate Form of absolute temperature.
the General Gas Law
We write the equation in the form:
The general gas law tells us that for a fixed quantity
of gas, the expression PV/T is constant. Since PV/T
is a constant for a fixed mass of gas, we can set this P RT
expression equal to the product of the mass (m) of
the gas and what is referred to as a gas constant (R).
This gas constant (R) varies according to the type of
EXAMPLE 3-E.
gas. A table giving values of R for various gases can
be found in figure 3-4. Find the density of air if the temperature is 80°F
We can write:
and the absolute pressure is 2,150 lbs./ft.2

PV P 2150 ilys-:/ft.2
= mR P = RT =
(1710 ft.-Itas-/slug .R-°) (540 R-°)
= 0.00233 slug/ft.3
PV = mRT

If vve divide both sides of this equation by V,

we obtain: Application of the
General Gas Law to Compressors
mRT We can apply the general gas law to the flow of air
P through the compressor of a turbojet engine. The
V
function of the compressor is to provide a large
We remember that the density of any substance quantity of high pressure air to the limited space
is given by: of the combustion chamber. The reason for this is
that the energy released in the combustion chamber
is proportional to the mass of air consumed. The
pressure of the air when it leaves the compressor is
=
called the compressor discharge pressure (CDP) and
the ratio of this to the compressor inlet pressure
(CIP) is the compression ratio. That is,
VALUES OF THE GAS CONSTANT, R,
FOR SOME COMMON GASES CDP
Compression Ratio =
CI P
kPa m3/kg K° ft. lb./slug R°
Note that the compression ratio can also be ex-
Air 0.287 1710
pressed as:
Carbon Dioxide 0.189 1130

Helium 2.077 12,380 'Compression Ratio =

P1
Nitrogen 0.297 1770

Oxygen 0.260 1550 where the 1's refer to the inlet pressure and the 2's
to the discharge pressure.
Water Vapor 0.462 2760
Air entering a compressor having a compression
ratio of 12.5:1 at a pressure of 14.7 PSIA will leave
Figure 3-4.
with a pressure of:

20

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 (12.5) (14.7) = 184 PSIA V2 = (1 ft.3) ( 2,000 + 460 \ \
59 + 460 I '12.5'
If, however, the temperature of the air is increased
too much in the compression process the volume V 2 -= 0.379 ft . 3
of a quantity of air entering the combustion chamber
will not be reduced significantly and the compressor
efficiency will be low. EXAMPLE 3-G.
With what volume would the quantity of air of the
EXAMPLE 3-F. previous problem enter the combustion chamber
if the discharge temperature of the compressor
A quantity of air occupying 1 cu. ft. at a pressure were 750°F instead of 2,000°F?
of 14.7 PSIA and a temperature of 59°F enters the
compressor of a turbojet engine having a compres-
sion ratio of 12.5:1 and is discharged at a temper- V2 = (1 ft.3) ( 750 + 460 1 1
ature of 2,000°F. With what volume will this 59 + 460 ) 12.5'
quantity of air enter the combustion chamber?
Solving our general equation: V2 = 0.187 ft.3

P i ViP2V2 We see that the volume of the original cubic foot

for V2 yields of air is less (0.187 ft. 3 ) when the temperature is
Ti T2
750°F than it is (0.379 ft. 3) when the temperature
is 2,000°F.
P i V i T2 T2
V2 = p2 = ) )
P2/Pi Because of the limited space of the combustion
chamber, it is important that the volume be lower.
Therefore, we can substitute our given values: Therefore, the temperature of the air in the com-
pression chamber must not be increased too much.

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Chapter III Problems
A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted Afilled tank of carbon dioxide has a gage pressure
with a piston. The absolute pressure of the gas is of 45.0 lbs. / in. 2 when the temperature is 58 °F.
240 kPa when the volume is 0.15 m3. What will The temperature increases to 102°F on a very hot
the volume be when the absolute pressure of the day. What is the new gage pressure? Assume
gas is changed to 80 kPa while the temperature that the atmospheric pressure is the standard
is held constant? 14.7 lbs. / in.2

A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted A nosewheel tire is filled to a gage pressure of
with a piston. The gage pressure of the gas in the 105.8 lbs. / in.2 when the atmospheric pressure is
cylinder is 335 lbs. / in. 2 when the volume occu- 14.7 lbs. / in. 2 and the temperature is 85 °F. The
pied by the gas is 72 in. 3 What is the gage temperature decreases to 45 °F (as a cold front
pressure when the volume is decreased to 60 comes in) and atmospheric pressure decreases to
in. 3? Assume atmospheric pressure to be 15 13.9 lbs. / in. 2 Find the gage pressure under these
lbs. / in. 2, and assume that the temperature is new conditions of temperature and atmospheric
held constant. pressure. Assume that the volume of the tire
remains constant.
A tank of carbon dioxide has a gage pressure of
32.0 lbs. / in. 2 and a volume of 4.5 ft. 3 Care is A dirigible is filled with helium gas. The volume of
taken that the temperature remains the same as the balloon is 25,700 ft. 3, the absolute pressure is
the volume is gradually reduced with a tight-fit- 14.9 lbs. / in. 2 and the temperature is 87 °F. The
ting piston. When the volume has been reduced balloon later experiences an absolute pressure
to 2.3ft. 3 what is the new gage pressure? Assume 14.1 lbs. / in. 2 and simultaneously a temperature
standard atmospheric pressure, 14.7 lbs. / in.2 of 45 °F. What is the new volume of this balloon?

The volume of acetylene in a tank with a tight-fit- A tank is fitted with a tight piston. The gage
ting piston is 5.70 ft. 3 The gage pressure is 28.2 pressure is 68.0 lbs. / in. 2 If the temperature re-
lbs., / in. 2 The volume of the tank is increased until mains constant and the piston is moved so that
the new gage pressure is 20.0 lbs. / in. 2 What is the new volume is 35% of the original volume,
the new volume of the acetylene in the tank? what is the new gage pressure? Assume stan-
Assume that the temperature remains the same dard atmospheric pressure.
as the volume is increased and that there is
standard atmospheric pressure. A rubber helium balloon is purchased in a floral
shop on a hot summer day when the temperature
A sample of nitrogen is held at an absolute pres- in the air conditioned shop is 71 °F. The volume of
sure of 1.50 atmospheres and a volume of 7.80 the balloon is 0.354 ft. 3 in the shop. The balloon is
m 3 . A piston gradually reduces the volume to 6.30 carried into a car overheated by the greenhouse
m 3 . The temperature does not change. What is the effect to a temperature of 120 °F. Assume the pres-
new absolute pressure in atmospheres? sure remains the same. The balloon is seen to "puff
out". What is the new volume of the balloon?
A volume of 1.35 m3 of air at 17 °C is heated to
427 °C while its pressure is held constant. What A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an
is the volume of the gas at this elevated temper- absolute pressure of 5,550 lbs. /ft. 2 The temper-
ature? ature is 195 °F. What is the density of this carbon
dioxide?
7. Gas is contained in a cylinderfitted with a piston.
The gas pressure is held constant by a weight 14. The air pressure and density at a point on, the
resting on the piston. Initially, the volume of the wing of a Boeing 747flying at an altitude of 2900
gas is 75 in. 3 and its temperature is 515 °F. The m are 71.0 kPa, and 0.919 kg / m3 respectively.
cylinder is then cooled causing the volume to What is the temperature at this point on the wing
decrease to 25 in. 3 What is the temperature of the in degrees Centigrade?
gas corresponding to this volume?

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 The Goodyear non-rigid airship, the Mayflower, The volume of a "happy birthday" balloon is
has a volume of 4174 m3 and is filled with helium 0.950 ft.3 in afloral shop where the temperature
to an absolute pressure of 101.4 kPa. The tem- is 70 °F. The balloon is carried to an overheated
perature is 27 °C. Find the density and total mass car where the temperature is 102 °F. What is the
of the helium in the ship. new volume of the balloon? Assume the pressure
remains constant.
At an altitude of 8,000 ft. the absolute tempera-
ture of air is 490 °R and the absolute pressure is A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an
1572 lbs. /ft. 2 What is the density of air at this absolute pressure of 4,500 lbs. /ft. 2 and a temper-
altitude? 1 ature of 70 °F. What is the density of this carbon
dioxide?
17. A dirigible is filled with helium gas. The volume
of the balloon is 25,700 ft. 3 when the absolute A quantity of air occupying 0.9 ft. 3 at a pressure
pressure is 14.9 lbs. / in. 2 and the temperature is of 14.7 PSM and a temperature of 40 °F enters the
87 °F. The balloon later experiences an absolute compressor of a turbojet engine having a com-
pressure of 13.9 lbs. / in. 2 and simultaneously a pression ratio of 13:1 and is discharged at a
temperature of 25 °F. What is the new volume of temperature of 1,900 °F. With what volume will
this balloon? this quantity of air enter the combustion cham-
ber?

In the preceding problem, what will be the volume

if the discharge temperature is 700 °F?

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Chapter IV
The Atmosphere
On November 21, 1783, a hot air balloon carrying 19.4 kPa
Marquis d'Arlandes, flew 5 miles across the skies of p=
(0.287 kPa-m3/kg 9-K) (217aK)
Paris opening up new possibilities in travel and a
fresh interest in our atmosphere. It wasn't, however, = 0.312 kg/m3
until heavier-than-air flight became a reality that a
detailed understanding of the medium enveloping
our globe became essential. Cabin Altitude
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases which we Cabin altitude is a term used to express cabin
call air. Dry air is composed of approximately 21% pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea
oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% carbon dioxide. These level. For example, a cabin altitude of 6,000 feet
percentages remain fairly constant as we ascend means that the pressure inside the airplane cabin is
in altitude. However, the density of air decreases. the same as the atmospheric pressure at an altitude
This drop in density with altitude has great sig- of 6,000 feet. Looking at the Standard Atmosphere
nificance in aviation as it not only places limits Table (figure 4-1), the pressure is found to be 1,696
on the attainable altitudes, but also the powerplant lbs. /ft. 2 which upon division by 144 gives the pres-
performance of an aircraft. sure in lb. /in. 2 to be 11.78 lbs. /in.2
The mapping out of our atmosphere, that is, de- At a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet, the passengers
termining its density, pressure, and temperature and crew can ride in relative comfort without any
at different altitudes, required the effort of many special oxygen supply. Planes which fly at much
individuals working over many years. The fruit of higher altitudes than 8,000 feet must be furnished
this labor is a vast quantity of data which has with a special atmosphere control system. It is highly
led to the definition of a standard atmosphere. The advantageous to fly at high altitudes both for econ-
standard atmosphere, a term coined by Willis Ray omy of fuel consumption, and the smooth air high
Gregg in 1922, is a compilation of mean annual above the level of turbulent weather systems. At
atmospheric properties. Since our atmosphere un- these high altitudes, the pressure outside the plane
dergoes seasonal variations in properties such as can be significantly lower than the cabin pressure.
temperature, a mean or average value is used. Fig-
ures 4-1 and 4-2 are two tables of values for the At 8,000 ft., the Standard Atmosphere Table tells
standard atmosphere. The first table (figure 4-1) us that the air pressure is 1,572 lbs. / ft. 2 or 10.92
gives values in English units and the second (figure lbs./in. 2 This is the pressure that is normally main-
4-2) in metric units. It must be kept in mind that tained in the cabin even though the plane is flying
the numbers in these tables are annual averages at a higher altitude.
which can be useful for reference purposes but Suppose the plane is flying at an altitude of 40,000
do not indicate the actual atmospheric conditions ft. At this altitude the pressure (from the figure
existing at any particular moment. 4-1) is 393 lbs./ft. 2 or 2.73 lbs./in. 2 This means
that for a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft. for a plane
flying at 40,000 ft., there is a net outward pressure
EXAMPLE 4-A. of 8.19 lbs. /in. 2 This number was obtained by sub-
Using the Gas Law and the temperature and pres-
tracting 2.73 lbs. /in. 2 from 10.92. For a Learjet
sure at an altitude of 12,000 meters listed in the
24d with a pressurized area of 45,000 in. 2, we
Standard Atmosphere Table (figure 4-2), verify
are dealing with a bursting force of over 368,000
that the density of air at this altitude is 0.312 kg/m3.
lbs. (8.19 x 45 thousand). In addition to being able
to withstand this much force, a safety factor of
We will use the equation p = P/RT. 1.33 is generally used by design engineers. There-
fore, the pressurized portion of the fuselage must
be constructed to have an ultimate strength of over
460 thousand pounds or about 230 tons! The

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 challenge of finding light weight materials which air-conditioning system of a Boeing 747 can main-
can withstand these large forces is great. tain a pressure differential of 8.9 lbs./in. 2 This
In the description of an airplane's air condi- means that the system can maintain a cabin
tioning and pressurization system, a differential pressure 8.9 lbs./in. 2 greater than the atmo-
pressure is given. The differential pressure is the spheric pressure surrounding the plane. This
maximum difference between cabin pressure and also means that there is an upper limit imposed
atmospheric pressure which the pressurization by the pressurization system on the altitude at
system can sustain. For example, the air-cycle which the plane can fly.

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE - ENGLISH UNITS

ALTITUDE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE DENSITY
(FT.) (° R) (LB./FT.2) (SLUG/FT.3)

0 519 2,116 0.002377

500 517 2,078 0.002342

1,000 515 2,041 0.002308

2,000 512 1,968 0.002241

3,000 508 1,897 0.002175

4,000 504 1,828 0.002111

5,000 501 1,761 0.002048

6,000 497 1,696 0.001987

7,000 494 1,633 0.001927

8,000 490 1,572 0.001869

9,000 487 1,513 0.001811

10,000 484 1,456 0.001756

15,000 465 1,195 0.001496

20,000 447 973 0.001267

25,000 430 786 0.001066

30,000 412 630 0.000891

35,000 394 499 0.000738

40,000 390 393 0.000585

45,000 390 309 0.000462

50,000 390 244 0.000364

55,000 390 192 0.000287

60,000 390 151 0.000226

65,000 390 119 0.000178

Figure 4-1.

26
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 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE - METRIC UNITS
ALTITUDE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE DENSITY
(METERS) (°K) (kPa) (kg/m3)

0 288 101.3 1.225

100 288 100.1 1.213

200 287 98.9 1.202

300 286 97.8 1.190

400 286 96.6 1.179

500 285 95.5 1.167
600 284 94.3 1.156

700 284 93.2 1.145

800 283 92.1 1.134

900 282 91.0 1.123

1,000 282 89.9 1.112
1,500 278 84.6 1.058

2,000 275 79.5 1.007

2,500 272 74.7 0.957
3,000 269 70.1 0.909
3,500 265 65.8 0.863
4,000 262 61.7 0.819
4,500 259 57.8 0.777
5,000 256 54.0 0.736
5,500 252 50.5 0.697
6,000 249 47.2 0.660

6,500 246 44.1 0.624

7,000 243 41.1 0.590
7,500 239 38.3 0.557

8,000 236 35.7 0.526

8,500 233 33.2 0.496

9,000 230 30.8 0.467

9,500 227 28.6 0.439
10,000 223 26.5 0.414
12,000 217 19.4 0.312
14,000 217 14.2 0.228
16,000 217 10.4 0.166
18,000 217 7.57 0.122
20,000 217 5.53 0.0889
22,000 217 4.04 0.0650

Figure 4-2.

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 EXAMPLE 4-B. Figure 4-3 gives the saturated vapor pressure
of water at various temperatures.
The airline flying the Boeing 747 described above
stipulates that a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft. is to be
maintained at all times. This is done for the comfort
Absolute Humidity
of the passengers and crew. Therefore the pres- The absolute humidity is the actual mass of water
sure in the cabin will be maintained at 1,572 vapor in a given volume containing air and water,
lbs./ft. 2 or 10.9 lbs./in.2 As, we have said the calculated from p = P/RT.
pressurization system of the Boeing 747 maintains
a pressure differential is 8.9 lbs./in. Therefore, the Relative Humidity
minimum the outside air pressure can be is 10.9 - Usually, we rate humidity by using the concept of
8.9 = 2.0 lbs./in. 2 Converting to lb./ft. 2 gives an relative humidity and expressing it as a percent. The
outside pressure of 288 lbs./ft. 2 Referring back to definition is:
the Standard Atmosphere Table, we get a maxi-
mum altitude of about 47,000 ft. The cruise ceiling Relative Humidity =
for 1:he 747 is listed as 45,000 ft. partial water vapor pressure
x 100
saturated water vapor pressure
Absolute and Relative Humidity
Since the surface of a body of water (ocean, river, lake,
etc.) is exposed to the atmosphere, some water (H20)
EXAMPLE 4-C.
molecules are constantly in the process of gaining On a given day when the temperature is 77°F, the
enough heat energy to escape from the water surface water vapor pressure is 15.4 mmHg. By referring
and enter the atmosphere. The rate of this process, to figure 4-3, we see that at 77°F the saturated
evaporation, is determined by the temperature of the water vapor pressure is 23.76 mmHg. This means
water. As the water molecules enter the atmosphere, that the air is not holding as many water vapor
they contribute a pressure of their own. The water molecules as it can at this temperature. The calcu-
molecules seem to ignore the presence of the air. lation of relative humidity, often just called humid-
ity, is as follows:
If the air is saturated, it contains as many water
molecules as it can at the given temperature. The
air may not be saturated and the water vapor pres- Relative Humidity = 15.4 mm Hg x 100 =- 65%
sure may be less than its maximum value at that 23.76 mm Hg
temperature.
For comfort the relative humidity should be from
40 to 50%. We see that the above situation would
result in a "sticky" day.
SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE
Humidity and Comfort
(on (mm of Hg) (LBS./IN.2) When the relative humidity is high, the evaporation
of moisture from the skin is slowed down. This
- 40 0.097 0.0019 evaporation process is the body's attempt to regulate
its temperature. This is why the human body is so
- 4 0.776 0.0150 uncomfortable when the relative humidity is high.
14 1.95 0.0377 As air cools, the water vapor pressure remains
the same. If, on the day discussed above, when
32 4.58 0.0886
the water vapor pressure was 15.4 mmHg, the tem-
50 9.21 0.178 perature gdes down to 68°F, the relative humidity
changes. The calculation is, for this new temper-
68 17.53 0.339
ature:
77 23.76 0.459

86 31.82 0.615 Relative Humidity = 15.4 mm Hg x 100 = 88%

17.53 mm Hg
122 92.52 1.789
Figure 4-3.

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 The day which was somewhat "sticky" has now contain the same number of molecules". This idea
become really unbearable! has since been proven theoretically and experimen-
tally and is now referred to as Avogardo's law.
Suppose we have two containers which have the
EXAMPLE 4-D. same volume. And suppose that one of the con-
The wintertime also has its problems with humidity. tainers is filled with a certain gas which might
Suppose that the outside temperature is 14°F and be a mixture like air or a pure substance like oxygen.
the water vapor pressure is 0.997 mmHg. At this The other container also contains some gas, hy-
temperature, the saturated water vapor pressure drogen, acetylene, petroleum vapor, etc. What
is 1.95 mmHg. Avogadro's law tells us is that if both the tem-
perature and pressure in the two containers is the
same then "counting" the number of molecules in
Relative Humidity = 0.997 mmHg x 100 = 51% each container would give the same answer.
1.95 mmHg
Consider a volume of dry air (no water molecules).
As this air enters a non-airconditioned home And to be very clear suppose it contains exactly
heated to 68°F, the water vapor pressure remains 100 molecules, 20 oxygen and 80 nitrogen. The
the same. Indoors, the relative humidity can again average mass of these molecules measured in atomic
be calculated using the fact that the saturated mass units is 29 so that the total mass of the
water vapor pressure at 68°F is 17.53 mmHg. air in our volume would be 2,900 amu. Now consider
an equal volume of air with water vapor present
so that in addition to the oxygen and nitrogen mol-
Relative Humidity = 0.997 mmHg x 100 = 5.7% ecules, water molecules are present. If the tem-
17.53 mmHg
perature and pressure in the two volumes of air
Because the relative humidity is so low inside the are the same, then by Avogadro's law, the volume
house (as low as the desert), perspiration evapo- with the water molecules must also contain 100
rates very rapidly from the skin and the occupants molecules. If, for example, our volume contains 5
feel very cold. In addition, such low humidity tends water molecules then the total of nitrogen and ox-
to aggravate the mucous membranes of the nose ygen molecules will be 95.
and throat. This allows us to understand two important effects
Air conditioning units, if they are to work to make which water vapor has on the performance of air-
humans comfortable, have to adjust both the tem- craft. First, the lift on an aircraft depends directly
perature and the relative humidity. on the density (mass per unit volume) of the air
streaming past the surfaces of the craft. The average
mass of a molecule of dry air (oxygen and nitrogen)
The Dew Point is 29 atomic mass units, while the mass of a water
The dew point is the temperature at which the air, molecule is only 18 atomic mass units. With water
having a definite water vapor pressure, becomes vapor in the air, molecules with an average mass
saturated. For example, from the table we see that of 29 amu have been replaced by molecules with
at 77°F the saturated water vapor pressure is 23.76 a mass of 18 amu thus decreasing the density
mmHg. If the temperature is above 77°F and the and reducing the lift on the aircraft.
water vapor pressure is 23.76 mmHg the relative The second effect has to do with the combustion
humidity is less than 100%. However, if the temper- process in the powerplant of the aircraft. As we
ature cools to the dew point (77°F for this water have seen, a given volume of air with water vapor
vapor pressure) the relative humidity becomes 100% present has less oxygen in it than an equal volume
and condensation occurs on all surfaces. of dry air other conditions being the same (water
has replaced the oxygen). Since oxygen is the com-
Avogadro's Law ponent of the air responsible for combustion, if
In order to explain the observed behavior of gases the fuel air mixture provided by the carburetor
which react chemically, (an example of this would be is set for dry air conditions and there is water
the combustion of fuel in an engine.) Amadeo Avoga- vapor present in the air there will be inadequate
dro put forward (1811) the idea that "equal volumes oxygen. This will result in incomplete combustion,
of all gases at the same temperature and pressure and a loss of power.

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Chapter IV Problems
Verify.that using the Gas Law (p = P/RT) and the 4. On a day when the temperature is 86 °F the
temperature and pressure from the Standard water vapor pressure is 21.2 mmHg.
Atmosphere Table, at an altitude of 65,000 ft., What is the relative humidity?
the density of air is 0.000178 slug /ft.3 The temperature changes suddenly to 77 °F
while the water vapor pressure remains the
A pressurized Cessna Centurion H has a cabin same. What is the new relative humidity?
pressurization system which can maintain a 5. On a day when the temperature is 14°F the water
pressure differential of 3.45 lbs. / in. 2 What is the vapor pressure is 1.23 mmHg.
maximum altitude at which the plane canfly and What is the relative humidity?
still maintain a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet? As this air enters a house heated to 77 °F,
what is the relative humidity inside the
3. What is the maximum altitude at which this house?
same Cessna plane canfly and maintain a cabin 6. On a day when the outside temperature is 50 °F
altitude of 6,000 ft.? and the vapor pressure is 8.86 mmHg, what is the
relative humidity? What is the relative humidity in
the cabin of a 747 where the temperature is 68 °F
and the vapor pressure is the same as the outside
air? Will the passengers be comfortable?

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Chapter V
Motion and Acceleration
Definition Now we must extend our treatment of motion
to include the concept of acceleration. Acceleration
When a body is moving in a straight line with con-
(for straight-line motion) is the rate of change of
stant speed it is not accelerating. We say, in this
speed in time. We define acceleration (for straight-
case, that it is moving with constant velocity. If a
line motion) in the following manner:
body's velocity is not constant, it is accelerating. A
body accelerates if it is changing its speed and/or
its direction. V f — Vi
(2) a=
When we discuss a body's straight-line motion,
then we do not have any change in direction. In
this special case, any acceleration is due to a change In using this formula, a may be either positive
in speed. or negative. If vi is less than vi, then our value
of a turns out to be a negative number.
Special Formulas Dealing
with Straight-Line Motion
EXAMPLE 5-A.
In all of the following discussion, certain symbols will
be used. These symbols are summarized below: A truck is initially travelling at a speed of 50
ft./sec. The driver applies his brakes for 15 sec.
The final speed of the car is 20 ft./sec. What is
Vav = average velocity
the acceleration?
t = time
vi = initial velocity 20 ft./sec. — 50 ft./sec.
a
Vf = final velocity 15 sec.
a = acceleration
—30 ft./sec.
* s = distance covered a=
15 sec.
* Note that s is the traditional notation for dis-
tance in almost all physics textbooks. This choice ft./sec. ft. 1
a —2 —2
reduces confusion with the symbol d, for deriva- sec. sec. sec.
tive, a concept from calculus.

There is a formula dealing with the motion of a = —2 ft. 2

a body that you have used for many years. In grade
sec.
school, you probably memorized the formula in
these words:
Notice that the unit of acceleration has the square
of a time unit in its denominator.
distance = rate x time A little thought will convince you that an accelera-
tion is positive if the body is increasing speed and
Using our above symbols, we could write: negative when the body is decreasing its speed.
If we cross-multiply in formula (2) we obtain:
(1) s = vavt
at = Vf—vi
Note that for the rate, we have used the average
speed. We all know that even though sometimes After transposing, we can write:
speed changes, we can always talk about the average
speed. Thus, if we travel at an average speed of (3) of = vi + at
50 MPH for 6 hours, we cover 300 miles.

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 If an automobile is on an expressway and the vf + vi
driver is increasing speed smoothly and regularly, s=
2
we note that his average speed is the average of
his initial and final speed. vf = vi + at
The equation can be written:
1 2
Vf + Vi S = V it + - at
2
Vav = 2
Iv. vf 2 = vi 2 + 2as
If this value of vav is substituted into equation (1),
we have:
When a body in straight line motion is not chang-
ing speed, or in cases where we are interested only in
of +
(4) S= the average speed, the formula is more simple.
2
S = vavt
In this equation, we can substitute for vf using the
value in equation (3).
Formulas I through IV are used in many practical
physics problems. Note that each one involves four
v.1
+ at + vi 2v.1
+ at
s= t= quantities. When a problem is given to you to solve,
(5) 2 2 be sure to determine which of these three quantities
are given to you, and which quantity is to be found.
After a bit of algebra, we obtain: Choose the formula which involves these four quan-
tities. If the formula is not solved for the unknown
1 quantity, solve for this quantity algebraically. Finally
(6) s = v t + — at
i 2 2 substitute the known quantities and solve for the
unknown quantity.
Equation (4) can be written, after cross-multi- An example should clarify the above procedure.
plication:

2s = (vf + vi) t EXAMPLE 5-B.

An automobile has an initial speed of 50 ft./sec.
We can now multiply equation (2) by equation (7). and a final speed of 75 ft./sec. While it is undergo-
After cancelling time (t) on the right: ing this change of speed, it travels a distance of
125 ft. What is its acceleration?
In attacking this problem it is wise to write down
2as = (vf — vi ) (vf + vi)
exactly what is known and what is unknown.

Or 2as = vf 2 - vi 2 vi = 50 ft./sec. vf = 75 ft./sec.

s = 125 ft. a= ?
The final form of this formula is:
Formula IV involves these four quantities. Note
vf 2 = v. 2 + 2e- as that I, II, and III do not involve these exact four
quantities. Formula IV is the one to use. First it
should be solved for the unknown, a.

Equations (4), (3), (6), and (8) are very important 2 2 2 as

Vf = +
formulas. They enable us to deal with all kinds of mo-
tion problems where the body is in straight line mo-
vf v• 2 =2
•-
tion and is changing its speed. These formulas will 2 - as
be summarized below. They will be numbered with
Roman numerals and can be referred to by these
numbers when used in the problem exercises.

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 9.8 m/sec. 2 or 32 ft. /sec. 2 If the body is rising
V f 2- V. 2 and therefore decreasing its speed the values of
a= the acceleration will be -9.8 m/sec. 2 or -32 ft. /sec.2
2s
If a body falls from a height greater than about
324 ft. above the surface of the earth, the air re-
(75 ft./sec.) 2 - (50 ft./sec. ) 2 sistance becomes very important. As we have said,
a=
2 (125 ft.) a height of 324 ft. corresponds to a fall of 4.5
sec. When the time of fall increases to about 8
seconds, the speed of fall has increased to about
3125 ft. 2/sec 2 ft 1
a= • - 12 5
. • 115 MPH. When the time of fall is between 4.5 sec.
250 ft. SeC` and 8 sec. the speed increases in a nonlinear manner
from 98 MPH to 115 MPH. As the time of fall increases
ft. beyond 8 seconds the speed of fall remains constant
a = 12.5
sec. 2 at about 115 MPH. This speed of fall is called the
"terminal velocity".
All of the above data indicates that it is possible
to use the acceleration formulas with accurate re-
Accelerated Motion of sults for many applications dealing with falling bod-
a "Freely Falling" Body ies. We will limit our applications to cases where
Common experience indicates that falling bodies the formulas are valid: heights less than 324 ft.
accelerate or increase in speed as they fall. Close to and times of fall less than 4.5 seconds.
the surface of the earth this "acceleration of a freely
falling body" has been measured to be about 32
ft. / sec. 2 in the English system and 9.8 m/sec. 2 in EXAMPLE 5-C.
the metric system. The "about" in the preceding A body started from rest and has been falling freely
sentence indicates that this quantity varies some- for 3 sec. At what speed is it falling?
what over the face of our earth. The values given are
average values.
v. = 0
When we use the words "freely falling", we mean
that we are neglecting the effects of air resistance
(as if we were in a vacuum). Of course, there is t = 3 sec
always air resistance, so how can we neglect it?
When a body is falling with a great speed, air a = 32 ft. /sec.2
resistance can certainly not be neglected. To use
the acceleration formulas in these cases would give We will use Formula II.
us results that are not valid. However, if a body
is falling close to the surface of the earth, the ac- of = vi + at
celeration formulas do give us valid results if the
height from which it falls is not too great. ft, ,
Some numerical data should clarify the preceding of = 0 + (32 ) (3 scc.)
sec.4
statements. If a compact body, such as a stone,
is dropped (not thrown) from a height of 324 ft.
ft.
above the surface of the earth, it will take about
4.5 sec. for the body to reach the ground. It will vf = 96 sec.
have obtained a speed of 144 ft. /sec. (98 MPH).
At this speed, the effects of air resistance are still EXAMPLE 5-D.
quite negligible. Above this speed (98 MPH), the effects A body started at rest and has been falling freely
of air resistance are not negligible. for 3 sec. How far has it fallen?
Therefore, we can conclude that the fall of a body
from a height of 324 ft. or less (or equivalently v. = 0
during a time of 4.5 sec. or less) can be handled
quite accurately with the ordinary acceleration for- t = 3 sec
mulas. The value of the acceleration will be either

33

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 a = 32 ft. /sec.2 In this kind of motion, the body is accelerating,
not because it is changing its speed, but because it
is changing its direction. When we deal with the
s
causes of acceleration (forces), you will understand
how important it is to understand centripetal accel-
We will use Formula III.
eration. We need to know what must be done to
keep a body moving in a circular path. A body must
1 be pulled to the center of a circular path. If this
s = vet + — r
2 center-directed pull is not present, the body will
move off along a tangent. We note that:
s (0) (3 sec. ) + :21 (32 ft. .) (3 see.) 2
A = " change in"

s = 144 ft. Refer to figure 5-1. The speed of the body is not
changing, therefore, the lengths of the vectors vi
and v2 are the same.
EXAMPLE 5-E.
A body is thrown upward with an initial speed of V i = V2 = V
120 ft./sec. How high does it rise?
Also, Av is the change in the velocity vector. Arc
v . = 120 ft./sec. s approximately equals chord s.
The triangles are similar (same shape) and,
of = 0 therefore, the sides are proportional.

s = Av
a = —32 ft./sec.2
R v

s=?
Av = sv
R
We will use Formula IV.
Divide each side of this equation by t.
Vf 2 = Vi2 +2 as

Av sv
Vf
v f 2 — „vi 2 t tR
S=
2a
We recall that the velocity equals the distance (s)
divided by the time (t).
0 — (120 ft. ) 2
sec.
s=
2 (-32 ft. /sec.2) Av
t = v

ft A "'CO 2
S = 225 ' We also recall that acceleration equals the
sec. 2 Sk
change in velocity divided by the time in which
s = 225 ft. this change occurs.

V2
Centripetal Acceleration Centripetal Acceleration =
ca= R
There is another type of acceleration called centrip-
etal (centerseeking) acceleration. It occurs when a This formula says that the centripetal accelera-
body is moving with constant speed in a circular tion equals the square of the speed divided by the
path. Such a motion occurs when a plane moves in radius of the circular path.
a circular path or loop.

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Figure 5-1.

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Chapter V Problems
An automobile on an expressway is accelerating A ball is dropped from a bridge into the river
at 25ft. / sec. 2 If It startedfrom rest and has been below and 2.5 sec. after the ball is dropped a
accelerating for 4.56 sec., how far has it traveled splash is heard in the water below. How high is
during this time of acceleration? the bridge?

A truck had an initial velocity of 40 ft. / sec. It A car starts with an initial velocity of 34 ft. /sec.
accelerated at 10 ft. / sec. 2 and reached a final and accelerates for 5.6 sec. at 4 ft. / sec. 2 How
velocity of 65ft. / sec. Howfar did this truck travel far has it traveled during this time?
while it was accelerating?
A car starts at an initial velocity of 55ft. / sec. and
A car slowed down from 75 ft. / sec. to 40ft. / sec. comes to rest in 6 sec. How far has it traveled
while traveling a distance of 125 ft. What was during this time?
its acceleration?
A Piper Arrow has a take-off run of 1,110feet, at
A. car, originally traveling at 25 ft. /sec., in- the end of which its speed is 69.6 knots. What is
creases its speed at a rate of 5 ft. / sec. 2 for a the acceleration of the plane during the run?
period of 6 sec. What was its final speed?
A Cessna Agcarryall has a take-off run of 885
A. truck, originally traveling at 78 ft. /sec., slows feet, at the end of which its speed is 78 MPH. How
down to 34ft. / sec. during a 7 sec. interval. What much time does the run take?
is its acceleration?
A Grumman Tomcat, powered by two Pratt &
A car has an initial velocity of 45ft. /sec. It slows Whitney turbofan engines, has a maximum ac-
down at a rate of 5 ft. / sec. 2 and covers a dis- celeration during take-off of 23 ft. / sec. 2 What
tance of 56 ft. while slowing down. What is its velocity can it achieve by the end of a 900 foot
final velocity? take-off run?

A stone is dropped from a high building andfalls A plane is executing a horizontal turn at a speed
freelyfor 3.5 sec. Howfar (in meters) has itfallen of 255 MPH. The radius of the turn is 1,000 ft.
during this time? What is the centripetal acceleration in ft. /sec.2?

A stone is thrown upward with an initial velocity A boy is swinging a stone at the end of a string.
of 125 ft. /sec. How high does it rise? The stone is moving in a circular path. The speed
of the stone is 5 ft. /sec. and the radius of the
9. A baseball is thrown upward with an initial path is 1.5ft. What is the centripetal acceleration
velocity of 125 ft. /sec. What is the time of rise? of the stone?

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Chapter VI

Newton's Laws
The rapid advance in aviation in the first half of this Unconstrained passengers continue to move with
century can be attributed in large part to a science the velocity they had just prior to the collision only
of motion which was presented to the world three to be brought to rest (all too frequently with tragic
centuries ago by Sir Isaac Newton, a British physi- consequences) by surfaces within the vehicle (dash-
cist. Published in 1686, Newton's treatise on motion, boards, windshields, etc.).
The Principia, showed how all observed motions A less dramatic example of Newton's first law
could be explanied on the basis of three laws. The comes from the invigorating activity of shoveling
applications of these laws have led to great techno- snow. Scooping up a shovel full of snow, a person
logical advances in the aerodynamics, structure, swings the shovel and then brings it to a sudden
and power plant of aircraft. It is safe to say that any stop. The snow having acquired the velocity of the
future improvements in the performance of aircraft shovel continues its motion leaving the shovel and
will be based on these laws. This chapter will be going off onto the snow pile.
devoted to Newton's laws, examining some of their
applications in aviation. Newton's Second Law
A Learjet accelerates down the runway a distance of
Newton's First Law 3,000 feet, takes off and begins its climb at 6,000
The old magician's trick of pulling a cloth out from feet per minute quickly reaching a cruising altitude
under a full table setting is not only a reflection of of 35,000 feet, where it levels off at a speed of 260
the magician's skill but also an affirmation of a knots. Subsequently, the plane may have to perform
natural tendency which dishes and silverware share a variety of maneuvers involving changes in heading,
with all matter. This natural tendency for objects at elevation, and speed. Every aspect of the airplane's
rest to remain at rest can be attested to by any child motion is governed by the external forces acting on
who ever tried kicking a large rock out of his path. its wings, fuselage, control surfaces and power
It is also a well known fact that once a gun is fired, plant. The skilled pilot using his controls continually
the command "stop" has no effect on the bullet. Only adjusts these forces to make the plane perform as
the intervention of some object can stop or deflect it desired.
from its course. This characteristic of matter to
The interplay between force and motion is the
persist in its state of rest or continue in whatever
subject of Newton's second law. An understanding
state of motion it happens to be in is called inertia.
of this law not only provides insight into the flight
This property is the basis of a principle of motion
of a plane, but allows us to analyze the motion
which was first enunciated by Galileo in the early
of any object.
part of the 17th century and later adopted by Newton
as his first law of motion. While Newton's first law tells us that uniform ve-
The first law of motion is called the law of inertia. locity is to be expected when an object moves in
It can be summarized: the absence of external forces, the second law
states that to have a change in speed or direction
A body at rest remains at rest and a body in
an unbalanced force must act on the object. Using
motion continues to move at constant velocity un-
acceleration to describe the change in motion of an
less acted upon by an unbalanced external force.
object, the second law can be expressed:
The importance of the law of inertia is that it
tells us what to expect in the absence of forces,
F net = ma
either rest (no motion) or straight line motion at
constant speed. A passenger's uncomfortable ex-
In words, the second law states that a net or un-
perience of being thrown forward when an airplane
balanced force acting on an object equals the mass
comes to a sudden stop at the terminal is an example
of the object times the acceleration of that object.
of this principle in action. A more violent example
is the collision of a vehicle with a stationary object. Here, the net force is the total force acting on
The vehicle is often brought to an abrupt stop. the object, obtained by adding vectorially all of

37

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 the forces influencing the object. The mass is a this body are balanced. Similarly, if a body is mov-
scalar quantity. However, both the net force and ing in a straight line with constant speed, all of the
the acceleration are vector quantities. Mathema- forces acting on this body are balanced.
tically, this means that they must always point in For example, if a plane is traveling on a straight
the same direction. That is, at each instant the ac- stretch of runway at constant speed, there are four
celeration is in the same direction as the net force. forces acting on this plane: the earth is pulling down
Before we consider cases where the net force act- on the plane (its weight), the earth is pushing up
ing on a body is not zero, it is most important to on the plane (the normal force), the engine is giving
understand that sometimes the net force acting on a forward thrust to the plane, and frictional forces
a body is zero. The vector sum of the forces acting (air resistance, tires on runway, etc.) are acting back-
on the body in the x-direction is zero and the vec- ward. This is illustrated in figure 6-1.
tor sum of the forces acting on the body in the y-
Next, we must consider some examples where
direction is also zero. In this case we say that the
the net force acting on a body is not zero. The body
body is in equilibrium. From the law, net force
is accelerating. The body is experiencing a change
equals mass times acceleration, we know that
in its direction or in its speed or both. As a first ex-
since the net force is zero the acceleration is also
ample, a plane accelerating down a runway gets a
zero. Zero acceleration means that the velocity of
change in velocity in the direction of its motion.
the body in not changing in direction or in magni-
This is the same direction as the thrust provided
tude. This means that the body is moving in a
by the power plant.
straight line with constant speed or it has the con-
stant speed, zero (it is at rest). If we observe that a In figure 6-2, note that the thrust is greater than
body is at rest we know that all of the forces on the frictional forces. The net forward force is the

THRUST = FRICTION
WEIGHT = NORMAL FORCE

Figure 6-1.

Thrust — Drag = (mass) (acceleration)

ACCELERATION

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 o o 0 o o 000000000000
THRUST
FRICTION = D

Figure 6-2.

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thrust minus the friction. It is this net forward Similarly, a force of 1 newton applied to a mass
force that results in the acceleration of the plane. of 1 kilogram causes it to accelerate at 1 m/sec2.
In the last chapter, it was demonstrated that Using Newton's second law, we can write:
a ball whirled in a circle experiences an acceleration
toward the center of the circle. This acceleration 1 newton = 1 kilogram m/sec.2
is in the same direction as the force of tension
in the string which tethers the ball to the center and 1 pound = 1 slug ft./sec.2
of its revolution.
We note that Newton's second law is correctly
In figure 6-3, we have a constant change in the
written as:
direction of the motion of the ball. Threfore, we
have a constant acceleration. We recall that the
centripetal acceleration was calculated to be the Fnet = ma
square of the velocity divided by the radius of the
circular path. Thus, we can write the equation: However, we often assume that the force acting
on mass (m) is the net force. Thus, we usually
2 write the second law simply as:
F net = Mac Or Fnet = MV
F= ma
The units which we will use in our discussion of
Newton's laws are the same as the units used in or, for circular motion,
the formula relating weight to mass (w = mg). These
units are reviewed and summarized in figure 6-4. mv2
F- (Centripetal Force)
Each set of units (pound, slug, ft. / sec. 2 ) in the
English system, or (newton, kilogram, m/sec. 2 ) in
the metric system is said to be consistent in the Newton's second law when applied to bodies mov-
following sense. A force of 1 lb. when applied to ing in a circular path states that the force directed
a mass of 1 slug gives it an acceleration of 1 ft. /sec2. toward the center of the path must equal the mass
of the body times the square of the speed of the
body divided by the radius of the path. This force
is called the centripetal (center-directed) force.

TENSION
EXAMPLE 6-A.
Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object acted upon
by a net force of 1.5 lbs.
CENTRIPETAL
ACCELERATION
a=—
m

1.5 lbs.
a=
3 slugs
Figure 6-3.
a = 0.5 ft./sec.2

UNITS ENGLISH METRIC EXAMPLE 6-B.

A mass of 6 kilograms accelerates at 5 misec.2
Force pound (lb.) newton (N) Find the force which is acting on this object.
Mass slug kilogram (kg)
F = ma
Acceleration ft./sec.2 m/sec.2
F = (6 kg) (5 m/sec. 2) = 30 N
Figure 6-4.

39

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Newton's Third Law People are often confused by this principle be-
Newton's third law is sometimes referred to as the cause it implies, for instance, that in a tug of war
law of action and reaction. This law focuses on the the winning team pulls no harder than the losing
fact that forces, the pushes and pulls responsible for team. Equally enigmatic is how a horse and wagon
both the stability of structures as well as the accel- manage to move forward if the wagon pulls back
eration of an object, arise from the interaction of two on the horse with the same force the horse pulls
objects. A push, for example, must involve two ob- forward on the wagon. We can understand the re-
jects, the object being pushed and the object doing sults of the tug of war by realizing that the motion
the pushing. of the winning team (or losing team) is not deter-
mined exclusively by the pull of the other team,
The third law states that no matter what the cir-
but also the force which the ground generates on
cumstance, when one object exerts a force an a second
the team members feet when they "dig in". Recall,
object the second must exert an exactly equal and
it is the net force, the sum of all of the acting
oppositely directed force on the first. An apple hanging
forces which determines the motion of an object.
from a tree is pulled by the earth with a force which
we call its weight. Newton's third law tells us that The results of a "tug of war" can be quite different
the apple must pull back on the earth with an exactly if the "winning team", no matter how big and strong,
equal force. The weight of the apple is a force on is standing on ice while the "losing team" is able to
the apple by the earth, directed downward. The force establish good solid footing on rough terrain.
which the apple exerts back on the earth, is a pull Similarly, the horse moves forward because the
on the earth directed upward. Another force acting reaction force which the ground exerts in the forward
on the apple is the upward pull exerted by the branch. direction on its hooves is greater than the backward
The law of action and reaction tells us that the apple pull it receives from the wagon. By focusing now
must be pulling down on the branch with the same on the wagon, we see that it moves forward because
magnitude of force. the forward pull of the horse is greater than the

r '")
(fi2;t3,(1--,
1/40 THE APPLE PULLS DOWN
'\ 0'1( ,` P -J))
- ON THE BRANCH

THE EARTH PULLS DOWN

ON THE APPLE
6 THE BRANCH PULLS UP
ON THE APPLE

THE APPLE PULLS UP

ON THE EARTH

Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-6.

40

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backward pull of friction between its wheels and opposide force on the propeller. This reaction force
the ground. of the air on the propeller provides the thrust for
One of the main difficulties people have with the a propeller driven plane. The acceleration of the
third law comes from not realizing that the action air mass is:
and reaction forces act on different objects and
therefore can never cancel. Another difficulty vf — v i
comes from forgetting that the motion of an object a =
is determined by the sum of all of the forces acting
on that object. Substituting this into Newton's second law, we
In canoeing or rowing, a paddle is used to push find for the net force on the air mass:
water backward. The water reacts back on the
paddle generating a forward force which propels vf — v i•
the boat. F=M
Consider now a propeller as shown in figure 6-8.
The plane of rotation of the propeller is assumed Both of the velocities (v, and vf) are the velocities
to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The relative to the plane of rotation of the propeller.
flow of air is from left to right. We can imagine The time (t) is the time involved in accelerating the
the action of the propeller is to take a mass (M) air mass from vi to vf.
of air on the left and accelerate it from some initial
By Newton's third law, the thrust, which is the
velocity (vi) to a final velocity (vf) to the right of
force the air mass exerts back on the propeller, is
the propeller. The acceleration of this air mass re-
equal in magnitude to F. Therefore, the thrust (T)
quires a force which is provided by the propeller.
is given by:
The air mass, in turn, reacts with an equal and

vf — Vi
T=M

Recall that we have a symbol for "change in", this

means that we can write the above formula as:

Av
T=M

The velocities of the air mass are relative to the

plane, and therefore change as the plane's speed
changes. Also the time involved in accelerating the
air mass changes with the speed of the plane. This
FORCE OF FORCE OF causes considerable variation in the thrust pro-
PADDLE ON WATER WATER ON PADDLE
vided by a propeller.

Figure 6-7.

--- VI -OD.

— -

PROPELLER

Figure 6-8.

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EXAMPLE 6-C. EXAMPLE 6-D.
Each second a propeller accelerates an air mass The Pratt & Whitney J60 has a mass air flow of 23
of 12.2 slugs from rest to a velocity of 137 ft./sec. kg/sec. During a static test (initial velocity = 0) the
How much thrust is provided? exhaust velocity was measured to be 580 m/sec.
Determine the thrust produced.
Note that the ram drag is zero since v i is zero.
T = (12.2 slugs) 137 ft./sec. - 0
1 sec. Therefore, the thrust is equal simply to the gross
thrust.
T = 1,670 lbs.

T = — of
t
In contrast to the reciprocating engine driven pro-
peller which imparts a small change in velocity to Substituting the given values we have:
a relatively large mass of air, a turbojet induces a
large change in velocity to a relatively small mass T = 23 kg
(580 m/sec.)
of air. Here, the sole action of the jet engine is con- 1 sec.
sidered to be the intake of a mass of air at some
velocity (vi) and its exhaust at a higher velocity (vf). T = 13,300 N
Figure 6-9 is a sketch of a turbojet engine. The
velocity (vi) in the figure denotes the relative intake
velocity and of denotes the exhaust gas velocity. EXAMPLE 6-E.
The thrust formula which was obtained above for What would the thrust have been if the J60 of the
the propeller will now be applied to a jet engine. previous example had been in a plane moving at
The thrust formula above can be rewritten: 250 knots? Assume the same mass flow and ex-
haust velocity.
T= — Note that the ram drag is not zero in this case. In
t - order to calculate this ram drag we must use the
formula:
T = Gross Thrust - Ram Drag

The gross thrust is provided by the exhaust gases. ram drag = Vi

The ram drag of the incoming air is due to the

speed of the airplane. The effect of the ram drag Before substituting, we must express the initial
is to reduce the thrust provided by the engine as velocity in m/sec.
the speed of the plane increases.
250ets- x 1.668-k/sec. 0.30480 m
v .1 = -ke
1-knet- 1 -ft-
COMPRESSOR = 129 m/sec.

TURBINE
ram drag = 23 kg 129 m/sec.
1 sec.

'1111 1 11E
NOZZLE
ram drag = 2,970 N

MINES
Vi Vf

T = gross thrust - ram drag

BURNER T = 13,300 N - 2,970 N

DIFFUSER
T = 10,300 N
Figure 6-9.

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EXAMPLE 6-F. EXAMPLE 6-G.
During a static test (initial velocity = zero), a Pratt A French Dassault Falcon 30 is powered by two
& Whitney J75 produced a thrust of 16,000 lbs. Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines. Flying at sea
with an air mass flow of 8.23 slugs/sec. Determine level with a velocity of 154 m/sec. the air intake
the exhaust gas velocity of the engine. velocity is 154 m/sec. and the air exhaust velocity
Since vi is zero, the ram drag is zero and T = gross is 224 m/sec. The airflow through each engine is
thrust. 109 kg per second. Determine the thrust of each
engine.
M
T= —t vf T
= 109 kg (224 m/sec. – 154 m/sec.)
1 sec.
We solve for the final velocity:
T = 7,630 N
T
vf EXAMPLE 6-H.
= M/t
A Lockheed Jet Star is equipped with four Pratt &
16,000 lbs. Whitney JT12 engines. Cruising at 220 knots, each
vf = 8.23 slugs/sec. engine was found to be providing 1,420 lbs. of
thrust. If the airflow through each engine was 1.55
vf = 1,940 ft./sec. slug/sec., what was the exhaust gas velocity?

vi = 220 knots = 371 ft./sec.

The air intake velocity of a turbojet will be ap-
Tt = vf –
--- Vi
proximately equal to the airspeed of the plane. Let
M
us again examine the thrust formula.

Tt + v.
vf = M
M (\if - Vi)
T= -i- 1

It can be seen that the thrust may be increased (1,420 lbs.) (1 sec.)
vf = + 371 ft./sec.
in two ways, either by increasing the air mass flow 1.55 slug
through the engine (M/t) or increasing the exhaust
gas velocity (vf). vf = 1,290 ft./sec.

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Chapter VI Problems
Find the mass of an object which accelerates at At the beginning of its take-off, each of the two
S m/ sec. 2 when acted on by a net force of one turboprop engines of a Beechcraft Super King
newton. was generating a thrust of 13,500 N. If the
change in velocity of the airfromfore to aft of the
Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object experienc- propeller was 52.5 m/ sec., what was the mass
ing a net force of 12 lbs. of air being accelerated through each engine
each second?
Find the net force on a 5 slug object which is
accelerating at 3 ft. /sec.2 A Cessna Centurion H equipped with a 300
horsepower engine driving a three blade con-
stant speed propeller can generate 1,250 lbs. of
What centripetal force is needed to keep a 3 slug
thrust while each second accelerating 9.5 slugs
ball moving in a circular path of radius 2feet and
of air through the plane of rotation of the propel-
speed 4 ft. /sec.?
ler. What is the change in velocity of the air
induced by the propeller?
A plane weighs 36,000 lbs. The forward thrust
on the plane is 20,000 lbs. and the frictional
A Cessna Corsair is powered by two turboprop
forces (drag) add up to 2,000 lbs. What is the
engines. If each engine can produce a thrust of
acceleration of this plane? Hint: Be sure to find
2,400 lbs. while changing the velocity of the air
the mass of the plane from its weight.
from fore to aft of the propeller by 143 ft. /sec.,
what mass of air passes through the plane of
The four engines of a Boeing 747-100 transport rotation of the propeller each second?
can produce a combined thrust of 176,000 lbs.
at takeoff. The plane begins its roll with an
A Piper Archer H has an Avco Lycoming engine
acceleration of 7.56ft. /sec. 2 Frictionalforces are
driving a two blade propeller. Each second 8
negligible. What is the mass of the transport at
slugs of air are given a change in velocity of 122
this instant? What is the weight of the transport
ft. /sec. How much thrust is generated on the
at this instant?
propeller?
A Learjet Model 24 of mass 5,910 kg is observed
A Learjet Model 24B is powered by two General
to accelerate at the start of its takeoff at 4.3
Electric CJ 6106 turbojet engines. The static
mt/ sec. 2 What is the net forward force acting on
thrust was determined to be 2,950 lbs. with a
the plane at this time?
total airflow of 1.37 slug / sec. Determine the
exhaust gas velocity.
At one moment during the takeoff of a Jetstar, its
acceleration wasfound to be 8.95ft. /sec. 2, while
At a cruising speed of 481 MPH, what would be
the thrust of its engines was 12,000 lbs. Due to
the available thrust in problem 1 if we assume
fuel burnoff the weight of the plane at this mo-
that the airflow rate and exhaust gas velocity
ment was determined to be 41,100 lbs. What
were the same as for that problem.
was the drag (backward frictional force) on the
Jetstar at this instant?
16. The Garrett TFE 731-3-1D turbofan engine which
powers the Rockwell Saberliner 65 under static
9. During a static test, a Continental engine driving
testing has an exhaust gas velocity of 321
a two blade constant speed propeller was found
m/ sect and an airflow of 51.2 kg / sec. Find the
to accelerate each second a mass of 142 kg from
static thrust of the engine.
rest to a velocity of 40 m/ sec. Determine the
thrust on the propeller.

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17. The Garret TFE 731-3-1D has an airflow of 42.8 The Pratt & Whitney JT 9D-7F used in the Boeing
kg / sec. while the Saberliner cruises at 12 200 747 has an airflow rate of 698 kg / sec. and an
meters (40,000feet) at a speed of Mach 0.8 (236 exhaust velocity of 306 m/ sec. Determine the
m/ sec.). Assuming an exhaust gas velocity of static thrust of the engine.
321 m/ sec., determine the thrust produced by
the engine under these conditions. At an altitude of 10,665 m (35,000 feet) and a
cruising speed of Mach 0.85 (252 m/ sec.) the
Pratt & Whitney JT 9D-7F in the Boeing 747 has
a mass flow of 879 kg / sec. and an exhaust
velocity of 306 m/ sec. Find the thrust.

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Chapter VII
Work, Friction, Energy, Power,
and Bernoulli's Principle
Work EXAMPLE 7-C.
Work is done on a body when a force acts through a A sled is dragged over a horizontal snowy surface
distance. The definition of work involves the force by means of a rope attached to the front of the sled.
acting on the body (F) the distance through which this The rope makes an angle of 28° with the horizon-
force acts (S) and the angle (0) between the force vector tal. The sled is displaced a distance a 50 ft. The
and the distance vector. The definition of work is: worker exerts a force of 35 pounds. How much
work does the worker do? We use the formula:
W = FS cos 0
W = FS cos 0
Very often the force vector and the distance vec-
tor act in the same direction. In this case, the W = (35 lbs.) (50 ft.) cos 28°
angle (0) is a zero degree angle. If you check on
your calculator, you will find that the cosine of a
W = 1550 ft.-lbs.
zero degree angle is equal to one. This simplifies
things in this case because then work is simply
equal to the product of force times distance.
Sometimes the force and the displacement are in
The unit of work in the English system is the
the opposite directions. This situation gives rise to
foot-lb. Note that the two units are multiplied by
negative work. Note, in this case, the angle be-
each other. Students tend to write ft. /lb. This is
tween the force and the displacement is a 180°
incorrect. The unit is not feet divided by pounds. angle. The cosine of 180° is negative one.
In the metric system, the unit is the Newton-meter
or the Joule (J). Note that the Newton-meter has a One example of negative work occurs when a
name, the Joule. The foot-lb. has no special name. body is lowered in a gravitational field. If a student
carefully lowers a book weighing 15 pounds
through a distance of 2 feet, we note that the dis-
EXAMPLE 7-A. placement vector points downward and the force
vector points upward.
A puck lies on a horizontal air table. The air table
reduces the friction between the puck and the table
to almost zero since the puck rides on a film of air. W FS cos 0
A player exerts a force of 70 lbs. on this puck
through a distance of 0.5 feet, and he is careful that W (15 lbs.) (2 ft.) cos 180°
his force is in the same direction as the distance
through the force is applied. The player has done W (15 lbs.) (2 ft.) (-1)
35 ft.-lbs. of work on the puck.
W = -30 ft.-lbs.
EXAMPLE 7-B.
A book weighing 8 pounds is raised a vertical Friction
distance by a student demonstrating work. The We have referred to friction before. However, we will
book is raised 2 feet. The student has done 16 now try to quantify our ideas regarding friction.
ft.-lbs. of work.

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 COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION
MATERIAL [Istart

Steel on Steel 0.15 0.09

=-111---
=-111=-
---111=-111=-----111 =411 I III III III III
I= I= I= I= I
ra=-11111111=---111-=, Steel on Ice 0.03 0.01

Leather on Wood 0.5 0.4

Figure 7-1. Oak on Oak 0.5 0.3

Rubber on Dry Concrete 1.0 0.7

When a body rests on a horizontal surface or
Rubber on Wet Concrete 0.7 0.5
is dragged or rolled on a such a surface there is
always contact between the lower body surface and Figure 7-2.
the horizontal surface. This contact results in fric-
tion. Friction is work done as the surfaces rub
against each other. This work heats the surfaces The coefficient of starting friction— it start
and always results in wasted work. The coefficient of sliding friction
We need to define a force known as the normal
force. A body resting on a horizontal surface experi- Some values for the coefficients of starting and
ences two forces, the downward force due to the sliding friction are given in figure 7-2.
gravitational pull of the earth on this body (the
We note that the coefficients of sliding friction
weight of the body), and the upward push of the sur-
are less than the coefficients of starting friction.
face itself on the body (the normal force).
This means that the force needed to start a body
The weight (w) and the normal force (N) are equal to
sliding is greater than the force needed to keep
each other.
a body sliding with constant speed.
There are three kinds of friction:
When we deal with a body that rolls over a flat
Starting friction surface, we have another coefficient of friction to
Sliding friction consider: the coefficient of rolling friction.
3. Rolling friction
The coefficients of rolling friction (µroil) are very
Starling friction is the friction present at the in- small. Therefore, rolling friction is much smaller than
stant when a body, which has been at rest, just be- either starting or sliding friction. Some values are:
gins to move under the application of a force.
Sometimes this instant when the body begins to
Rubber tires on dry concrete 0.02
slide is called "break away".
Sliding friction is the frition present as a body is
Roller bearings 0.001 to 0.003
sliding over another surface. Sliding friction is pres-
ent when the surface of the body and the surface on
which lt slides are moving relative to each other.
EXAMPLE 7-D.
A steel body weighing 100 lbs. is resting on a
Rolling friction is the friction between a rolling
body and the surface on which it rolls. As in the
horizontal steel surface. How many pounds of
case of sliding friction, the body and surface are
force are necessary to start the body sliding? What
moving relative to each other.
force is necessary to keep this body sliding at
constant speed?
In all three cases, the friction equation is the same.

w = N = 100 lbs.
F = IAN

The symbol "4" (the Greek letter mu) is called

F = 1.1 N
the coefficient of friction.
Force to start sliding motion
Every pair of flat surfaces has two different co-
efficients of friction: = (0.15) (100 lbs.) = 15 lbs.

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 Force to keep body sliding Now we note that the speed obtained by the body
during the time of acceleration is given by the equation:
= (0.09) (100 lbs.) = 9 lbs.
v=at

Energy Therefore, we can substitute v for at in the equa-

The concept of energy is one of the most important tion above.
concepts in all of physical science. We often hear of
energy sources, alternate energy, shortage of energy, 1
W=-m9
conservation of energy, light energy, heat energy, 2
electrical energy, sound energy, etc. What is the
exact meaning of this word, energy? The equation we have obtained is the defining
Sometimes energy is defined as the "capacity to equation for a quantity known as kinetic energy.
do work". This definition is only a partial definition. Usually, we use the symbol "KE" for kinetic energy.
However, it has the advantage of immediately re-
lating the concept of energy to the concept of work.
These two ideas are intimately related to each other. KE = mv 2
2
Energy is a quality that a body has after work
has been done on this body. Once work has been After the work has been done on the mass (m)
done on a body of mass (m) this body has energy. it moves off on the frictionless air table with this
The body can then do work on other bodies. Consider kinetic energy. This body now is capable of doing
the following situation: work on other bodies that it contacts. For example,
A body of mass (m) was resting on a horizontal it probably will strike the edge of the table. When
air table. A player exerted a horizontal force (F) this happens this kinetic energy will be changed
on this mass through a distance (S). Since the into other types of energy such as sound energy
angle between the force and the displacement was or heat energy.
a zero degree angle, the work done on this body We note that the initial kinetic energy of the mass
was simply FS. At the instant the player removed (m) was zero. This is true because the body was
his hand from the body we note two facts. The initially as rest. We can say that the work done
body accelerated while the force (F) was acting on on the body is equal to the change in the energy
the body and the body has acquired a velocity (v) of the body.
during this time of acceleration (a). The body has
moved through a distance (S) in time (t). Gravitational Potential Energy
Another equally important situation where an
2 agent easily can do work on a body (and thus give
S= at
2 the body energy) occurs when the agent raises a
body vertically in a gravitational field, at the sur-
Also note that the force (F) is related to the ac- face of the earth.
celeration by the relation: In this case, the work done on the body again
equals the force applied multiplied by the distance
F - ma the body is raised.
We now look again at this body at the instant W = FS
the force (F) has ceased acting. We note that work
(W) has been done on this body, and that the body
moves with speed (v). W = (weight of body) (distance raised)

We recall that w = mg. Also since the distance

W = FS = (ma) (-;- ate) is a vertical distance we use the symbol "h" for
height. In our discussion we will assume that the
symbol "h" always represents the vertical distance
1 of the body above the surface of the earth.
W = — m (at) 2

49
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 Therefore, we write: EXAMPLE 7-F.
W = mgh A body of mass, 10 kg, falls to the earth from a
height of 300 m above the surface of the earth.
Again we have a case where an agent did work on What is the speed of this body just before it touches
a body and the body has acquired "energy". This ground?
type of energy is known as gravitational potential
energy, however, we usually symbolize it as "PE". PE; = KEf
PE = mgh
1
(4-0-kg) (9.8 m 2 ) (300 m) = (1-0-kg) v2
If we neglect air resistance (which results in loss of sec. 2
energy to heat), we note that there is a conservation
of kinetic and potential energy of a body moving in a m2
gravitational field. As a body falls from a height (h) 1
2,940 2 - v2
2
and moves closer to the surface of the earth, its po- sec.
tential energy decreases and its kinetic energy in-
creases while it is falling. Therefore, there is an easy
way of finding the speed of a falling body during any 5,880 m = v 2
sec.2
instant of its fall.
The units for energy are the same as the units for
work, the Joule (J) in the metric system and the foot- v = 76.7
pound in the English system.
sec.

EXAMPLE 7-E.
The kinetic energy that the body has just before
A body of mass 4 slugs is held by an agent at a it reaches the ground immediately changes to sound
distance of 6 ft. above the surface of the earth. The energy and heat energy on impact. It may also
agent drops the body. What is the speed of the "squash" any body in its path or make an inden-
body when it is on the way down and at a distance tation in the earth.
of 2 feet above the earth's surface?
We note that the initial potential energy is equall to Momentum
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies on the The term "momentum" is often confused with kinetic
way down (wd). energy, because momentum also depends on the
mass of an object and its velocity. The definition of
PE; PEwd + KEwd momentum is very simple:

(4-slug) (32 ft' ,) (6 ft.) - Momentum = mass x velocity = my

sec.`
1 Momentum is important when we discuss col-
(4-slug) (32 ft. 2 ) (2 ft.) + — 4-slug) v2
sec. 2 lisions. We will return to momentum and collisions
in a later chapter.
ft 2 ft 2 1 2
192 = 64 +—v Power
sec. 2sec.2 2
Power is the rate of doing work. The more rapidly a
piece of work can be done by a person or a machine,
ft 2 1 2
128 ' - v the greater is the power of that person or machine.
sec. 2 2 We define power by the following equation:

ft 2 work force x distance

256 ' = v2 Power ti =
sec. 2 me time

v = 16 ft.
sec.

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 In symbols: Alternate Form for Power
We can put our formula for power in another form by
FS
P - recognizing that is speed (v). This leads to the

formula:
In the English system the unit of power is the
horsepower and in the metric system the unit is FS S
the watt. P= =F—
t
In figure 1-6, we noted that there are conversion
factors giving us information regarding these units, P = Fv

ft.-lbs. ft.-lbs. This form is particularly useful for obtaining an

1 Horsepower = 550 - 33,000
sec. min. expression for the power output of a turbine engine.
These engines are ordinarily rated in terms of the
Joule thrust which they produce. To obtain an expression
1 Watt = 1
sec. for their power output it is necessary to multiply
their thrust by the speed of the plane. This thrust
1,000 Watts = 1 kilowatt power, which is usually expressed in units of horse-
power (THP, thrust horsepower), can be obtained
EXAMPLE 7-G. by multiplying the thrust in pounds by the speed
in ft./ sec. and dividing by 550 where the conversion
An airplane engine weighing 4,000 lbs. is hoisted
1 HP = 550 ft.-lbs./sec. is used. Thus:
a vertical distance of 9 feet to install it in an aircraft.
The time taken for this piece of work was 5 min-
utes. What power was necessary? Give the an- THP _
thrust in lb. x aircraft speed in ft./sec.
swer in ft.-lb./sec. and in horsepower. 550

Alternatively, we can take the speed of the aircraft

FS (4,000 lbs.) (9 ft.) in MPH and use the conversion 1 HP = 375 mi.-lbs./hr.
P=
300 sec. to obtain:

1 HP thrust in lb. x aircraft speed in MPH

P = 120 ft. lbs./scc. x THP _
550 ft. lbs./sec. 375

P = 0.218 HP
EXAMPLE 7 -I.
A gas turbine engine is producing 5,500 lbs. of
EXAMPLE 7-H. thrust while the plane in which the engine is in-
An elevator cab weighs 6,000 N. It is lifted by a 5 stalled is traveling 450 MPH. Determine the THP.
kW motor. What time is needed for the cab to
ascend a distance of 40 m? (550 lbs.) (450 MPH)
THP = 6,600 HP
375
FS
t=
P
It is important to note that while the thrust of
(6,000 N) (40 m) a gas turbine engine may not vary much over a par-
t =
5,000 Watts ticular range of aircraft speeds, the power must be
recalculated each time the plane changes its speed.
t = 48 sec.

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Reciprocating Engine Power This represents the work done by one cylinder in
We will now direct our attention to the power deliv- one power stroke. Since one revolution of the crank-
ered by a reciprocating engine. Since these engines shaft corresponds to two strokes of the piston, and
are rated according to their power output, obtaining there is one power stroke per cycle (4 strokes), there
a formula for this output in terms of certain key is one power stroke per two revolutions of the piston.
variables will enable us to understand their design Let n equal the number of power strokes. Then:
and operation better.
n = Number of power strokes
The work which is the source of power for the
number of revolutions
reciprocating engine comes from the expansion of
hot gasses within a cylinder. This expansion forces
2
a piston to move up and down within the cylinder. Therefore, the total work output ( Wt ot) from a K cyl-
This motion is converted to a rotation by the action inder engine in n power strokes is:
of a connecting rod on a crankshaft.
One full upward motion of the piston or one full Wtot = PALnK or PLAnK
downward motion of the piston is called a stroke.
Most aircraft reciprocating engines operate on a four - EXAMPLE 7-J.
stroke cycle called the Otto cycle in honor of the Suppose we have a 12 cylinder engine (K = 12)
German physicist who developed it. with an average pressure (P = 155 Psi) during the
The four-strokes making up the cycle are the power stroke, an Area (A = 28.3 in. 2, this corre-
intake stroke, the compression stroke, the power sponds to a diameter of 6 in.), and a stroke length
stroke and the exhaust stroke. During the intake (L = 8 in. = 0.667 ft.). Find the total work output in
stroke, the piston moves down in the cylinder draw- 50 revolutions (50/2 power strokes).
ing the fuel /air mixture into the cylinder. The ro-
tational motion set up in the propeller and Wtot = ( 155 Psi) (28.3 in. 2) ( 0.667 ft.) (50/2) (12)
crankshaft carries the piston upward compressing
the fuel/air mixture. This is the compression stroke.
Wtot = 878,000 ft.-lbs.
It is in the next stroke, the power stroke, that
the fuel/air mixture is ignited driving the piston If the crankshaft rotates at 50 revolutions per sec-
down and generating the mechanical energy of the ond, then the power output would be:
engine. In the upward exhaust stroke, the products
of combustion are eliminated from the engine. The Power = 878,000 ft.-lbs./sec.
cycle then repeats.
The work done by the expanding gas during the Therefore:
power stroke can be calculated in the following
way. The notation is as follows: 1 HP
Power = 878,000 ft.-Ibs./sec. x
550 ft.-lbs./sec.
P= average effective pressure during the power = 1,596 HP
stroke in PSI
L= length of the stroke in feet
A= area of the piston head or cross-sectional Indicated Horsepower
area of the cylinder in sq. in. We can write an expression for what is called the
N = number of power strokes per unit time indicated horsepower (indicated HP) of an engine.
K = number of cylinders
indicated HP = PLANK/550
Since the force (F) on the piston can be written: where N = the number of
power strokes per second
F= PA
Another formula is:
The work done by the piston during the stroke is:
indicated HP = PLANK/33,000
W = FL = PAL where N = the number of
power strokes per minute

52

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 The 33,000 represents the horsepower written in We also review that the volume of a cylindrical
the form: shaped body is given by the product of the area
of the base (A) by the length (L) of the body (see
figure 7-3).
550 ft.-Ibs. 60 sec.
1 HP — x - 33,000 ft.-lbs./min. Recall that force is equal to the product of the
sec. 1 min.
pressure x the area:

EXAMPLE 7-K. F = PA
Given:
Recall also that:

Effective pressure (P) 150 PSI

Work = FS cos 0 = Change in Energy
Stroke (L) 0.5 feet
Diameter of piston head 5.5 inches We will derive Bernoulli's Principle in the special
RPM 2,000 case where there is no change in gravitational po-
Cylinders 12 tential energy. This special case makes the der-
ivation somewhat simpler and is the relation we
The indicated HP is: need for applying the principle to an airplane wing
where the upper and lower surfaces of the wing
are at approximately the same height above the
indicated HP = (150 psi) (0.5 ft.) [3.14 x (2.75 in.) 2] earth's surface. A "flowline" is the average path
(2,000/2) (12)/33,000 = 648 HP molecules of a fluid take as the fluid is in the
process of flow. We consider "flowlines" of fluid as
in figure 7-4.

Bernoulli's Principle The fluid flows from a region where the cross-
sectional area is less (labelled with l's in the di-
Bernoulli's Principle applies the ideas of work and
agram) to a region where the cross-sectional area
energy and the conservation of energy to a mass of
is greater (labelled with 2's) in the diagram. We
fluid (liquid or gas). Since it is not as easy to think
assume that the volume of fluid in the left cylindrical
of a mass of fluid as it is to think of a discrete body,
shape of fluid (labelled with l's) is equal to the
the derivation of this principle requires some
volume of fluid in the right cylindrical shape of
thought and effort.
fluid (labelled with 2's).
It is worth the thought and effort, however, since The fluid flows because of the fluid pressure.
this principle is the basic principle of the flight The left volume experiences a force from left to
of heavier-than-air aircraft.
right while it moves forward from left to right. Pos-
We review that the density of a fluid (p) is related itive work is done on the left volume. The right
to the mass and volume of the sample of fluid volume experiences a backward force as it tries
by the relation: to flow forward. The force on it is from right to
left and it moves forward from left to right. Negative
m=p V work is done on the right volume.
We note that the following notation is used for
the pressure and velocity at the left and right volumes:
V = AL
P1 = Fluid pressure on the left volume
V1 = Velocity of the fluid in the left volume
P2 = Fluid pressure on the right volume
V2 = Velocity of the fluid in the right volume
Also V = The common volume
L And = Density of the fluid

Figure 7-3.

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 We now use the work-energy principle which Therefore, we can write:
says that the work done is equal to the change
in energy. 1 2 1 2
PiV + —
2 PV = P 2V + —
2 P V v2
Work Done = Change in Kinetic Energy
We note that each term contains the volume (V).
We can cancel it from each term.
1
Fi + F2 L2 ) = —2 m V2 2 - 1 M V / 2
2
1 2 1 2
P1 + —
2P = P2 + P v2
Transpose the terms with Vs to the left member
and the terms with 2's to the right member. This equation is the form of Bernoulli's equation
that we will use in our aircraft applications.
1 1 We note that this equation relates the pressure and
- m v2 2
2 m v 1 2 = F 2 L2 + 2
F1 L1 + —
velocity of a fluid in two different places (quantities with
the l's and those with the 2's). One example of the use
of this equation occurs when the fluid is air and the two
1 1
P 1 A1 L 1 + —
2 2 V p v2 2
p v 1 2 = P2A2L2 + — different places are the upper and lower surfaces of an
airfoil such as an airplane wing, a propeller blade, or a
helicopter rotor.
We know that the volume under consideration at We also note that the relation between pressure
the left is equal to the volume under consideration and velocity is not a simple inverse proportion. How-
at the right. Therefore, we can say that: ever, as in any equation, the left and right members
of the Bernoulli Equation must remain equal. There-
V= = A2L2 fore, if the velocity of the air across an airfoil is in-
creased the pressure is decreased and vice versa.

Ai
N —Tom`
7"..-
\ \
\
i i i
I I
-41.--r--
1F2
/ I i
n /
\,........./1 n .N...---- i

kill— I-2 —Ild

Figure 7-4.

Figure 7-5.

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 An airfoil surface is designed in such a way to the same larger area. As a fluid flows through this
that the air is forced to flow past the upper sur- tube the velocity of the fluid changes from a lower
face at a higher velocity than across the lower velocity to a higher velocity and finally back to the
surface. It follows that the air pressure is less on same lower velocity. We note that, if the rate (volume
the upper surface of the airfoil than it is on the per time) of fluid flow is to remain constant, the fluid
lower surface. This higher pressure on the lower must flow faster when it is flowing through the
surface of the airfoil and lower pressure on the smaller area.
upper surface results in a net upward force
A diagram of a venturi tube is shown in figure 7-5.
called the lift.
In a later chapter, we will apply Bernoulli's Equa- The height of the fluid column in the vertical
tion in some numerical examples. You may want to tubes at the three places shown in the diagram, is
check the material in chapter 17. an indication of the fluid pressure. As we expect
from Bernoulli's Principle, the pressure is greater
Venturi Tube where the velocity is lower and vice versa.
A venturi tube is a tube constructed in such a way
that the cross sectional area of the tube changes Venturi tubes in different shapes and sizes are
from a larger area to a smaller area and finally back often used in aircraft systems.

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Chapter VII Problems
1. How much work is done by a person in raising a 10. A body of mass 3 slug is a distance of 30ft. above
45 lbs. bucket of water from the bottom of a well the earth's surface and is held there by an agent.
that is 75 ft. deep? Assume the speed of the The agent drops the body. What is the speed of
bucket as it is lifted is constant. the body just before it hits ground?

2. A tugboat exerts a constant force of 5,000 N on 11. A baseball has a mass of 0.025 slug. It is held a
a ship moving at constant speed through a har- distance of 7 ft. above ground by an agent. It is
bor. How much work does the tugboat do on the released by this agent and begins to fall to the
ship in a distance of 3 km? ground. What is its speed when it is a distance
of 4ft. above ground on the way down?
A block is dragged over a rough, horizontal sur-
face by a constant force of 78 lbs. acting at an An airplane engine weighing 12,000 N is lifted
angle of 25 above the horizontal. The block is by a 4.5 kW motor a distance of 11 m. What time
displaced a distance of 45 ft. How much work is was needed?
clone by the worker?
A hand powered hoist is used to lift an aircraft
Afather has his 45-lb. son on his shoulders. He engine weighing 3,000 lbs. a vertical distance of
lowers the child slowly to the ground, a distance 8 ft. If the worker required 4 minutes to do this
of 6 ft. How much work does the father do? job, what horsepower was developed by the
man?
A big brother pulls his little sister a distance of
90 ft. on a sled. He exerts a force of 78 lbs. The An elevator used to raise cargo must raise a load
rope makes an angle of 35 ° with the horizontal. of 9,000 lbs. a vertical distance of 25 ft. in 50
How much work does he do? seconds. What is the power requirement of the
motor? Give your answer in both horsepower
and kilowatts.
An aircraft with a weight of 85,000 lbs. is towed
over a concrete surface. What force must the
towing vehicle exert to keep the airplane rolling? How long does it take a 5 kW motor to raise a
load weighing 6,000 lbs. a vertical distance of20
ft.?
It is necessary to slide a 200-lb. refrigerator with
rubber feet over a wet concrete surface. What
force is necessary to start the motion? Whatforce A gas turbine engine is producing 6,500 lbs. of
is necessary to keep the motion going? thrust in a plane traveling at 500 MPH. Determine
the thrust horsepower.
A 5.6 slug body has a speed of 43 ft. /sec. What
is its kinetic energy? If its speed is doubled, what If the plane in the preceding problem reduces its
is its kinetic energy? speed to 400 MPH, determine the new thrust
horsepower.
9. A 2 kg ball hangs at the end of a string 1 m in
lengthfrom the ceiling of a ground level room. The 18. A gas turbine engine is producing 5,500 lbs. of
height of the room is 3 m. What is the potential thrust in the plane in which it is installed. How
energy of the ball? fast must the plane travel (in MPH) to produce a
THP of 7,000 HP?

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19. The gas turbine engine of a plane traveling at 400 20. The engines in the AVCO Lycoming 0-235 series
MPH produces a thrust horsepower of 6,600 HP. have four cylinders with a piston diameter (bore)
How many pounds of thrust are produced by this of 4.5 inches and a stroke of 3.875 inches. Fill in
engine? the missing values in the table below.

MODEL MODEL MODEL

0-235 C 0-235 H 0-235 L
indicated HP 115 109
(HP)

P
135 141
(PSI)

L
(ft.)
A
(in.2)

N
strokes 1400 1200
min.

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Chapter VIII
Simple Machines and the
Principle of Work
We defined work in chapter 7. The definition is as to raise each cement block directly to the truck
follows: bed. This is possible but can be difficult if each
block weighs, say, 175 lbs.! In this case it would
W = FD cos 0 be better to use a machine since a machine usually
decreases the force supplied by the worker and
The symbol for "distance" has been switched from increases the distance through which his force acts.
s to D, to emphasize that we are dealing with dis- In the equations which follow, the subscript "o"
tances in our treatment of simple machines. will stand for output and the subscript "i" will
The angle (0) in this definition is the angle between indicate input. We will use the following defining
the direction of the force vector and the direction equations:
of the displacement vector.
In this chapter, we will assume that in all the Wo = FoDo
cases we will study the force and displacement
vectors act in the same direction. This implies that Wi = Fp;
the angle (0) is a 0° angle and since the cosine
of a 0° angle equals one, the equation for work It is important to realize that there is no perfect
becomes the simple equation: machine. In our real world, on our earth, there
is always some friction. We always have, at least,
W = FD air resistance. In addition, there is friction due to
the nooks and crannies that we would see if we
In this chapter, we will study six simple machines: inspected the surfaces of our machine parts with
The lever a high-powered microscope.
The pulley Because of the constant presence of friction the
The wheel and axle input work is always greater than the output work.
The inclined plane Some of the input work is not useful work but
The screw serves to produce sound energy (a squeak), light
The hydraulic press energy (a spark), or heat energy.
We will use the symbol "Wt" to represent work
General Theory of All Machines lost because of friction.
In discussing machines, we will assume that there is
an object on which work is to be done. We will call
= Wo Wf
this object the load. In most cases, it is required that
the load be raised a certain distance in a gravitational
We define two kinds of "mechanical advantage".
field. For example, we wish to put cement blocks
The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is the ratio
originally on the ground into the bed of a truck.
of the output force to the input force. This actual
A machine is a device for doing this work. The mechanical advantage tells us how much easier
input work is, by definition, the work done by the
it is for the worker. The ideal mechanical advantage
worker, that is, the force applied by the worker (IMA) is the mechanical advantage that would exist
multiplied by the distance through which the
if there were no friction in the machine. It is the
worker's force acts. The output work is, by definition, ratio of input distance to the output distance.
the force that actually acts on the load multiplied
by the distance the load is raised.
Fo Di
We note that one way to do work is to do it AMA
Fi
IMA „Tc,
directly. For example, it is possible for the worker

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 The ideal mechanical advantage of a machine Di 15 ft.
can always be determined by measurements made IMA = = = 6
D o2.5 ft.
on the machine itself.
The efficiency of a machine (Eff) is the ratio of The actual mechanical advantage of a machine is
the output work to the input work. 8 and the efficiency of this machine is 78%. What
is the ideal mechanical advantage?
Eff = -v-v-7
AM A 8
IMA = 0.78= 10.3
Eff
F
Eff =oDo A worker uses a machine to raise a load of 500 lbs.
FiDi
a distance of 2 ft. He does this by applying a force
of 100 lbs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was
This equation can also be written with a complex
the efficiency of the machine?
fraction in the right member.

Fo/Fi Method 1:
Eff = 500 lbs.
Di/Do AMA - =5
100 lbs.
12 ft.
AMA IMA = 2 ft =6
Eff =
IMA
AMA 5
Eff = = = 83%
IMA 6
AMA = (Eff) IMA
Method 2:
The efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or as
a percentage. For example, if the efficiency is calcu- W o = ( 500 lbs.) (2 ft.) = 1,000 ft.-lbs.
lated as 0.78, we can expressed it as 78%. W i = (100 lbs.) (12 ft.) = 1,200 ft.-lbs.
One final point should be made regarding effi-
Eff = W o = 1,000 ft—lbs.
ciency. There is no machine that is 100% efficient. 0.83 = 83%
We always have some friction. However, some-
W i1,200 ft.-lbs.
times we assume that there is no friction and that
the machine is perfect or ideal! If a problem says
that the efficiency is 100%, we are doing a make- We will next consider six simple machines. In
believe problem. This kind of a problem is not each of these cases the IMA is expressed, not as
meaningless, however, because it tells us the best the ratio Di/Do, but in some other manner. We
that this machine can do. In this ideal case the will study the geometry of each of these simple
AMA equals the IMA. machines to determine how to express the IMA
in some simple equation.
EXAMPLE 8-A.
A worker is able to raise a body weighing 300 lbs.
The Lever
by applying a force of 75 lbs. What is the AMA of Consider the diagram in figure 8-1. Note that the
the machine that he is using? lever always pivots about some point called the
fulcrum. The input force (Fi ) is a downward force and,
in our diagram, is applied at the right end of the lever.
Fo 300 lbs. This input force gives rise to an upward force at the
AMA = — = =4
F i75 lbs. left end in our diagram. This upward force causes
the load to be raised and is called "Fo".
A worker applied his force through a distance of 15 In figure 8-2, note that the input force acts
ft. The load is raised a distance of 2.5 ft. What is through a distance (D1) and the load is raised a
the IIMA of the machine that he used? distance (Do).

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 The distance from the input end of the lever to However, figure 8-2 shows that the ratios of lever
the fulcrum is called the input lever arm (Li) and arms and distances are equal:
the distance from the output end to the fulcrum
is called the output lever arm (Lo). D; L1
' '
Recall that: DoLo

Di
IMA = Since it is much easier to measure lever arms
Do that the distances of rotation, we always use the
ratio on the right hand side of the above equation
to express the IMA of a lever.

Lever IMA = Li

There are three classes of levers:

1st Class: The fulcrum is between the load and the
applied force. Examples are the claw
hammer, scissors, and crowbar.
2nd Class: The load is between the fulcrum and
the applied force. Examples are the
nutcracker and wheelbarrow.
Figure 8-1. 3rd Class: The applied force is between the
load and the fulcrum. An example
is ice tongs.
In a third class lever, the IMA is less than one.
There is no force advantage. However, there is a speed
advantage. The work can be done in less time.

Figure 8-2.

Figure 8-3.

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The Pulley that there are 2 strands supporting the load. The
Some pulleys are firmly attached to an overhead IMA of a single movable pulley is 2.
support while other pulleys move up or down with In figure 8-3C, there is a single movable pulley
the load. We will refer to pulleys as "fixed" or and a single fixed pulley. The fixed pulley again
"movable". serves to change the direction of the input force.
In figure 8-3A, we have shown a single fixed The IMA is still 2. Note also that there are again 2
pulley. If a length of pulley cord (Di) is pulled down strands supporting the load.
by a worker, the load will be raised a distance We conclude that the IMA of a pulley equals the
(Do). We see from the diagram that these distances number of strands supporting the load.
equal each other. Therefore we conclude that the
IMA of this type of pulley is one. For example, it (Pulley) IMA the number of strands
would take 100 lbs. of force to raise a 100 lbs.
supporting the load
load. The advantage of using this type of pulley
is that the worker is able to pull down on the Several other examples of various types of pulley
pulley cord and in this way an upward force is
blocks are shown in figure 8-4.
applied to the load. We say that a single fixed pulley
is a "direction changer". The Wheel and Axle
In figure 8-3B, there is a single movable pulley. Note that one cord is wrapped around the axle of
A study of the diagram shows that Di is always radius (r). The load is attached to this cord. Another
twice Do. For example, if the load is to be raised 2 cord is wrapped around the wheel of radius (R). The
ft., the worker must pull in 4 ft. of cord. Note also worker applies his force to this second cord.

IMA-2 IMA=4 IMA=4

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8-4.

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 Both wheel and axle turn together. This means Di 2 TEIR R
that if the wheel rotates through one revolution the IMA = — = -
Do 2nr r
axle also turns through one revolution.
Let us suppose that the worker pulls in a length of
cord equal to one circumference of the wheel (Di). The R
Wheel and Axle IMA = —
load will be raised a distance equal one circumfer-
ence of the axle, (Do).
The Inclined Plane
In the inclined plane shown in figure 8-6 we note
that the worker slids the load up the incline. The
input distance (Di) is therefore equal to the length of
the incline (L). The effect of this is that the load is
raised a distance (h). This means that the output
distance (Do) equals h also.

IMA =
Di _ 1
Do h = h/L

We note that the sine of the angle of inclination

(0) is also h/L. Therefore, we can write the expression
for the IMA as follows:

1
Inclined Plane IMA =
sin 0

The Screw Jack

The pitch of the screw (p) is the distance between
Figure 8-5. adjacent threads (see figure 8-7). As the handle is
turned through one revolution, a distance given by
2 n R, the load is raised a distance of one pitch.
Therefore, we have the relation:

2 nR
Screw Jack IMA =

A screw jack has a great deal of friction. Therefore

its efficiency is usually very low. However, the dis-
Figure 8-6.
tance through which the input force acts in com-
parison to the pitch is usually very large. This gives
a screw jack a large mechanical advantage.

The Hydraulic Press

A cross section of an hydraulic press is shown in
figure 8-8. The small rectangles are cross sections
of the circular input and output pistons. Usually, we
talk about the areas of the input and output pistons
(Ai and A0). We note that the smaller of the two pistons
is the input piston (radius = r) and, of course, the
larger piston is the output piston (radius = R).
An hydraulic press is filled with some fluid (gas
or liquid). This fluid exerts a common fluid pressure
Figure 8-7.
throughout the device.

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 We have obtained equations for the IMA of each
of the six simple machines. We will do an example
of a typical problem dealing with machines. Note
that any one of the six could be chosen as an
example. In the problems that follow the example,
be sure to use the correct formula for the IMA.

EXAMPLE 8-B.
The radius of the wheel in a windlass (wheel and
axle) is 3.5 ft. and the radius of the axle is 0.27 ft. The
efficiency of the machine is 60%. What load can be
lifted by this machine by using a force of 75 lbs.?
Figure 8-8.
3..
5 ft
IMA = = 13.0
0.27 ft.
As the smaller piston moves downward a distance
(di) the larger piston moves upward a distance (do). AMA = (Eff) (IMA)
We recall that the volume of a cylindrical shape
is equal to the area of the circular base x the altitude. AMA = (0.60) (13.0) = 7.8
Also, a volume of fluid is transferred from the input
(left) cylinder to the output (right) cylinder. The
volume of fluid is constant since the pressure is
Fo = (AMA) (F1)
constant. Therefore, we can write the equation:
F o = (7.8) (75 lbs.)
r 2di = n Redo
F o = 585 lbs.
We can cancel the common factor (n) and re-
arrange the equation. We obtain: EXAMPLE 8-C.
An inclined plane has a 32° angle of incline. A force
di R2 of 50 lbs. is required to slide a 90 lbs. load up the
d 0r
= 2 incline. What is the efficiency of this machine?

The left member of this equation is, by definition,

IMA = . = 1.89
the IMA. Therefore, the IMA is also equal to the n32°
right member of this equation. Thus, we can finally
say that: 90 lbs.
AMA - = 1.8
50 lbs.
R2
Hydraulic Press IMA =
r2 Eff -
AMA 1. 8
= 0.95 = 95%
IMA 1.89

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Chapter VIII Problems
It takes a force of 85 lbs. to raise a body that A nutcracker is used to crack a walnut. The
weighs 239 lbs. What is the actual mechanical distancefrom thefulcrum to the nut is 1.2 in. and
advantage of the machine that was used? the distance from the fulcrum to the hand is 5.1
in. The efficiency is 95%. The worker uses aforce
A load is raised a distance of 5.7 ft. by a force of 7.0 lbs. Whatforce was applied to the walnut?
acting through a distance of 17.9 ft. What is the
ideal mechanical advantage of the machine that A light aircraft has a hydraulic braking system.
was used? Each rudder pedal is connected to a master
cylinder which provides braking for one of the
What is the efficiency of a machine having an main landing gear wheels. Each master cylinder
IMA of 6.9 and an AMA of 5.1? has a radius of 1/4-inch. The cylinder on the
wheel has a radius of 1.0 inch. If the system is
95% efficient and the pilot exerts aforce of 55 lbs.
A load weighing 130 lbs. is raised a distance of
on the pedal, how much force is exerted on the
4.1 ft. by a machine. The worker using the ma-
brake disc by the wheel cylinder?
chine exerts a force of 52 lbs. through a distance
of 12.3ft. What was the efficiency of the machine?
A hydraulic press is used to raise an automobile
in a repair shop. Aforce of 64.8 lbs. is needed to
A machine having an efficiency of 95% is used to
raise a car weighing 2,500 lbs. The efficiency of
raise a load weighing 500 lbs. a distance of 3 ft.
the press is 95%. If the radius of the input piston
A worker exerts a force of 100 lbs. to do this
is 4.00 inches, what is the radius of the output
work. Through what distance must this 100 lbs.
piston?
force act?
A jack screw has a pitch of 0.14 inches and the
The radius of the wheel of a windlass is 4.0 ft.
radius of the handle is 11 inches. The efficiency
and the radius of the axle is 0.23ft. The machine
of the machine is 38%. What force must be ex-
is 78% efficient. What force must be exerted to
erted to raise an automobile weighing 2,800 lbs.?
raise a load of 500 lbs. with this machine?
A pulley system has five strands supporting the
A jack screw has a pitch of 0.12 in. and the
load. Aforce of 51 lbs. is needed to raise a load
radius of the handle is 9 in. The efficiency of the
of 200 lbs. What is the efficiency of this pulley
machine is 35%. What force must be exerted to
system?
raise a body weighing 2,000 lbs.?
A can opener is used to open a can of paint. The
An inclined plane has an angle of inclination of
distance from the fulcrum to the place where the
28°. The machine is 68% efficient. What load can
lever fits under the lid of the can is 0.25 inches.
be raised by a force of 70 lbs.?
The distance from the fulcrum to where the force
is applied by the painter is 6.2 inches. The effi-
The large piston of an hydraulic press has radius ciency is 72%. If a force of 51 lbs. is needed to
1.5 ft. and the small piston has radius 0.32 ft. open the can, whatforce must be supplied by the
Assume that the machine is 100% efficient. What painter?
load can be raised by a force of 75 lbs.?
17. The radius of the wheel of a windlass is 3.5 ft.
A pulley system has four strands supporting the and the radius of the axle is 0.34ft. The machine
load. Aforce of 55 lbs. is needed to raise a load is 75% efficient. What force must be exerted to
of 200 lbs. What is the efficiency of this pulley raise a load of 450 lbs. with this machine?
system?

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 An airline uses an inclined plane to load cargo. A wheel and axle is used to raise the anchor on
The load weighs 2,500 lbs. and a force of 800 the "dream boat". The anchor weighs 1,500 lbs.
lbs. is used. The efficiency is 76%. What is the and a force of 300 lbs. is used. The efficiency is
angle of the incline? 65%. If the radius of the wheel is 23 inches, what
is the radius of the axle?
A jack screw is used to raise an automobile to
change a tire. The weight of the automobile is An inclined plane is used to slide a body into the
3,000 lbs. A force of 25 lbs. is used. The effi- door of a warehouse. The body weighs 875 lbs.
ciency is 34%. The handle has a radius of 13 and a force of 200 lbs. is applied. The efficiency
inches. What is the pitch of the jack screw? of the plane is 75%. What is the angle of the
incline?

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Chapter IX
Rotational Motion
In chapter 5, we discussed constant speed and ac- If the point moves with constant speed it also
celerated motion in a straight line and derived four has a constant angular velocity. That is, the line
important formulas which will be reviewed below. In drawn from the point to the center of the circle
this chapter we will consider motion which takes sweeps out a definite number of revolutions, ra-
place on a circular path. Such motion is very common dians, or degrees each second or minute. The symbol
in our complex society and we need to understand used to represent angular velocity is the Greek letter
more about motion in curved paths. omega (w).
Before we begin our discussion, we need to define Angular velocity can be expressed in different
a new unit for measuring angles, the radian (see units, such as,
figure 9-1).
A radian is defined as the central angle subtending radians rev. degrees
a length of arc equal to the radius of the circle. sec. sec. sec.
A radian is approximately equal to 57.3°. The con-
version factors for angle units are: radians rev. degrees
min. min, min.
1 revolution - 360°
1 revolution = 2 a i-adians It is also possible that the point is not moving
2 Tr radians = 360° with constant angular velocity. It may be increasing
or decreasing its angular velocity. When a record
1 radian = 57.3°
starts rotating on a turntable the angular velocity
increases until it reaches a constant value. After
Now let us consider a body (represen ted by a
the reject button is pushed the angular velocity
point) moving in a circular path. An initial reference
decreases until the record comes to rest.
line is shown in figure 9-2. As the point moves
about the circle in a counterclockwise sense, a line In both of the above cases we say that the point
drawn between the point and the center of the has an angular acceleration. The Greek letter alpha
circle continuously sweeps out an angle. This angle (a) is used for angular acceleration. Note that a
can be measured in revolutions, radians or degrees. is positive if the angular velocity is increasing and
We call this angle the angular displacement of the negative if the angular velocity is decreasing.
point and use the Greek letter theta (0) to represent Angular acceleration can also be expressed in
this angular displacement. different units,

Figure 9-1. Figure 9-2.

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 radians rev. degrees EXAMPLE 9-B.
sec. 2sec. 2sec. 2 A propeller starts from an angular velocity of 900
rev./min. and accelerates at 100 rev./min. 2 for 5
radians rev. degrees minutes. Through how many revolutions has it
min. 2min.2 min.2 turned?

Now as a body moves in a circular path four ,2

0 = w i t + - ar
similar equations hold as in the case of a body 2
moving in a straight-line path. Both sets of equations
will be shown below. It is important to re-memorize = (900 (5 1 rev.
the equations for straight-line motion (see chapter
0 rev.) min.) 4. (100 ,) (5 min.) 2
/k 2 min.'
5). In this way the other four equations will also
be known, since they are exactly analogous.
0 = 5,750 revolutions
Vf + vi f + co i
s= 0 =
2 EXAMPLE 9-C.
A propeller starts at 1,000 rev./min. and acceler-
vf = v i + at (o f = co i + at ates at 100 rev./min. 2 through 2,000 revolutions.
What is its final angular velocity?
1 .9 ,2
s = v t + - ar 0= wi t + 2- a r- +2 auq
i 2 f 2 = coi2

vf 2 = v. 2 + 2as CO f 2 = cu i 2 + 2a0 rev. 2 rev.

w f 2 —(1,000 + 2 (100 ,) (2,000 rev.)
min.)
Study these equations carefully and note that
the set to the right, the "rotational analogs - are rev.
easily remembered if the left set is well known. CO f = 1,180
min.
We recall that the subscripts" i" and"f" indicate "ini-
tial." and "final".
These four rotational equations help us to solve
We note that there is an acceleration of the body
many practical problems dealing with rotating bodies.
"in the path", called the tangential acceleration.
The body is increasing or decreasing its speed of
traversing the circle. We recall also that when a
EXAMPLE 9-A. body moves in a circle there is also a centripetal
A rotating machine part increases in angular ve- acceleration, v2 /R, that is always directed toward
locity from 3 rev./min. to 35 rev./min. in 3.5 min- the center of the circular path.
utes. What is its angular acceleration? Thus when a body is increasing speed as it moves
We use the following equation and solve it for a.. in a circular path there are two acceleration vectors,
one tangent to the path, and the other directed to
co f = co i + at the center of the path! In figure 9-3, the body is
increasing speed in the counterclockwise sense. The
co f - coi directions of the two acceleration vectors are shown.
- a
Radian Measure
In figure 9-4, s is the length along the path. We would
We now substitute our known values.
like to relate this distance to the size of the central
angle (0) and the radius (R) of the circular path. In
35 rev./min. - 3 rev./min.
a- - 9.14 rev./mm.2 our preceding discussion, the angle (0) was mea-
3.5 min.
sured in any of three different units, degrees, revo-
lutions, or radians.

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 The usual mathematical notation for a very small
quantity is the use of the Greek letter Delta (A).

A s = RA 0

Let us divide both members of this equation by

the time, (At) during which the motion occurred.

A s =R
A0
At At

We can write:

v = Rw

Figure 9-3. If this velocity in the path is changing, there is also

a change in the angular velocity. Assume that this
change occurs in the small time interval (At).
We can write:

Av = RAw

Next we divide left and right members by At.

AvA =R
w
At At

The tangential acceleration (at) in the left mem-

ber is the rate at which a body moving in a circular
path is picking up speed in the path. It is equal to
the radius times the angular acceleration (a).
Figure 9-4. We can write:

at = R a
The equation that relates s to 0 and R is a very
simple one if we limit the angular unit to radians.
This equation is: Let us summarize the three important equations
we have derived:
S = RO
s=R
We see that this equation is true if we look at
figure 9-4. We note, by measuring, that the equation v = Rw
is satisfied. We also see that it would not be true
if the angle 0 was in revolutions or degrees. at = R a
We now have a new problem to deal with in our
treatment of rotational motion. There is a limit to All three of these equations require the use of ra-
the units that may be used in this equation. We dian measure. This means that:
repeat that, for this equation, we must use radian
measure. Also, any equation that is derived from 0 must be in radians
s = RO will have this same restriction.
w must be in rad./min. or rad./sec.
Suppose that a body moves a small distance along
a must be in rad./min. 2 or rad./sec.2
the path and sweeps out a small central angle.

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 Note that the radian is called a "dimensionless" right member of the second equation above actu-
unit. We put it in or take it out for clarity! ally come out as "nothing"/sec. We put in the radian
unit in the numerator for clarity.
In order to find our answer in rev./min. we use the
EXAMPLES 9-D. proper conversion factors.
A car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius
150 ft. It sweeps out an angle of 200°. How far has fad-. 60 sec. 1 rev.
it traveled? = 0.352 x
seer. 1 min. x 6.28 rad-.
We note that:
co = 3.36 rev./min.
.28ar.
d
0 = 200° x 6 360° - 3.49 rad.
EXAMPLE 9-F.
s = 0 A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of
radius 4,000 ft. It is increasing its speed at a rate
s = (150 ft.) (3.49 rad.) of 15 ft./sec. 2 What is its angular acceleration in
rev./sec.2?
s = 523 ft. We use the equation:

at = R a
EXAMPLE 9-E.
A race car is traveling at a speed of 176 ft./sec. at 15-k/sec.2
(120 MPH) around a circular racetrack of radius 500 a= = 4,000 ft
ft. What is the angular velocity of this car in
rev./min.?
a = 0.00375 rad./sec.2
Use the equation:
We note that the unit is rad./sec. 2 because the
v = Rw equation that we have used requires radian mea-
sure.
v 176 ft./sec. To obtain a in rev./sec. 2 , we must use the standard
or
w= = 500 ft. conversion factor.

rad. fad. 1 rev.

= 0.352 a = 0.00375
sec. sec. 2 x 6.28 red,

Note that we knew that the unit of our answer is

rad./sec. and not rev./sec. since the equation we a = 0.000597 rev./sec.2
used always is in radian measure. The units in the

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Chapter IX Problems
A propeller starts from rest and accelerates at A plane is circling O'Hare in a circular pattern of
120 rev. / sec. 2 for 4 seconds. What is its final radius 15,000 ft. It sweeps out an angle of 340
angular velocity in rev. /sec.? in rev. /min.? 0. How far has it traveled?

A rotating turntable starts from rest and acceler- A plane is circling an airport in a circle of radius
ates at 5 rev. / min. 2 for 3 min. Through how 5,000 ft. How far has it travelled after 4 revolu-
many revolutions has it turned? tions?

A helicopter main rotor starts from an initial A race car is moving on a circular track of radius
angular velocity of 2 rev. / min. and accelerates 600ft. It is traveling at a speed of 100 MPH. What
at 60 rev. / min. 2 while turning through 400 rev- is its angular velocity in rev. / min.?
olutions. What is its final angular velocity?
A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of
A propeller starts with an initial angular velocity radius 800 ft. It is accelerating at a rate of 10
of 2,000 rev. / min. and decelerates at a rate of ft. / sec.2 What is its angular acceleration in
5,000 rev./ min. 2 until it comes to rest. What is rev. / sec.2?
the time (in seconds) of this deceleration?

5. A helicopter tail rotor starts with an initial angu-

lar velocity of 15 rev. / sec. and decelerates at a
rate of 2.00 rev. / sec. 2 until it comes to rest.
Through how many revolutions has the rotor
turned while it comes to rest?

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Chapter X
Archimedes' Principle and Dirigibles
Archimedes was a Greek philosopher and mathema- is exposed to the atmosphere. Let us also assume
tician who lived about 250Bc. There is a story (maybe that the density of the liquid is p (rho).
even true) about Archimedes that every physics In figure 10-1, assume that there is a "box" shaped
student should hear. It goes as follows: object resting on the bottom of a large tank of
The king who ruled Greece at that time asked liquid. The upper surface of this object has area
his royal metalworkers to make him a gold (A) and is at a depth (h) below the surface of the
crown. When the crown was delivered it was liquid. This upper surface experiences the weight
indeed beautiful. However, the king suspected of the liquid in a column reaching from the upper
that the crown was not pure gold. He did not surface of the "box" to the top surface of the liquid.
want to destroy the crown but he wanted to Let us calculate the weight of the liquid in this
know f he had been cheated. What he needed column. The volume of the column is the area of
was some type of non-destructive evaluation the column times the distance (h).
(NDE dates back many years!). He asked
Archimedes to solve his problem. Archimedes V = Ah
pondered the question. The density (mass / vol-
ume) of gold was well known. He knew of course Recall also that density equal mass divided by
how to determine the weight and mass of the volume and, therefore, mass equals density x volume.
crown by simple weighing. However, since the
crown did not have a regular shape it was im-
m=pV
possible to determine the volume by a math-
ematical calculation. The solution came to
Archimedes one day when his servant filled his Therefore the mass (m) of the liquid in the
bathtub too full. As Archimedes stepped into column is:
his bath, he noticed that a volume of water equal
to his volume overflowed! With aflash of insight m = p Ah
he ran through Athens, stark naked, shouting
"Eureka, Eureka, I have the solution!" The ex-
periment was performed, the king was notified
that his crown was not pure gold and the royal
metalworkers lost their lives.
/4—
The point of the above story is that a body sub- •I /I
merged in a liquid displaces a volume of water I -----7_
equal to its own volume. A corollary is that a body 1—
that floats in a liquid displaces a volume of liquid
less than its volume since some portion of the body ' h
is above the water level.
Archimedes' Principle I____ 1 — T-
I
1 / I T A I/ I
Archimedes' Principle is the principle that describes I _ILE_ .4_ _ 1,z___ 1
and explains the buoyant force that we all have I
I I I I
experienced when we have tried to lift a body while 4--
I 1 -1—
j__ I
it is under water or when we have floated ourselves _____.4
/
____L_ I
I 2- — — — 1- 1
or seen other bodies float. — I --/-- - A 1/
In order to understand this principle let us con-
sider the pressure that is present on any physical [..e_—7-/

surface at a depth (h) below the surface of a liquid.

Also assume that this upper surface of the liquid Figure 10-1.

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 Since weight is mass x g, we can calculate the Now let us suppose that a "box" shaped body
weight (w) of the liquid in the column. is instantaneously thrust out from the hatch of
a submerged submarine (see figure 10-2).
w = p Ahg Three different possibilities exist. The "box" may
rise to the surface. The "box" may stay at the same
We also recall that pressure equals force divided depth as the submarine. The "box" may sink to
by area. the bottom of the ocean.
In each case, we note that there is an upward
F pressure on the bottom surface of the "box" and
A a downward pressure on the top surface of the
"box". There are also pressures to the right, left,
Therefore, we are able to calculate the pressure front, and back but these pressures balance out
on the upper surface of this "box" by dividing the each other. Since the bottom surface of the "box"
weight of the liquid in the column, that is, the is at a greater depth than the top surface, the
weight of the liquid pressing on the upper surface upward pressure on the bottom surface of the "box"
of the "box", by the area of this surface. is greater than downward pressure on the top sur-
face of the "box". This results in a net upward
force. This net upward force is known a s the buoyant
P = p Ahg force. We shall symbolize this buoyant force as "BF".
A
If the BF is greater than the weight of the "box",
By cancelling the A's, we arrive at the equation it rises to the surface. If the BF equals the weight
that we desire: of the "box", it stays at the same depth as the sub-
marine. If the BF is less than the weight of the "box",
P = p gh the "box" sinks to the bottom of the ocean.
We have used a "box" and a submarine to try
This is a very important equation. It enables us to describe this principle but obvious applications
to find the fluid pressure at a depth (h) below the can be made to other bodies of liquid and to other
surface of a liquid of density (p). This equation objects.
probably agrees with your intuitive sense. As we in-
crease the depth below the surface of a liquid, we
expect the liquid pressure to increase. We also expect
that this liquid pressure would be greater in a liquid
of greater density. What we have just said is that 1 OCEAN
the pressure should be directly proportional to r and
h. Note also that g is a constant. It is present in
the equation because we have used the mass density
rather than the weight density. Recall that figure
2-3 is a table of mass densities. You may need to
refer to this table of densities as we do problems
dealing with Archimedes' Principle.
When we say that the pressure below the surface Figure 10-2.
of a liquid is given by pgh, we mean that the pressure
in any direction at a depth (h) is given by this ex-
pression. "In any direction" in the preceding sentence
means up, down, right, left, front, back, or at any
angle. At a depth (h) below the surface of a liquid,
the molecules of the liquid are moving around and
are bombarding any surface surrounded by the liq-
uid. This bombardment by the liquid molecules is
the cause of the liquid pressure. The greater the
depth below the upper surface of the liquid, the
greater is the effect of the bombardment by the
moving liquid molecules.
Figure 10-3.

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 Now we will calculate the size of the BF. Consider WEIGHT DENSITIES AT 68°F
figure 10-3; remember that this is an instantaneous
N/m3 LBS./FT.3
picture. The "box" will rise, stay at same depth,
or sink. Let us call the depth of the top surface LIQUIDS
of the "box" h t and the depth of the bottom surface Water 9,807 62.4
of the "box" hb.
Ocean Water 10,100 64.4
Note also that the areas of the top and bottom
surfaces of the "box" are both A. The volume of Benzene 8,620 54.9
the "box" is given by the expression: Carbon Tetrachloride 15,630 99.5
Ethyl Alcohol 7,740 49.3
V = A (hb - ht) Gasoline 6,670 42.5
Kerosene 7,850 49.9
since the expression in parentheses is equal to the
height of the "box" (see figure 10-3). Lubricating Oil 8,830 56.2
Note that the upward force on the bottom surface Methyl Alcohol 7,770 49.4
of the "box" is: Sulfuric Acid, 100% 17,960 114.3
Turpentine 8,560 54.5
Fb = A p ghb
SOLID METALS
Also the downward force on the top surface of Aluminum 26,500 169
the "box" is:
Cast Iron 70,600 449
Copper 87,200 555
Ft = A p ght
Gold 189,300 1,205
The net upward force (BF) is given by: Lead 111,200 708
Magnesium 17,100 109
BF = Fb - F t = A p gh b - A p ght
Nickel 86,800 553
Silver 103,000 656
BF = A p g ( h b - h t )
Steel 76,500 487
Tungsten 186,000 1,190
BF = p g [A(h b - h i )
Zinc 70,000 446

BF = p g V Brass or Bronze 85,300 543

NONMETALLIC SOLIDS
In this equation, note that p symbolizes the den-
Ice 9,040 57.5
sity of the liquid in which the "box" is submerged.
Therefore, in the equation which follows, if m is Concrete 22,600 144
the mass of the displaced liquid then V must be Earth, Packed 14,700 94
the volume of the displaced liquid.
Glass 25,500 160
Granite 26,500 169
BF = - gV WOODS
v

Balsa 1,270 8
The V's will cancel in this equation if we note
that the volume of the displaced liquid is equal Pine 4,700 30
to the volume of the "box". Therefore: Maple 6,300 40
Oak 7,100 45
BF = mg
Figure 10-4.
In this equation, m is the mass of the displaced
liquid.

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 Therefore, we note that the right member of this w = DV
equation is equal to the weight of the displaced
liquid since weight always equals mass x g.
s,
We have now arrived at the traditional form of w = (555 lb .) k0.540
3
Archimedes' principle:
The buoyant force equals the w = 277.5 lbs.
weight of the displaced liquid.
We will look at several examples of the use of The BF can be found by finding the weight
this principle to determine whether a given body of 0.5 ft.3 of displaced ocean water.
will sink or rise to the surface of a liquid in which
it is placed. w = DV
If a body has exactly the same density as the
density of the liquid in which it is placed it will bs
stay at any depth, actually the depth at which it w = (64.4 lft.3.) (0.540
is placed. This is a most unusual case. We will
consider the other two cases with more detail.
w = 32.2 lbs.
In working examples and problems with
Archimedes' Principle, it is convenient to define a
new kind of density, the weight density. We will Therefore, the BF = 32.2 lbs.
use the symbol "D" for it and will note the defining
equation, weight density equals weight divided by The force needed to lift this copper block
volume. in ocean water is found by noting that the
BF helps to raise the block. Therefore, only
277.5 lbs. — 32.2 lbs. of force would be
D= needed.
V
We conclude that 245.3 lbs. of force would be
needed to raise this block of copper while it is
Also w = DV
immersed in ocean water.

V= Archimedes' Principle Applied

D
to Bodies that Float
Since the table of densities (figure 2-3) is a table A body will float in any liquid that has a weight
of densities that list mass/volume, we will need density greater than the weight density of the body.
a table of weight densities (figure 10-4). For example a body of weight density 63.4 lbs./ft.3
When the term "water" is used we will assume would float in ocean water (D = 64.4 lbs./ft. 3 ) and
that the meaning is clear water or lake water. If sink in lake water (D = 62.4 lbs./ft.3).
ocean water is meant we will specifically say "ocean When bodies float they can float "high" or float
water". "low". The ratio of the weight density of the floating
body relative to the weight density of the liquid de-
termines exactly how high or low a body will float.
EXAMPLE 10-A. In order to understand Archimedes' Principle as
A block of copper of volume 0.5 ft. 3 is immersed in applied to floating bodies, let us again consider
ocean water. our submarine and imagine that a block of wood
What is the weight of this block? of weight density 48.3 lbs./ft. 3 and volume 2 ft.3
What is the BF on this block? is thrust out of the hatch of a submarine into the
ocean water. We know intuitively that this block
(c) What force would be needed to raise this block of wood will rise to the ocean surface.
while it is immersed in ocean water?
The weight of the block is (48.3 lbs. /ft. 3 ) (2 ft.3)
= 96.6 lbs. As long as the block is below the water
(a) The weight of the block can be found by surface (while it is rising to the top), it displaces
using the equation: 2 ft. 3 of ocean water.

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 We know that: This is realistic (Daddy 200 lbs., son 75 lbs., lunch
25 lbs., fishing gear 49 lbs.).
BF = wt. of displaced ocean water One final comment should be made regarding
= (64.4 lbs./ft. 3 ) (2 ft.3) submarines. Submarines cruising at a definite
depth in ocean water have a total weight density
equal to the weight density of ocean water, 64.4
BF = 128.8 lbs.
lbs. / ft. 3 This means that the total weight of the
submarine (metal shell, air, crew, load, ballast, etc.)
We can see why the block rises!
divided by the total volume is 64.4 lbs. /ft. 3 The
How far will the block rise? It will rise until the ballast used in submarines is ocean water. These
BF exactly equals its weight. In our example, it vessels can take on water or pump out water. If
will rise until the BF has been reduced to 96.6 the submarine wants to descend, it takes on water.
lbs. (the weight of the block). The BF will be reduced If it wants to rise toward the surface it pumps
as the block emerges from the water. In our example, out water.
it will rise until 25% of the block's volume is above
the water surface. It follows that 75% of 2 ft. 3 or
1.5 ft. 3 will be below the water surface. When this EXAMPLE 10-B.
occurs the BF on the block is (64.4 lbs. /ft.3)(1.5
A block of oak (D = 45 lbs./ft. 3) is placed in a tank
ft. 3) equals 96.6 lbs. Note again that the BF equals
of benzene (D = 54.9 lbs./ft. 3). The oak floats since
the weight of the block while the block is floating.
its weight density is less that the weight density of
In the preceding example, note that the ratio the benzene. What percentage of the oak will be
of the weight density of the block (48.3 lbs. /ft.3) below the surface of the benzene?
to the weight density of the ocean water (64.4
We find the ratio of the two weight densities.
lbs. /ft. 3 ) was 0.75. We recall that 75% of the floating
block was under water. This is generally true and
makes a much easier procedure to determine how 45 lbs./ft.3
, = 0.82
low a block will float in a given liquid. 54.9 lbs./ft.')
In dealing with bodies that float, it is important
to note that boats, made of materials more dense We conclude that 82% of the oak block will be
than water, are shaped in such a way that the below the surface of the benzene.
total weight density is less than water. In order
to understand this, consider the row boat with con-
tents (people, lunch, fishing gear, etc.) shown in
Hydrometers
figure 10-6. Note that some of the boat (shown A hydrometer is a device used for measuring the
with dotted lines) is below the water surface. Sup- specific gravity of liquids, such as the battery fluid
pose that the row boat floats in such a way that in an aircraft battery. This device works on the above
it displaces 8 cu ft. of lake water. The weight of principle. The "float" in a hydrometer floats higher
the displaced water is 8 ft. (62.4 lbs. /ft. 3 ) or 499 or lower depending on the density of the battery
lbs. Therefore, the BF is 499 lbs. The boat and contents
must weigh 499 lbs. to float at this level. If the boat
weighs 150 lbs., the contents must weigh 349 lbs.

Figure 10-5. Figure 10-6.

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 fluid. The "float" is calibrated to indicate this density. The weight of the hydrogen is found from the
In this way, it is possible to determine the condition formula D V = w:
(charged or discharged) of the aircraft battery.

Archimedes' Principles (0.882 N/rn3) (65,450-) = 57,700 N.

as Applied to Dirigibles The weight of the displaced air is:
In all of the above material, we have talked about
Archimedes' principle as if it applied only to liquids.
Since most of our experience with this principle is (12.6 N/m3) (65,450 m 3) = 824,700 N.
with liquids, it seemed easier to do this at first.
However, it must now be emphasized that buoyant Since the weight of the displaced air is the BF we
forces exist also with gases. can say that:
The obvious example is that of a hot air balloon
or a lighter -than-air aircraft—a dirigible. BF = 824,700 N

This BF must hold up the hydrogen, fabric, car, and

EXAMPLE 10-C. contents. It follows that fabric, car, and contents
weighing 767,000 N can be lifted by this balloon.
The bag of a balloon is a sphere of radius 25 m Note that this number was obtained by subtracting
filled with hydrogen of weight density 0.882 N/m3. 57,700 N from 824,700 N.
What total weight (in Newtons) of fabric, car, and
contents can be lifted by this balloon in air of weight Usually balloons are not filled with hydrogen since
density 12.6 N/m3? hydrogen is explosive. Of course, since hydrogen
is the lightest of all gases it is the most efficient.
We first calculate the volume of the spherical bal- However, the danger of explosion outweighs this
loon by recalling that the volume of a sphere is advantage. The next lightest gas is helium of
given by: weight density 1.74 N/m 3 . Usually, balloons are
filled with this gas.
4
V -4
- RR3 — (3.1416) (25 m) 3 = 65,450 m3
3 3

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Chapter X Problems
A solid aluminum object of volume 250 ft. 3 is A canoe is floating in such a way that it displaces
resting on the ocean floor. A salvage crew plans 6 cu. ft. of lake water. If the canoe weighs 100 lbs.,
to raise this object. What force will be needed? what is the weight of the contents of the boat?

A solid steel body of volume 125 ft.3 is to be A balloon is spherical in shape and has a radius
raised by a salvaging crew to the surface of a of 40 ft. It is filled with helium (weight density
lake. What force will be needed? 0.0111 lb. /ft. 3) and is floating in air (weight
density 0.0803 lb. /ft. 3). What is the weight of the
What percentage of an iceberg is below the sur- balloon (fabric, crew and contents)?
face of the ocean?
7. A Cessna 182 is fitted with pontoons for opera-
A row boat and contents weighing 550 lbs. is tion on lakes. As it taxies out for take-off the
floating on Lake Michigan. What volume of water plane itself weighs 2,850 lbs., it has 40 gallons
does this boat displace? of gasoline in its tanks and the pilot and passen-
ger together weigh 340 lbs. One gallon of gaso-
line weighs 5.67 lbs. What volume of water do
the pontoons displace?

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Chapter XI
Thermal Expansion
of Solids and Liquids
The temperature of a body is a measure of the Volume Expansion
average kinetic energy of the molecules of that body.
Three-dimensional solid bodies experience volume
It follow that molecules of warm liquids and gases
expansion.
move around faster in their containers than mole-
cules of cool liquids and gases. As a solid is heated
AV = 3 a V o A T
its molecules vibrate faster about their equilibrium
positions. As a result of this increased motion of V o = the original volume of the body
molecules as they are heated, solids and liquids A V = the change in volume of the body
expand as the temperature is raised.
A T = the change in temperature

Linear Expansion a = the coefficient of linear expansion

A rod of a substance will increase its length for a

Liquids also experience thermal expansion. We
given temperature change. The increase in length
introduce beta (13), the coefficient of volume expan-
depends on the original length of the rod, the tem-
sion. There are also tables of the coefficients of
perature change, and the material of the rod.
volume expansion.
We define alpha (a), the coefficient of linear ex-
pansion. Tables of values of alpha for various sub-
AV = Vo A T
stances are found in handbooks of physics.
The formula is:
In this formula:

AL = a L0 AT
Vo = the original volume
13 = the coefficient of volume expansion
In this formula,

Lo = the original length of the rod

a = the coefficient of linear expansion COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION (a)
A L = the change in length of the rod SUBSTANCE per F°
A T = the change in temperature
Aluminum 13 x 10-6
Area Expansion Brass 10 x 10-6
Two-dimensional solid bodies also experience ther-
Concrete (varies) 5 x 10-6
mal area expansion. The formula is as follows:
Copper 9.4 10-6
AA = 2aA0AT
Glass (Pyrex) x 10-6

In this formula, Ice 28 x 10-6

Iron 6.6 x 10-6
Ao = the original area of the body
Lead 16 x 10-6
A A = the change in area of the body
A T = the change in temperature Steel 11 x 10-6
a = the coefficient of linear expansion Figure 11-1.

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 A V = the change in volume the gasoline costs $1.25/gal., what is the loss to
A T = the change in temperature the airport?

For the gasoline:

EXAMPLE 11 -A. A V = (0.58 x 10-3 /F°) (1,000 gal.) (60 F°)
A steel rail of length 140 ft. is laid down when the AV = 34.8 gal.
temperature is 20°F. What is the increase in length
of this rail when the temperature is 95°F? For the tank:
A V = 3(13 x 10-6/F°) (1,000 gal.) (60 F°)
AL = a Lo AT
AV= 2.3 gal.
AL= (11 x 10 -6 /F°) (140 ft.) (75 F°)
A L = 0.116 ft. The new volume of the gasoline is 1,034.8 gal. and
the new volume of the tank is 1,002.3 gal.
We note that 32.5 gallons of gasoline will overflow!
EXAMPLE 11 -B.
An aluminum tank has volume 35 ft. 3 What is the 1.2 5
Loss - x 32.5 gal. = $40.63
increase in volume of this tank when the tempera- $gal.
ture increases from 30°F to 90°F?
It should be noted that a solid block of a substance
increases in volume as the body is heated. Also, a EXAMPLE 11-D.
container has a bigger volume as the temperature A motorist puts 20.1 gallons of gasoline in his gas
of the container increases. tank on a hot summer day when the temperature
is 95°F. He uses 0.1 gal. in driving home. The
AV = 3 aVoAT temperature falls to 45°F that evening after a cool
front has moved into the area. How many gallons
A V= 3 (13 x 10-6 /F°) (35 ft. 3 ) (60 F°)
are in his tank the next morning when he leaves
AV = 0.0819 ft.3 for work?

AV = (0.58 x 10-3 /F°) (20 gal.) (50 F°)

EXAMPLE 11 -C.
The manager of an airport accepts delivery of A V = 0.58 gal.
1,000 gallons of gasoline on a cool evening when
the temperature is 35°F. This gasoline completely
There are 19.42 gallons of gasoline in his tank the
fills a 1,000 gallon aluminum tank. A warm front next morning!
moves in the next morning and the temperature
rises to 95°F. How much gasoline will overflow? If

COEFFICIENTS OF VOLUME EXPANSION 03)

LIQUIDS per F°

Ethyl Alcohol 0.60 x 10-3

Methyl Alcohol 0.66 x 10-3

Benzene 0.69 x 10-3

Gasoline 0.58 x 10-3

Figure 11-2.

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Chapter XI Problems
A 90 ft. aluminum rail is put in place on a hot The manager of an airport has a 2,000 gal. steel
summer day when the temperature if 89 °F. tank. He accepts delivery of gasoline when the
What is the decrease in length of this rail when temperature is 50 °F. The temperature goes up to
the temperature is 35 °F? 95 °F before the gasoline is sold. How many
gallons overflow?
A student purchases 4 gallons of benzene when
the temperature is 80 °F in the hardware store. The manager of an airport has a 2,000 gal. steel
How many gallons does he have when he arrives tank. He accepts delivery of gasoline when the
at work where the temperature is 50 °F? temperature is 50 °F. The temperature is ex-
pected to go up to 95 °F before the gas is sold.
The volume of an aluminum tank is 1,550.0 gal. How many gallons of gasoline should he accept?
on a day when the temperature is 35 °F. It is
completely filled with gasoline from a supply The manager of an airport accepts delivery of
truck. The temperature rises to 70 °F when a gasoline on a very hot day when the temperature
warm front moves in. How many gallons of gas- of a 2,000 gal. steel tank is 95 °F. A cool front
oline overflow? moves in and lowers the temperature to 50 °F
before the gas is sold. At $2.25 / gal., how much
A 150-ft. steel rail is put in place when the tem- has the airport lost on this transaction?
perature is 35 °F. What is the increase in length of
this rail when the temperature is 95 °F? A concrete bridge is laid down in sections with
some space between sections to allow for expan-
5. A brass plate has a 4.00 inch diameter hole in it. sion. The length of one section is 250 ft. The
A rod of diameter 4.01 inches is to be threaded lowest recorded temperature in the area is -45 °F
through this plate to produce an interference fit. and the highest recorded temperature is 115 °F.
This is to be done by increasing the temperature How much space should the builders leave be-
of the plate, passing the rod through the plate, tween each section?
and then allowing the plate to return to its normal
temperature. What must be the temperature 10. The volume of an aluminum tank at an airport is
change of the plate? 1,600 gal. on a day when the temperature is 40 °F.
It is completely filled with gasolinefrom a supply
truck. The temperature rises to 80 °F when a
warm front moves in. How many gallons of gas-
oline overflow?

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Chapter XII
Heat
We recall that temperature is a measure of the A table of specific heats of various substances is
average kinetic energy, and therefore the average found in figure 12-1. The important equation is
velocity, of the molecules of the substance whose the following:
temperature is being measured.
Heat is a measure of the total energy of molecular = cwAT
motion. The more molecules that are moving, the
greater is the heat energy. Let us compare a teaspoon In this equation:
of water at 100°F with a cup of water at 50°F.
The molecules of water in the teaspoon are moving Q = heat gained or lost
faster than the molecules of water in the cup. How- c = the specific heat of the substance
ever, since we have so many more molecules in
w = weight of the body
the cup, the heat energy in the cup is greater than
the heat energy in the teaspoon. If the teaspoon
A T = the temperature change
of water is placed on a large block of ice and the
cup of water is also placed on this block of ice, It is important to note that this equation deals
the cup of water at 50°F would melt more ice than with substances that are not changing their states
the teaspoon of water at 100°F. of matter. Another equation will deal with heat added
or lost as a body changes from one state (solid,
There are definite units for measuring heat energy.
liquid, or gas) to another.
The units are the Btu (British thermal unit) and
the metric units, the large Calorie (written with
a capital "C"), and the small calorie. SPECIFIC HEATS OF
The definitions are: SOME SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
All Units Are Btu/lb.-F°
1 Btu = the amount of heat needed to raise the
SOLIDS LIQUIDS
temperature of 1 pound of water 1°F
Aluminum 0.212 Water 1.00
1 Calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the
Brass 0.090 Ethyl
temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1°C Alcohol 0.58

1 calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the Copper 0.094 Gasoline 0.5

temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C Iron/Steel 0.11 Mineral Oil 0.5

We note that the Calorie is the famous dietary Ice 0.48 Methyl
Alcohol 0.60
Calorie. The body stores excess food as fat and
we measure the Calories in a certain foodstuff by Lead 0.031 Olive Oil 0.47
burning these foodstuffs and measuring the heat
produced! Silver 0.056 Paraffin 0.69
In the solution of heat problems, we will limit Tin 0.055 Petroleum 0.51
our discussion to the English system, since this
is the system that is most often encountered in Zinc 0.094 Sea Water 0.93
our society.
As heat is added to a body its temperature in-
GAS
creases. However, the same amount of heat added
to a piece of aluminum and a piece of copper will Steam 0.50
not produce the same temperature change. Alu-
minum and copper have different "specific heats".
Figure 12-1.

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EXAMPLE 12-A. 465,000 - 4,650 T = 7,000 T - 280,000
How much heat must be supplied to raise the
temperature of a 32-lb. aluminum fitting from 60°F 745,000 = 11,650 T
to 90°F?
T = 63.9°F
= cwAT

Q = (0.212
Btu \ (324 130 (309..F) Change of State
1b.-F°I Sometimes adding heat to a substance does not
increase its temperature. At certain critical temper-
= 204 Btu atures, when heat is added, a substance will change
its state of matter, rather than undergo an increase
in temperature.
EXAMPLE 12-B.
The typical example of such a substance is H2O.
How much heat is given up as 100 lbs. of sea water The addition of heat at 32°F causes H 2O to change
cools from 90°F to 50°F? from the solid state (ice) to the liquid state (water).
0.93 Btu The addition of heat at 212°F causes H 2O to change
( ) (1004)0(40-F°) from the liquid state (water) to the gaseous state
Q=
(steam).
Q = 3720 Btu The heat supplied to cause a substance to change
from the solid state to the liquid state is called
Heat Exchange the latent heat of fusion (Lf). Similarly, the heat
When hot bodies and cool bodies are mixed heat required to change from a liquid to a gas is called
exchange occurs. The heat lost by the hot body the latent heat of vaporization (Lv).
equals the heat gained by the cold body: Values of these latent heats are known for many
substances and are listed in engineering handbooks.
Heat Lost = Heat Gained However, we will only work problems with H2O,
since this is the only substance that exists in all
On each side of this equation there is a c w A T three states of matter for the temperatures and
term. In writing an expression for A T, we always ex- pressures common to our experience.
press this change as the larger temperature minus For H2O:
the srrialler temperature.

Lf= 144
Bt u
b
EXAMPLE 12-C.
If 5,000 lbs. of sea water at 100°F are mixed with = 970 Btu
7,000 lbs. of ordinary water at 40°F, what is the Lv lb.
final temperature of the mixture?
We note that, if the final temperature is T, the tem- For a change of state involving liquids and solids
perature 100° is more than T and the temperature the equation is:
40° is less than T. Therefore the temperature change
of the sea water is (100 - T) and the temperature =wLf
change of the ordinary water is (T - 40).
Heat Lost = Heat Gained For a change of state involving gases and liquids
the equation is:
In setting up the cwAT left and right members of
the above equation, we will not include the units. Q = w L,
However we will note that the weights must be in
lbs. and the temperature changes in Fahrenheit We note that, at atmospheric pressure, the freez-
degrees. ing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point
of water is 212°F. This means that at temperatures
(0.93) (5,000) (100 -T) = (1.00) (7,000) (T- 40)

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below 32°F the substance H 2 O is in the solid state In setting up this problem we remember that the
(ice). At temperatures between 32°F and 212°F, ice will first melt and form water at 32°F. Then this
H 2 O is a liquid (water). At temperatures above "ice water" must be raised to the final temperature.
212°F, H 2 O is a gas (steam).
We remember that the heat terms (Q terms) are
At exactly 32°F, the substance H2O can be ei- either terms of the form cwAT or of the form w Lf.
ther a solid or a liquid. At this temperature, the We have the relation:
solid is changing to a liquid if heat is being added
or the liquid is changing to a solid if heat is being
taken away. °needed for melting Q for heating ice water =
At exactly 212°F, the substance H 2 O can be either a
(5) (144) + (1.00) (5) (T — 32)=
liquid or a gas. At this temperature, the liquid is chang-
ing to a gas if heat is being added or the gas is chang- °lost by hot water
ing to a liquid if heat is being taken away.
(1.00) (10) (120 — T)

Next we simplify the equation:

EXAMPLE 12-D.
How many Btu are necessary for changing 50 lbs. 720 + 5T — 160 = 1,200 — 10T
of ice at 32°F to 50 lbs. of water at 32°F?
Q=wf 15T = 640

Q = (50-4bs-.) (14444t) T = 42.7°F

Q = 7,200 Btu EXAMPLE 12-G.

A vat contains 70 lbs. of water at 80°F. How many
lbs. of ice at 32°F must be placed in this vat to
EXAMPLE 12-E. reduce the temperature to 60°F?
How many Btu must be supplied to vaporize 40 lbs. We will let x represent the number of lbs: of ice.
of water at 212°F?
Q=w Ly °gained = Qlost

Btu )
Q = (40) (970 tya_ 144x + (1.00) (x) (60 — 32)
= (1.00) (70) (80 — 60)
Q = 38,800 Btu
144x + 28x = 1,400
Heat Exchange Involving
Change of State 172 x = 1,400
Heat exchange problems become more complicated x = 8.14 lbs.
if one includes bodies in the heat exchange that
undergo a change of state. We will illustrate the
method with examples.
Heat Transfer
We know that heat flows through insulating materials
EXAMPLE 12-F. from the warm side to the cool side. It is possible to
A 5-1b. block of ice at 32°F is placed in a vat predict how many Btu will flow through a given insu-
containing 10 lbs. of water at 120°F. What is the lator in a given amount of time.
final temperature of the mixture? The equation is:

Q kAAT
t = L

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 The equation is less difficult than it seems at THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES
first. We will carefully define each symbol. (Btu-IN./FT.2-HR.-°F)
Air 0.17
0 - heat flow in Btu
t= time in hours Corkboard 0.30
A = the surface area of the insulation
Cotton 0.54
in square feet
AT = the temperature difference in F° Fiberboard 0.42
L = the thickness of the insulation in inches
Foam Plastic 0.30
k = the thermal conductivity of the material
from which the insulation is made Glass Wool 0.27

Figure 12-2.
EXAMPLE 12-H.
An outside wall of a house has total cross-sectional
area of 2,000 ft.2 The thickness of the fiberboard
insulation is 3 inches. The inside temperature is to fall down to the heating unit to be reheated.
70°F and the outside temperature is 20°F. What is Convection currents of fluids occur whenever a fluid
the heat loss per hour through this outside wall? in a container is unequally heated. The warmer
portions of fluid tend to rise in the container and
Q kAAT the cooler portions of fluid tend to fall to the bottom
t L of the container. This motion of fluid is called con-
vection and the currents of fluid are called con-
Q 1(0.42 Btu-in./ft. 2-hr.-F°) (2,000 ft. 2 ) (50 F°) vection currents.
t 3 in. The third method of heat transfer is radiation.
All bodies in the universe continuously emit a type

= 14,000
Btu of energy called electromagnetic radiation. This en-
hr. ergy travels with the speed of light. Light itself,
x-rays, cosmic rays, radio waves, and microwaves
are all kinds of electromagnetic radiation. They differ
in the wavelength and frequency of the emitted
Methods of Heat Transfer waves. A certain wavelength and frequency of this
Heat is transferred from one place to another by radiation is what we know as heat radiation. It
three different methods, conduction, convection and lies in the infrared region of the electromagnetic
radiation. We will discuss each of the these methods spectrum. This radiation will be discussed in more
of heat transference. detail in chapter 24. For now, we need to know
Conduction occurs when heat is transferred from that heat energy reaches us directly from our sun.
one molecule to those molecules that are close by. It travels through a vacuum from the sun to the
Some substances conduct heat better than others. earth. As this energy reaches our earth it heats
All metals are good heat conductors. If a metal the surfaces on which it falls and causes the mol-
spoon is used to stir a boiling liquid the handle ecules of these surfaces to move more rapidly.
soon becomes too hot to handle! Wood is a poor One example of radiation is the "greenhouse ef-
heat conductor. Therefore, wooden spoons are often fect". As radiant heat energy enters a greenhouse
used by cooks to stir their boiling liquids. or a closed automobile the radiation is reflected
Convection occurs when quantities of fluids about within the closed building or automobile. As
(gases or liquids) move from one place to another. this happens the bodies within become very much
Warmer fluids are less dense than cooler fluids warmer than the outside air. We are all aware that
and therefore they rise. Convection hot air systems the steering wheel of a closed automobile in the
are sometimes used to heat buildings. The air is summertime may become very hot. Sunshades de-
heated by the heating units. The hot air rises in crease the effect because they allow less radiation
the system and automatically forces the cooler air to enter through the windshield and windows.

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Chapter XII Problems
I. How much heat must be supplied to raise the A vat contains 100 lbs. of water at 95°F. How
temperature of 67 lbs. of ethyl alcohol from many lbs. of ice must be placed in this container
32°F to 76 °F? to reduce the temperature to 50 °F?

How much heat is given up as 780 lbs. of steel If 3.00 lbs. of ice at 20 °F are placed in a large
cool from 90 °F to 45°F? thermos bottle containing 6.00 lbs. of water at
95°F, how many lbs. of ice will melt?
If 0.5 lb. of ethyl alcohol (vodka) at 90 °F is mixed
with 0.3 lb. of water at 32°F what is the final The manager of an airport buys heat energy from
temperature? a neighboring industry. Steam at 225°F is supplied
to his building. If the return pipes return 1,000
If 3 lbs. of hot water at 200 °F are poured into a gallons of water at 140 °F, how many Btu's of heat
1.5 lbs. aluminum container at 35°F, what is the energy were supplied to the airport building? The
final temperature? density of water is 8.34 lbs. /gal.

A mixing faucet allows 3.0 gallons of hot water A 9-lb. block of ice at 32°F is placed in a vat
at 150 °F to enter a large sink in the same time containing 10 lbs. of water at 120 °F. How many
that 2.0 gallons of cooler water at 50 °F enters lbs. of ice melt?
the sink. What is the resulting temperature of the
water in the sink? The weight density of water The manager of an airport building buys heat
is 8.34 lbs./ gal. energy from a building close by. Steam at 220 °F
is supplied to his building. If the return pipes return
A mixing faucet is supplied with cold water at 1,500 gallons of water at 120 °F, how many Btu's
45°F and hot water at 140 °F. The cold water tap of heat energy were supplied to the building? Give
supplies aflow is 0.5 gal. / min. out of a total flow your answer in therms ( 1 therm = 105Btu).
of 1.3 gal. / min. through the faucet. What is the
temperature of the resulting warm water? A house has an outside wall area of 3,000 ft.2
These walls are insulated with corkboard 4 in.
If 79,900 Btu's were needed to vaporize a con- thick. The inside temperature is 75°F and the
tainer of water at 212 °F, how many lbs. of water outside temperature is 15°F. What is the heat
were in the container? loss per hour through these outside walls?

How much heat (in Btu's) must be supplied to An ice chest used by a flight attendant is filled
melt 890 lbs. of water at 32°F? with 25 lbs. of ice as the flight leaves from
O'Hare. The total area of the chest is 16 ft. 2 The
How many Btu will be needed to vaporize 800 temperature in the ice chest is 32°F. The temper-
lbs. of water at 212°F? ature in the cabin is 72°F. The insulation is
fiberboard and is 0.311 inch thick. How many
lbs. of ice melted during theflrst two hours of the
If 500 lbs. of steam at 212°F condense, how
flight? How many lbs. of ice are left after these
many Btu will be given off to the atmosphere?
two hours?
A 50-lb. block of ice at 32°F is placed in a Ice is stored in a freezer at 32°F. The freezer is
container with 150 lbs. of water at 90 °F. What 2.3 ft. by 3.5 ft. by 4.8 ft. The insulation is 0.2 ft.
is the final temperature of the mixture?
thick and is made offoam plastic. If the electricity
goes out and the outside temperature is 70 °F,
how many pounds of ice will melt in two hours?

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Chapter XIII
Sound
Sound waves are usually defined as pressure waves sure is slightly below 14.7 lbs. /in. 2 It should be
in air or in some other material medium. Sound emphasized that "slightly" means very small. The
waves originate in some vibrating body such as the human ear is a remarkably sensitive instrument. It
oscillation of a person's vocal cords or the periodic can detect air pressure variations as small as about
rotation of a plane's propeller. 0.000000005 lbs. / in.2!
As the source of sound vibrates, the air sur-
rounding the source is periodically compressed and Intensity of Sound
rarefied (made less dense). This periodic change For those working in the aviation industry it is
in the atmospheric pressure moves forward with important to understand something regarding the
a definite speed of propagation called the "speed intensity of a sound wave.
of sound". The intensity level (IL) of sound waves is mea-
The speed of sound in air is dependent on the sured in a unit called the decibel (after Alexander
temperature of the air. This is not surprising since Graham Bell).
the molecules of air move faster in their random The equation is:
motion if the temperature is higher. Thus we should
expect these pressure waves to move somewhat 1
more rapidly in warmer air. IL = 10 log —
10
The relation giving the speed of sound at various
temperatures is: In this equation IL is in decibels. The intensity,
(Is), is the intensity of the "threshold of hearing",
v = [1,087 + 1.1 (F - 32)] ft' the softest sound that the average human ear can
detect. Also in the equation, I is the intensity of the
sound we are measuring.
In this formula, F represents the Fahrenheit We note that:
temperature.

10 = 10-12 Watts/m2
EXAMPLE 13-A.
We also review that the log 10n = n.
What is the speed of sound at a temperature of
90°F?

EXAMPLE 13-B.
v = [1,087 + 1.1 (90 - 32)] ft./sec.
The intensity of a given sound is 10 -5 Watts/m2.
What is the intensity level (IL) in decibels?
v = 1,151 ft./sec.

10-5
IL = 10 log = 10 log (10-5 ) (1012)
10-12
Sound Waves and the
= 10 log 107
Response of the Human Ear
If an ear and its eardrum are in the vicinity of a
IL = 10 (7) = 70 db
sound wave, the air which strikes that eardrum has
a periodically changing atmospheric pressure. If the
frequency of the sound is middle C (256 Hz), and the
atmospheric pressure that day is 14.7 lbs. /in. 2 , 256 It should be noted that 120 db is the "threshold
times each second the air pressure is slightly above of pain". Sound of this intensity is painful to the
14.7 lbs. /in. 2 and 256 times each second the pres- normal ear. If the ear is continuously subjected to

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sound of this intensity, ear damage and hearing Jet planes can travel at speeds greater than the
loss can result. speed of sound. In this case, we have a source
Those who work in the aviation industry should of sound, the plane, moving at a greater speed
take precautionary measures and wear ear protectors. than the sound itself. The pressure waves of the
sound all "pile up" and a very strong V-shaped
The intensity of sound decreases inversely with
pressure "bowwave" is produced. A sonic boom re-
the square of the distance from the source of sound.
sults as this strong pressure ridge reaches the earth.
Therefore, doubling the distance from a source of
sound decreases the intensity to one-fourth of the The Mach number is the ratio of the speed of the
previous value. A worker who is suddenly subjected plane (vo) to the speed of sound (v). If a plane is
to a very intense sound with unprotected ears traveling at 1,000 MPH and the temperature is 46°F,
should move as quickly as possible away from the the Mach number is calculated in the following way:
source of this sound!
Sounds of sufficient duration and intensity can 1,000 MPH
Mach Number = = = 1.25
damage delicate inner ear structures and produce 750 MPH
hearing loss that is not reversible. Workers in the
aviation industry should be especially careful! We say that the plane is traveling at Mach 1.25.

Sound Waves and

Resonant Vibrations INTENSITY LEVELS OF
Intense sound waves can cause resonant vibrations SOME COMMON SOUNDS
in pieces of equipment. There is a fundamental mode
of vibration and a set of overtone vibrations (multiples INTENSITY
of the fundamental) for any body that can vibrate. SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL
The frequencies of these vibrations are all natural (W1m2) (db)
frequencies for the given body. Vibrations of moving
Rocket Engine 106 180
parts of equipment are often caused by "sympathic
vibrations" to some impressed sound wave. Jet Plane at Takeoff 103 150
The Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, had a powerful
voice. Wine glasses have a natural frequency of Amplified Rock Music 10-1 110
vibration. As an attention getter at parties, Caruso
Riveting 10-3 90
used to sing the resonant note of a wine glass
and cause the glass to vibrate with such amplitude Elevated Train 10-4 80
that it would shatter! Try it sometime!
Busy Street Traffic 10-6 70
Supersonic Speeds
We recall that the speed of sound varies with the
Conversation in Home le 60
temperature. At 46°F, the speed of sound can be "Quiet" Radio in Home 10-8 40
calculated as follows:
Whisper 10-10 20
v = 1,087 + 1.1(46 — 32)
Rustle of Leaves 10-11 10
1 MPH
= 1,102 ft./sec. x
1.47 ft. /sec. Hearing Threshold 10-12 0

Figure 13-1.
v = 750 MPH

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Chapter XIII Problems
What is the speed of sound at 75°F in ft. /sec.? What is the intensity level of a sound having an
in MPH? intensity of 10 -7 Watts / m2?

What is the speed of sound at -15°F in ft. /sec.? The temperature on a given day is 80 °F. A plane
in MPH? is traveling at 860 MPH. What is the Mach num-
ber?
If the temperature at 35,000 ft. is -40 °F, what
is the speed of sound in ft. /sec.? in MPH? 7. If the plane in problem 6 continues to move at
860 MPH, but climbs to 36,000 ft. where the
What is the intensity level of a sound having an temperature is -40 °F, what is its Mach number
intensity of 10 -3 Watts / m2? at that altitude? Note that although the aircraft
speed remains the same its Mach number has
changed.

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Chapter XIV

Review of Basic Trigonometry

The Theorem of Pythagoras If we apply these definitions to the above trian-

gle, we obtain:
The Theorem of Pythagoras applies only to right
triangles. Recall that a right triangle is a triangle in
which one of the angles is 90°, and the other two a b a
sin A cos A - tan A - -
angles are acute angles (angles less than 90°). The
triangle in figure 14-1 is a right triangle. The right
angle is labeled C, and the two acute angles are b a b
labeled A and B. The sides opposite each of the sin B - cos B = - tan B -
a
angles are labeled with the lower case a, b, and c.
The side c (opposite the right angle) is called the
hypotenuse. The sides a and b are called legs.
The Sum of the
Angles of Any Triangle
The Theorem of Pythagoras states that the sum
of the squares of the legs is equal to the square of The sum of the three angles of any triangle is always
the hypotenuse. 180°. You can convince yourself of this fact by
drawing several triangles, measuring carefully the
In mathematical symbols, this relation is: three angles with a protractor, and adding the re-
sults. We can summarize this relation by writing the
equation:
a2 + b2 = c2

This formula can be solved for any one of the A + B + C = 180°

three quantities a, b, or C.
Solving Right Triangles
V a2 b2 a „. Vc2 b2 b a2 When we "solve" a triangle we find all of the unknown
sides and angles. The above formulas can be used
to solve right triangles.
The Trigonometry of
the Right Triangle
The definitions of the trigonometric functions of the
acute angles of a right triangle are:

opposite side
sine 0
hypotenuse

adjacent side
cosine 0
hypotenuse
opposite side
tangent 0
adjacent side

We abbreviate sine as "sin", cosine as "cos", and Figure 14-1.

tangent as "tan".

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EXAMPLE 14-A. EXAMPLE 14-B.
a2 = c2 — b2
B = 90° — 31°
a2 = (2.5 ) 2 — ( 2 ) 2
B = 59°

a 2 = 2.25
sin 31° = 1.25
c
a = 1.5 in.

.25
sin B = 2 c 1
sin 31°
2.5

B = 53.1° c = 2.43 in.

A = 90° — 53.1°
tan 31° = 1.25

A = 36.9°
1.25
b=
tan 31°

B b = 2.08 in.

1.25"

EXAMPLE 14-C. ft.

tan A = 205 = 0.0911
A roadbed rises 205 ft. for each 2,250 horizontal 2,205 ft.
ft. of road. Find the angle of inclination of the
roadbed. A = 5.21°
Call the angle of inclination A.

205'

A
2250'

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EXAMPLE 14-D. Call the distance from the airport "d".
Commercial airliners fly at an altitude of about 10
kilometers. They start descending toward the air- 10 km
port when they are still far away, so they will not tan 4° =
d
have to dive at a steep angle. If the pilot wants the
plane's path to make an angle of 4° with the 10 km
ground, how far from the airport must he begin his d= - 143 km
tan 4°
descent?

4°

10KM

EXAMPLE 14-E. Introduction To the Use of

How high up on the side of a building will a 10 the Sine and Cosine Laws
meter ladder reach if the recommended safety
These laws apply to any triangle. However, if a
angle of 75° is used?
triangle is a right triangle, it is much easier to use
Call the height above the base of the building, h. the Theorem of Pythagoras and /or basic right trian-
gle trigonometry to find the unknown sides and
h angles of such a triangle. Therefore, usually the sine
sin 75° =
10m and cosine laws are used only for triangles which are
not right triangles.
h = 10 m (sin 75°) = 9.66 m A general triangle is shown in figure 14-2. It is
not a right triangle.
Note that the angles of this triangle are labeled
A, B, and C. The sides opposite the angles are la-
beled a, b, and c respectively.

10M h

Figure 14-2.

750

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The Cosine Law EXAMPLE 14 - G.
The cosine law is used in two special cases: The triangle in this case has two known sides and
It is used to find one of the angles of a triangle the angle between these two sides is also known.
if the three sides are known. We use the cosine law.
It is used to find the third side of a triangle if
the other two sides and the angle included a2 = b2 c 2 - 2bc cos A
between these two sides are known.
The cosine law is stated as follows (all three pos-
a 2 = (6) 2 + (8) 2 — 2 (6) (8) cos 42°
sible forms are given):

a = 5.35 cm
a 2 = b 2 + C 2 — 2 b c cos A

b2 = c2 + a2 - 2ac cos B

a + b2 - 2ab cos C
C2 =a2

EXAMPLE 14 - F.
The triangle shown here has three sides that are
known
8
We will use the cosine law to find one of the angles.
Anyone of the three angles could be found by the
cosine law. We choose to find angle A.
The Sine Law
a2 = b 2 + c2 - 2bc cos A The sine law is stated in the following equation:

2 bc cos A = b2 e2 _ a2 a _ b c
sin A - sin B - sin C
b 2 + c 2 - a2
cos A = This mathematical expression is really three equa-
2 bc
tions, since any two of the three quantities are
equal to each other.
(4.5) 2 + (7) 2 — (4.8) 2
cos A = In words, this equation says that any side of
2 (4.5) (7) a triangle divided by the sine of the angle opposite
this side is proportional to any other side divided
cos A = 0.7335 by the sine of the angle opposite that side.
The sine law is used for the solution of all trian-
A = 42.8° gles with the exception of the two cases described
above where the cosine law must be used first.
Recall that supplementary angles are two angles
whose sum is 180°. The sine of any two supple-
mentary angles is the same number. For example,
sin 30° = sin 150° = 0.5. Try this on your calculator
for other pairs of supplementary angles, e.g. 20°
and 160°, 35° and 145°, etc.
It is important to remember the above trigonom-
etry when working with the sine law. For example,
if you are finding the size of an angle that is obviously
7.0 more than 90°, your use of the sine law will tell

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 •
you that the value of this angle is a certain value If the triangle is not a right triangle, determine
when the true value of this angle is the supplement if all three sides are known or if two sides and
of this angle. the included angle are known. In either of these
cases, use the Cosine Law first and then use
Example 14-I will clarify the above paragraph.
the Sine Law.
The sine law will be used to solve a triangle when
If two sides and an angle, which is not the
one of the angles of this triangle is more than 90°.
included angle, are known use the Sine Law for
Let us summarize the method of solving (finding all of the unknowns.
the unknown sides and angles) any triangle. 4. If two angles and a side are known, use the
1. If the triangle is a right triangle, use the Theo- Sine Law.
rem of Pythagoras and / or the definitions of the In some cases, a problem asks you to find only one
sine, cosine, and tangent. unknown.

EXAMPLE 14-H.
In the triangle shown here, two angles and one side are known. We first find the third angle by noting that the
sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°. Then we use the sine law to find the two unknown sides.

C = 180° - 35° - 75° = 70°

a c
sin A - sin C

a 6
sin 35° - sin 70°

sin 35°
a=6
sin 70°

a = 3.66 cm

sin C - sin B
6CM
6 _ b
sin 70° - sin 75°

sin 75°
b - 6
sin 70°

b= 6.17 cm

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EXAMPLE 14-I. The final answer for the size of angle C is:

4 = 7 C = 124.8°
sin 28° sin C
The rest of the solution easily follows.
7
sin C = — sin 28°
4 A = 180° — 28° — 124.8° = 27.2°

sin C = 0.8216 The length of side a can be found by using the Sine
Law again.
If you ask your calculator for the size of the angle
that has a sine of 0.8216, it will tell you that it is a
55.2° angle. This is obviously not the angle that is
desired. The correct answer is the supplement of
55.2° or 124.8°. Be careful when dealing with 4CM
anglles that are greater than 90°.

7CM

EXAMPLE 14-J. c63 = a = 63

and
Suppose that you are the pilot of a commercial sin 37° sin 118° sin 25° sin 118°
airliner. You find it necessary to detour around a
group of thundershowers. You turn at an angle of
25° 1:o your original path, fly for awhile, turn, and From these equations we obtain:
intercept your original path at an angle of 37°, 63
km from where you left it. How much further did c = 42.9 km and a = 30.2 km
you have to go because of the detour?
From the fact that the sum of the angles of a The detour was 73.1 km, a distance of 10.1 km
triangle is 180°, the angle at B is known to be 118°. more than the straight path from A to C.
We use the sine law.

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Chapter XIV Problems
A roadbed has angle of inclination of 7 °. If the road rises a distance of 350 ft., what is the slanting length
of the road?

A ladder is placed next to a wall at the recommended safety angle of 75°. The horizontal distance from the
base of the ladder to the wall is 2.5 ft. How long is the ladder?

A plane isflying at a altitude of 6,000ft. The pilot wants the descent to be at an angle of 5° with the ground.
How far from the airport must he begin his descent? Give your answer in miles.

A pilotflies 23.0 miles at an angle 73 ° N of E. How far east is he from his starting point? How far north is
he from his starting point?

How high up on the side of a building will a 9.0 m ladder reach if the recommended safety angle of 75°
is used?

A satellite is directly overhead one observer sta-

tion when it is at an angle of 73 ° from another
observer station. If the distance between the two
I\
stations is 875 km, what is the height of the
satellite?

875 KM

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7. An astronaut approaches two satellites. Using radar, he determines that one of them is 7.3 km from him
and the other is 12.4 km from him, and the angle between them (at the vertex) is 105°. How far apart are
the satellites?

SATELLITE 1

n
SATELLITE 2
7.3 KM

12.4 KM
105°

ASTRONAUT

The pilot of a commercial airliner finds it necessary to detour around a group of thundershowers. He turns
at an angle of 32° from his original path, flies for awhile, turns, and intercepts his original path at 20 °, 72
miles from where he left it. How much farther did he have to go because of the detour?

An astronaut approaching two satellites notes that one of them is 12 kilometers from him and the other is
14 kilometers from him. Futhermore, he notes that the angle formed by a line drawn from his position to
one of the satellites and a line draw from him to the second of the satellites is 85°. Find the distance between
the satellites.

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To welcome their returning war hero, the Pollutions give a parade. The parade goes between the cities of
Tri, Ang, and Gel. These cities are at the vertices of an equilateral triangle (equal sides). The roads connecting
them are straight, level, and direct, and the parade goes at constant speed with no stops. From Tri to Ang
takes 80 minutes, from Ang to Gel takes 80 minutes, butfrom Gel back to Tri takes 1 hour and 20 minutes.
How do you explain the discrepancy in times?

A beam of gamma rays is to used to treat a tumor known to be 6.8 centimeters beneath the patient's skin.
To avoid damaging a vital organ, the radiologist moves the source over 10.2 centimeters.
At what angle to the patient's skin must the radiologist aim the gamma ray source?
How far will the beam travel through the patient's body before reaching the tumor?

TUMOR

The tallest free-standing structure in the world is the 553 meters tall CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario. At a
certain time of day it casts a shadow 450 meters long on the ground. What is the angle of elevation of the
sun at that time?

A triangle has sides of length 550 ft., 610 ft. and 755 ft. Find the number of degrees in the angle opposite
the 755 ft. side.

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Chapter XV
Vectors
Definition of a Vector Also note that the horizontal line . is called the x-
A vector is any quantity that has both magnitude axis and the vertical line is called the y-axis. The
(size) and direction. A quantity that has only a point, 0, where the x-axis crosses the y-axis, is
magnitude is called a scalar. called the origin.
Examples of scalars are temperature, area, and The vector in the diagram which follows is an ex-
volume. Examples of vectors are displacement, ve- ample of a displacement vector. Note that it is 4.5
locity, force, and acceleration. cm long and makes a 37° angle with the positive
A vector is represented by an arrow. The length of direction of the x-axis. It lies in the first quadrant.
the arrow indicates the magnitude of the vector and It is labeled A. The angle that the vector makes
the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of with the positive direction of the x-axis in a coun-
the vector. If a quantity is a vector quantity, the letter terclockwise sense is called the reference angle.
that represents that quantity is underlined if it is The reference angle of vector A is a 37° angle.
hand-written on the board or on a paper. We will use
bold-face print. The Components of a Vector
Vectors are represented on a coordinate plane (see
If a line is drawn from the tip of a vector, perpendic-
figure 15-1).
ular to the x-axis, the distance from the origin to the
Directions on such a coordinate plane are as follows: foot of this perpendicular is called the x-component
Up Positive of the vector. The y-component of the vector is defined
Down Negative in a similar manner, as the distance from the origin
Right Positive to a line drawn from the tip of the vector perpendic-
ular to the y-axis. The x-component of the vector A
Left Negative
is labeled A, and the y-component is labeled Ay.
The coordinate plane is divided into four quad-
rants. These four quadrants are labeled I, II, III, The components of the vector A are labeled in
IV as in figure 15-1. figure 15-2.

IC I

0
x

III DZ

Figure 15-1. Figure 15-2.

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 It is very important to find the magnitude of the The x-component of any vector is found by mul-
components of a vector. We need to do this in order tiplying the magnitude of the vector by the cosine
to find the sum of vector quantities. of the reference angle.
The y-component of any vector is found by multi-
Our calculators are programmed to help us find
plying the magnitude of the vector by the sine of the
the magnitude of vector quantities.
reference angle.

Dx = 450 cos 140° —345 MPH

Dy = 450 sin 140° = 289 MPH

Fx = 7 cos 220° = -5.36 m

Fy Fy = 7 sin 220° = -4.50 m

1 Gx = 610 cos 345° - 589 MPH

1
I Gy Gy = 610 sin 345° = -158 MPH
I
----------__________?16:j

Figure 15-3.

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 The advantage of using our calculators in the same convention as with the signing of the co-
above manner is that the calculator gives the correct ordinate plane.
signs of the vector components. If a vector is in Most vectors must be drawn to scale because
the second quadrant, the x-component is negative they are too big to be drawn on a normal sheet
and the y-component is positive. In the third quad- of paper, or because they are not displacement vec-
rant, both components are negative. In the fourth tors and thus do not have an actual physical length.
quadrant the x-component is positive and the y- In particular, note that velocities are vectors and
component is negative. The sign of a component are added just as displacement vectors are added.
is always determined by its direction, using the
Vectors D, F, and G are shown in figure 15-3.
In each of the following examples, the components
of the vectors are found. It is necessary to determine
N the reference angle in each case. Recall that the
reference angle is the angle the vector makes with
the positive direction of the x-axis and rotating
in the counterclockwise direction. Our calculators
w E are programmed to find the components of any
vector by this method. The x-component is found
by multiplying the magnitude by the cosine of the
reference angle and the y-component by multiplying
the magnitude by the sine of the reference angle.
S
The above method for describing angles using
Figure 15-4. In this notation, due east is at a 0 ° a reference angle is very useful in developing a
angle, north is at 90 0, west is at 180 0, simple notation to describe vectors. The preceding
and south is at 270 °.

Figure 15-5. This method shows the approximate

sum as: C : 10.5 cm, 51°

107
 B

By By
6 CM

Cy

65°
BX
A

5 CM

e
Ax BX
x
Cx

Figure 15-6.

three vectors could be described clearly even without F : 7 m, 40° S of W or 50° W of S

a diagram. This would be done as follows:
G : 610 MPH, 15° S of E or 75° E of S
D : 450 MPH, 140°
The Addition of Vectors
F : 7 m, 220°
Two vectors can be added to each other. This is best
illustrated by the addition of displacement vectors.
G : 610 MPH, 345° If one displacement is added to a second displace-
ment, the result is a certain final displacement from
Sometimes the following notation (see figure 1 5-4) the starting point. The actual distance from the
is also used, especially in the airline industry. starting point is not the sum of the two vector
In should be noted that an alternate method some- distances. The directions of the two vectors to be
times uses 0° for due north, 90° for east, 180° added are as important as the lengths in determin-
for south, and 270° for west. We cannot use this ing the final vector sum.
notation since our calculators are not programmed Consider the example shown in figure 15-5.
in this manner!
Two vector displacements are to be added.
Using the notation of the diagram in figure 15-4, They are:
we could describe vectors D, F, and G as:
A : 5 cm, 35°
D : 450 MPH, 40° N of W or 50° W of N
B : 6 cm, 65°

108
 The sum vector (C) can be found by the "tail-head" Our final conclusion is that the vector (C) is 10.6
method. In this method, the tail of the second vector cm long and that it makes a 51.4° angle with the pos-
(B) is placed at the head of the first vector, (A). itive direction of the x-axis. Our results agree well
The sum vector is found by drawing it from the with the diagrammatic method. However, this is
tail of the first vector to the head of the second often not the case if the diagram is not constructed
vector. The size of the sum vector can be found very carefully. The trigonometric method is preferred
by measuring. The result found in this manner de- whenever real accuracy is needed.
pends upon the care with which the figure is drawn. The trigonometric method is sometimes also called
There are many possible sources of error: bent pro- the component method, since it requires that we
tractors, non-sharp pencils, warped rulers, sloppy first find the x- and y-components of the two vectors
diagrams, etc. The result is always approximate! to be added and, by adding, find the x- and y-
components of the sum vector before we find the
The Trigonometric Method magnitude and reference angle of the sum vector.
for Adding Vectors This example was a special case since both com-
In the method described above, there is a built-in ponents of both vectors were positive numbers.
difficulty. The success of the method depends on the This will not be the case if the vectors to be added
condition of the instruments used and the care with are not first quadrant vectors. If any one of the
which the diagram is constructed. Some more exact vectors to be added is not a first quadrant vector,
method is needed. We will illustrate the trigonomet- great care must be taken to use the proper signs
ric method by using the same example as above. for all components.
Study figure 15-6. The following example will clarify the procedure.
Note that: Add vectors A and B to obtain the sum
vector, C.
AX + BX = CX and AY + BY = C Y
A: 5 cm, 150°
The above two equations enable us to find the B : 7 cm, 245°
components of the vector (C) in an exact manner.
For the example above we have: Ax = 5 cos 150° = —4.33
BX = 7 cos 245° = —2.96
AX = 5 cos 35° = 4.09
Cx = —4.33 + (-2.96) = —7.29
13, = 6 cos 65° = 2.54
C, = 4.09 + 2.54 = 6.63 cm Ay = 5 sin 150° = 2.50
B = 7 sin 245° = —6.34
Ay5 sin 35° = 2.87
B = 6 sin 65° = 5.44 Cy = 2.50 + (-6.34) = —3.84
C y = 2.87 + 5.444 = 8.31 cm It is important at this stage to draw a diagram
to see the exact direction of the sum vector C. We
The magnitude of the vector (C) and be found note that the x-component of C is 7.29 units long
by using the Theorem of Pythagoras. and points left and that the y-component of C is
3.84 units long and points down. The two minus
C = A/Cx 2 + Cy 2 signs gave us the directions of these two components.
Next, we draw the diagram (figure 15-8). We do not
include the signs since we have used the signs to tell
C = V(6.63) 2 + (8.31) 2 us the proper directions of the component vectors.
We label the angle (0) between the vector (C) and
C = 10.6 cm the x-axis. We can find the size of the angle (0)
by using the relation:
A new diagram (figure 15-7) clearly shows the
components of vector (C) and the angle (0) that it 3.84
tan 0 and 0 = 27.8°
makes with the positive direction of the x-axis. 7.29

109
 Y

C,
tan 0 -
C),

tan 0 - 8.31
6.63
1 8 - 51.4°
1
1
i
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
x

Figure 15-7.

Figure 15-8.

110
 From this value of 0, we find the reference angle 8. Describe the direction of the sum vector by
to be 207.8°. giving the reference angle. It is sometimes nec-
essary to first find the size of the acute angle
From the Theorem of Pythagoras, we find that:
that the sum vector makes with the x-axis.
From this acute angle, the size of the reference
C V(7.29) 2 + (3.84) 2 8.24 cm angle can be found.

The final answer is written: Force Vectors

Another quantity that is a typical vector quantity is
C: 8.24 cm, 207.8° a force. We recall that a force is a push or a pull. A
force has both magnitude and direction.
This method can summarized as follows: The addition of force vectors proceeds in an iden-
Find the reference angle of each vector to be tical manner to the addition of displacement vectors.
added. Recall that a vector is described by giving its mag-
Find the x-component of each vector by multi- nitude and its reference angle.
plying its magnitude by the cosine of the refer-
ence angle.
Find the y-component of each vector by multi- EXAMPLE 15-A.
plying its magnitude by the sine of the reference Add the force vectors:
angle.
Add the x-components to find the x-component F1 : 50 lbs., 130°
of the sum.
Add the y-components to find the y-component
F2 : 150 lbs., 200°
of the sum.
Draw a diagram showing the x- and y-compo-
nents of the sum. F3 : 200 lbs., 300°
7. Use the Theorem of Pythagoras to find the
magnitude of the sum. In adding these three vectors, we first find the x-
and y-components of these three forces. Then we
add the x-components to find the x-component of
y the sum force. Next, we add the ycomponents to
find the y-component of the sum force. Finally, we
73.1
248.5° draw a diagram to find the magnitude of the sum
and the reference angle of the sum force.

F 1x = 50 cos 130° - -32.1

F2x 150 cos 200° = -141
F (73.1) 2 + (186) 2 Fa x - 200 cos 300° = 100

F - 200 lb. F ly 50 sin 130° = 38.3

186 186 F ey - 150 sin 200° = -51.3
tan 0 =
73.1 Fay = 200 sin 300° -173
- 68.5°
Next we add the x-components and the y-
components.

Fx = -73.1 F = -186

We now know the x and y components of the vector

sum of the three forces given. We need to draw a
Figure 15-9. careful diagram to determine the magnitude of this

111
 force and its direction (figure 15-9). We recall that Recall also that if the direction of a vector to
the two negative signs tell us the directions of be added is given in the north, south, east, west
these components. The x-component is a compo- notation, the first step in the addition of such vectors
nent to the left and the y-component is a downward is to express the direction of each vector with the
component. We use the Theorem of Pythagoras reference angle notation.
to determine the magnitude of the vector sum. For example, a direction given as 30° S of W,
Our final vector sum can be expressed as: should be expressed with reference angle 210°.

F: 200 lbs., 248.5°

112
Chapter XV Problems
Add the following vectors: A: 45 m, 31° and B: 56.7 cm, 47 ° N of W
66 m, 67°. Call the sum vector C. 23.5 cm, 75° S of E
Hint: First find the reference angles of A and B.
Add the following vectors: C: 8.5 mi., 115° and Find the sum of the following forces:
D: 12.6 mi., 215°. Call the sum vector E. Fi: 700,000 lbs., South
F2: 725,000 lbs., 15° W of N

Add the following vectors: F: 34.5 m, 165° and Find the sum of the following three forces:
G: 67.5 m, 295°. Call the sum vector H. Fi: 711,000 lbs., 10 ° E of N
160,000 lbs., West
Add the following vectors: K: 345 cm, 68 ° and 700,000 lbs., South
M: 435 cm, 180 °. Call the sum vector N. 8. Find the sum of the following forces:
Fi : 342 N, 47 ° W of N
5. Find the vector D, which is the sum of vectors A F2: 782 N, 31° S of E
and B described below:

113
Chapter I
Navigation Problems
An example of vector addition that is of great interest the earth we want to go, that is, we have a definite
and importance to the aviation industry is shown in destination on the earth! On the other hand we
figure 16-1. have the opposite information for the airspeed
vector: We know the magnitude of this vector (the
v pa + V ag = v Pg
airspeed of the plane) but we must determine the
vpa is the velocity of the plane relative to the air direction of this vector. That is, we must determine
(airspeed) the heading of the plane. This last bit of information
Vag is the velocity of the air relative to the ground is essential if the plane is to arrive at the desired
(wind speed) destination.
Pg is the velocity of the plane relative to the The following steps should be followed in the
ground (groundspeed) following order for the solution of this type of
problem:
Note that the vector sum of the airspeed and the
1 Draw the groundspeed vector in the direction
windspeed is the groundspeed. The tail-head
in which the pilot wishes to proceed.
method has been used in the diagram below. Note
Draw the windspeed vector with its head at the
that the plane is blown somewhat off course by the
head of the groundspeed vector.
wind and that the pilot must adjust his heading ac-
Draw the airspeed vector from the tail of the
cording the wind velocity and direction.
groundspeed vector to the tail of the
In those cases where the vector triangle is a right windspeed vector.
triangle, the Pythagorean Theorem can be used. In
such cases, the method is much more simple. There-
fore, we will begin with this case.
vag

N
Figure 16-1.

pg
EXAMPLE 16-A. S
A pilot wishes to travel (relative to the ground) due
north. There is a wind from the east at 40 MPH. The
airspeed of the plane is 200 MPH. What is the
groundspeed of the plane and in what direction
should the pilot head?
In this example, there are several points that we
must note carefully. First, we know both the direc-
tion and speed of the wind. Such information is
available from the weather service.
For the vector that represents the groundspeed we
know the direction but not the magnitude. We know
the direction because we know exactly where on

115
 We will solve the problem using these three steps 35.0
in the order given.
Note that we have drawn the groundspeed vector E
due north. The wind vector is drawn to the west (it
was an east wind). We have made this wind vector
significantly shorter than the groundspeed vector
since the windspeed is usually much smaller than
the groundspeed. Note that the heads of these two w E
vectors are together. Finally, we have drawn a
vector from the tail of the first vector to the tail of
the second vector drawn.
Note that for the groundspeed vector we know the
direction but not the magnitude.
Note that for the airspeed vector we know the
magnitude but not the direction.

v Pg = V2002 - 402 = 196 MPH sin 0 = 35 sin 55°

215
40 = 7.7°
sin 0 = and therefore, 0 = 11.5°
200
35° - 7.7° = 27.3° (the heading of the plane)
The groundspeed of the plane is 196 MPH and the
pilot should head 11.5° E of N.
The third interior angle of the triangle can now be
found. It is 117.3°. Now the sine law can be used
More Complicated again.
Navigation Problems
If the vector triangle is not a right triangle, the 215 vPg
method is the same. However, in this case, it will be sin 55° - sin 117.3°
necessary to use the sine law to determine the two
unknowns. In addition, the "Z" rule will often be v Pg = 233 MPH
helpful in determining the number of degrees in one
of the interior angles of the vector triangle. The groundspeed of the plane is 233 MPH, and the
pilot should head 27.3° E of N.
EXAMPLE 16-B.
Each navigation problem dealing with a vector tri-
A pilot wishes to proceed in a direction 55° N of E angle which is not a right triangle must be handled
(35° E of N). There is a wind from the west at 35 carefully. A clear diagram must be drawn. The size of
MPH. The airspeed of the plane is 215 MPH. What the angle between the wind vector and the ground-
is the groundspeed of the plane and in what direc- speed vector can always be found. The Z rule often
tion should the pilot head? helps. Another theorem of plane geometry is some-
Use 1:he Z rule to find the 55° interior angle of the times helpful. This theorem states that vertical an-
triangle. gles (two angles lying on opposite sides of two
intersecting lines) are equal. This rule is sometimes
referred to as the "X" rule. Recall also that two angles
35 215
lying on the same side of two intersecting lines al-
sin 0 - sin 55°
ways add up to 180°.

116
Chapter XVI Problems
A pilot wishes to travel due north. There is a A pilot wishes to travel in a direction 40 ° N of W.
wind from the west at 30 MPH. The airspeed of There is a wind from the east at 35 MPH. The
the plane is 195 MPH. What is the groundspeed airspeed of the plane is 210 MPH. What is the
of the plane and in what direction should the groundspeed of the plane and in which direction
pilot head? should the pilot head?

A pilot wishes tofly due south. The airspeed of the A pilot wishes to travel due north. There is a wind
plane is 185 MPH. There is a windfrom the west at from the north at 30 MPH. The airspeed of the plane
40 MPH. What is the ground speed of the plane and is 185 MPH. What is the groundspeed of the plane
in what direction should the pilot head? and in which direction should the pilot head?

A pilot wishes to fly due west. The airspeed of A pilot wishes to travel due north. There is a
the plane is 195 MPH. There is a wind from the wind from the south at 30 MPH. The airspeed of
north at 45 MPH. In what direction should the pilot the plane is 185 MPH. What is the groundspeed
head? What is the groundspeed of the plane? of the plane and in which direction should the
pilot head?
A pilot wishes to fly due south. There is a wind
from 30 ° S of W (to 30 ° N of E) at 45 MPH. The A pilot wants to travel due west. The airspeed of
airspeed of the plane is 200 MPH. What is the the plane is 170 MPH. There is a windfrom 34 ° N
groundspeed and in what direction should the of W at 35 MPH. What is the groundspeed of the
pilot head? plane and in what direction should the pilot
head?
5. A pilot wishes to fly in a direction 35° N of E.
There is a west wind (from the west) at 40 MPH. A pilot wants to travel in a direction 32° N of E.
The airspeed of the plane is 200 MPH. What is the The airspeed of the plane is 190 MPH. There is a
groundspeed and in what direction should the wind from the west at 40 MPH. What is the
pilot head? groundspeed and what is the heading?

A pilot needs to travel due west. The airspeed is

190 MPH. There is a windfrom the north at 38 MPH.
What are the groundspeed and heading?

117
Chapter XVII
Applications of Bernoulli's
Principle to Aircraft
Basic Definitions It is the motion of air past the wing that alters
the pressure pattern. Whether the wing is in motion
Before we begin our discussion of the lift and drag
through the air or the air is flowing past a stationary
on an airplane wing, the following definitions must
wing the result is the same.
be understood.
For example, if a plane is moving through sta-
The relative wind direction is the direction of
tionary air at a speed of 200 MPH, the effect is
the airflow with respect to the wing and is opposite
the same (as far as the plane and air are concerned)
to the path of flight (figure 17-1).
as if the plane were stationary and the air was
The chord line of a wing is a straight line con- moving with velocity 200 MPH past the plane.
necting the leading edge of a wing to its trailing
As air streams past the wing of a plane, the
edge (figure 17-2).
speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing
The angle of attack is the angle between the
is greater than the speed of the air past the lower
chord line of a wing and the relative wind direction
surface of the wing. These exact speeds are de-
(figure 17-3). termined by the shape of the wing and the angle
Figure 17-4 shows the cross section of a wing of attack.
at rest and subject to atmospheric pressure which
For example, if the speed of the relative wind
on the average is 14.7 lbs. /in.2
(equal to the speed of the plane) is 200 MPH, the
A force of 14.7 lbs. can be imagined as acting speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing
perpendicular to every square inch of the wing. may be 210 MPH and the speed of air past the
The resultant of these 14.7 lbs. force vectors is
zero and therefore has no effect on the dynamics
of the plane.

Figure 17-3.

Figure 17-1.

Figure 17-2. Figure 17-4.

119
lower surface of the wing may be 195 MPH. As in- We also define the dynamic pressure of the air
dicated above, the exact values for a given case stream (q).
depend on the shape of the wing and the angle
of attack. 1
q = - p vo 2 = dynamic pressure of the air stream
In this example, we could say that the speed 2
past the upper surface of the wing is [1.05 (200
MPH)] and the speed past the lower surface if the Finally, we have the important equation:
wing is [0.975 (200 MPH)].
In figure 17-5, the following symbols apply: qS =L

P 1 = pressure on the upper surface of the wing We usually switch the members of this equation
P 2 = pressure on the lower surface of the wing
and write:

vo = relative wind velocity

L = qSCL
p = density of the air
It should be noted that when we use the term
The speed past the upper surface of the wing "wing area", we mean both wings and only the
is Avo and the speed past the lower wing surface upper (or lower) surface of these two wings.
is Bvo.
In an analogous manner we define the drag as:
We apply Bernoulli's principle (see figure 7-4):
D = qSCD
1 2 = 1 2
2 P vi =
P1 + - r2 P V2
where Co is the coefficient of drag.

We note that the ones refer to the upper surface The lift coefficient and the values of the quantities
A and B depend on the wing shape and the angle
and the twos apply to the lower surface of the wing.
of attack.

1
P 1 + 2- p (Av0) 2 = P2 + — p (Bvo) 2
2
EXAMPLE 17-A.
Suppose that the relative wind that a wing experi-
p v 02 (A2 — B2) = p2 pi ences is 200 MPH (293 ft./sec.). The air speed past
2
the upper surface of the wing is 220 MPH (322
ft./sec.) and past the lower surface is 198 MPH (290
We note that P2 — P1 is the net upward pressure.
ft./sec.). The density of the air is 0.002377 slug/ft.3
If we multiply this net upward pressure by the
wing area (S), we obtain the net upward force, the The wing area is 400 ft. 2 Calculate the lift.
lift (L).
1
Also we introduce the coefficient of lift (CO as q = - p vo 2
2
the value of A2 - B2. If we multiply by S, we have:

1 ft.
( i12- p vo 2 ) C L S = (P2 - P i ) S q = - (0.002377 slug/ft. 3 ) (293 )
2 sec. 2

q = 102
lbs.
ft.2
Av o
Note that q is the dynamic pressure and has
the dimensions of a pressure.
A >B
\-0.-
Bvo P2 A= 322 1.10 B=
290 = 0.99
and
293 293
Figure 17-5.

120
 C L = A2 - B2 = ( 1.10) 2 - ( 0.99) 2 EXAMPLE 17-B.
A plane having wing area 600 ft.2 is flying at an
C L = 0.23 altitude of 10,000 ft. and with an angle of attack of
6°. The speed of the plane is 286 MPH. What is
the lift?
L = qSCL
At 10,000 ft., the air density is 0.001756 slug/ft.3

L = (102 lbs./ft. 2 ) ( 400 ft. 2 ) (0.23) vo = 286 MPH = 419 ft./sec.

L = 9,380 lbs. 1 2
q = — p vo
2

Cruising Flight q= 2 (0.001756 slug/ft. 3 ) ( 419 ft./sec.) 2

When a plane is cruising (flying in a straight line at
constant speed and constant altitude) the upward
force on the plane, the lift, must equal the weight of q = 154 lbs./ft.2
the plane. Also the thrust is equal to the drag.
C L = 0.54 (from the graph)
Aerodynamic Characteristics
of an Airfoil L = qSCL
C C
The lift coefficient ( L) and the drag coefficient ( D)
are usually determined, not by measuring the speed
of the air past the upper and lower surfaces of the L = (154 lb
s,
2'). (6
00 ft. 2 ) (0.54)
ft..
wing, but rather by measuring the lift and drag
forces in a wind tunnel. A particular wing, having a
definite shape, is placed in a wind tunnel. The angle L = 50,000 lbs.
of attack is then varied and the lift and drag are
determined for each angle of attack. A graph is
drawn. There is a sample of such a graph on the next
page. The data are for the aerodynamic characteris-
Turning Flight
tics of an NACA 23045 airfoil. In our discussion of cruising flight, the forces acting
on the plane cancelled and the acceleration was zero.
In using such a graph, it is important to deter- In turning flight, there is acceleration (the plane is
mine from the given problem the angle of attack constantly changing direction) and Newton's second
and to find the lift and drag coefficients from the law provides the necessary link between this accel-
curves on the graph. eration and the forces required to bring it about.
We note that each type of airfoil has its own Figure 17-7 is a Mitsubishi Marquis turboprop
characteristic graph drawn as the result of much powered business transport in a level turn. In order
experimentation in a wind tunnel. to maintain level flight, the component of lift in
the verical direction must just balance the weight.
The graph in figure 17-6 is taken from Technical
We denote the angle of bank by the Greek letter
Report 669, a publication of the National Advisory
theta (0).
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and the Aero-
nautical Research Council (ARC). The sum of the forces in vertical direction must
be zero. This gives us the equation:
Airfoil Section Data Obtained in the NACA Vari-
able-Density Tunnel As Affected by Support Inter-
(1) w = mg = L cos 0
ference and Other Corrections, by Eastman N.
Jacobs and Ira H. Abbott, 1939.
Also, we know that the horizontal component of
The following example and problems refer to a the lift (L sin 0), gives the centripetal force which
NACA 23045 airfoil having an aspect ratio of 6. See keeps the plane in its circular path. This centripe-
figure 17-6 for the graph. tal force equals the mass of the plane times its
centripetal acceleration. We recall that the centrip-

121
 CO
-: CD
—: Nt CM
...-
0 CD CD v-
..-: 0 0 c,
7 3 L 1N31013d300 lAll
co CD Nr CV 0 CO CD V'
,-- ,-- ,-- f-- ,-- 0 0 0
ci 0 6 ci 0 ci 6 ci
a 3 'IN3101d=1300 OVIJO

122
Figure 17-7.

etal acceleration equals the square of speed of the This equation can be rewritten in the form:
plane divided by the radius of the turn.

(3) R g tan 0
V 2 = rs
MV
2
(2) = L sin 0
R Let us return to equation (2).

Since both equations involve m, L, and the angle MV

2
(0), a new equation can be obtained by dividing L sin 0 =
R
equation (2) by equation (1) and noting that some
quantities cancel out.
MV 2
L =
R sin 0
L sin 0 _ m v2/R
L cos 0 - m g Also:

There is a trigonometric identity that tells us that:

1
L = qSC L = ( 2- p v2)SCL
sin 0
tan 0 =
cos 0
Therefore:

We also note that L and m cancel. We obtain

the form: p it2 S CL = v2
2 R sin 0
2
tan 0 =
V We cancel the v 2 and obtain:
Rg
rn
— p S °L. =
21 R sin 0

123
 2m CL - 0.530
(4) R
PCLSsin0
2m
Equations (3) and (4) are important equations R
P CLSsin0
for the following problems.

2(54 100 kg)

R=
EXAMPLE 17-C. (0.414 kg/m3) ( 0.530) (93 m2 ) sin 15°
A DC-9 cruising at 10,000 meters at a speed of 821
km/hr. weighs 530,000 N and has a wing area of R 20,500 m
93 m 2 . Determine the lift coefficient under these
conditions. Assuming the same lift coefficient, find v2 = R g tan 0 - (20,500 m) (9.8 m/sec. 2) tan 15°
the radius of the a turn executed with a 15° banking
angle. Find the speed needed to maintain a level
turn at a 15° banking angle. v = 232 m/sec. = 835 km/hr.

vo = 821 km/hr. = 228 m/sec.

Let us return to the equation for the radius of
turning flight:
At 10,000 m,
p- 0.414 kg/m3 2 w/g
R
p CL S sin 0
w - 530,000 N
What do we learn from this equation?
m = w/g - 54,100 kg A larger radius is required for low values of the
coefficient of lift. Thus for low angles of attack
S= 93 m2 the radius will be larger than for greater angles
of attack.
The lift (L) = the weight, (w) The radius required to maintain a turn in-
creases with altitude since the density of the
air decreases with altitude.
L qSCL = w
The heavier the plane, the greater the radius of
turn required.
1 2 The smaller the angle of bank (0) the larger the
CL q s q - —2 p vo
radius of the turn.

530,000 N
CL
[(0.5) (0.414 kg/m 3) ( 228 m/sec.) 2 (93 m2)

124
Chapter XVII Problems
The following problems deal with cruising flight. Determine the dynamic pressure. Determine the
A plane having wing area 500 ft.2 is moving at lift coefficient.
250 MPH. The speed of the air moving past the top
surface of the wing is 290 MPH and the speed of A Cessna Citation I has a stalling apeed at sea
the air past the bottom surface of the wing is 230 level of 82 knots at a maximum landing weight
MPH. The density of the air is 0.002378 slug /ft.3 of 50,500 N. Its wing area is 25.9 m2. Determine
What is the lift? the lift coefficient.

A plane having wing area 460 ft. 2 is cruising at A plane having wing area 500ft. 2 is flying at 310
240 MPH. The speed of the air moving past the top MPH with an angle of attack of 7°. The altitude is
surface of the wing is 265 MPH and the speed of 5,000 ft. What is the lift?
the air past the bottom surface of the wing is 235
MPH. The density of the air is 0.002365 slug /ft.3
A plane is flying at 8,000 ft. altitude. The wing
What is the weight of the plane? area is 450ft.2 The angle of attack is 8°. At what
speed will the lift on this plane be 40,000 lbs.?
A plane is cruising at 310 MPH. The speed of the
air moving past the top surface of the wing is 335 A Cessna Titan has a cruising speed at 20,000
MPH and the speed of the air past the bottom
ft. of 175 knots, with a weight of 9,660 lbs. and
surface of the wing is 299 MPH. The density of the a wing area of 242 ft.2 Determine the lift coeffi-
air is 0.002377 slug /ft. 3 The weight of the plane cient under these conditions. Maintaining the
is 26,600 lbs. What is the wing area? same lift coefficient, what is the radius of a level
turn executed at a 37 ° banking angle? What
A Beechcraft Duke B60 has a maximum cruising speed is required to execute this turn?
speed at 25,000 feet of 239 knots. Find the
dynamic pressure. Determine the lift coefficient 10. A Piper Seneca cruising at 170 knots at an
if the weight is 6,775 lbs. and the wing area is altitude of 15,000 ft. has a weight of 4,800 lbs.
213 ft.2 and a wing area of 209 ft. 2 Determine the lift
coefficient under these conditions. Maintaining
5. A Boeing 727 has a stalling speed at sea level the same lift coefficient, what is the radius of a
withflaps down of 193 km / hr. The weight of the level turn executed at 30 ° banking angle? Find
727 is 712,000 N and its wing area is 157.9 m2. the speed needed to maintain this level turn.

125
Chapter XVIII
Newton's Law of Gravitation
In chapter 6, we discussed the three laws of motion F = 267 x 10 -11 N
known as Newton's Laws. There is a fourth law which
was formulated by Isaac Newton in the middle of the
Usually we rewrite our answer in the form where
seventeenth century. This law is known as the law
there is just one significant digit before the decimal
of gravitation and explains many common phenom- point.
ena. Note that this law describes for us in clear
mathematical language a basic law of nature. This
law tells us "how nature operates". F = 2.67 x 10 -9 N
In words we say that all bodies in the universe
Note that in the second-to-last equation we are
attract each other with a force which varies directly
instructed to move the decimal point 11 places to
with the product of the masses of the bodies and
the left while in the last equation we are to move
inversely with the square of the distance, between
the decimal point 9 places to the left. In either case
the bodies. This distance is measured from the
we arrive at the same number, 0.00000000267 N.
center of one body to the center of the other.
Of course, we do express our answer in scientific
In symbols, we write the equation: notation because it is less confusing.

M1M2 This force is very tiny as you can well imagine.

F=G
r2 However, when we deal with astronomical bodies,
gravitational forces of attraction are very important.
In this equation: It is this force of attraction which keeps astronomical
F is the force of attraction measured in Newtons. bodies in their precise orbits.
mi and m2 are the masses of the two bodies In chapter 5 we discussed centripetal acceleration
measured in kilograms. and in chapter 6 we discussed centripetal force.
r is the distance between the centers of the two You recall that, in the case of a body moving in
bodies measured in meters.
a circular path, Newton's second law, F = ma, has
G is called the gravitational constant. It is a well the form:
known physical constant and has a numerical
value and a unit.
In our calculations, we will use the accepted value MV 2
F=
for G, i.e., R

In this equation, F is the centripetal force (force

Nm2
G= 6.67 x directed toward the center of the circle), m is the
kg2 mass of the body in kilograms, v is the speed of the
body in meters/second, and R is the radius of the
circle in meters. The force needed to keep a body
EXAMPLE 18-A. moving in a circular path is expressed in Newtons.
Suppose that two bodies of masses 20 kg and 50 If the body is a stone attached to a string and
kg are exactly 5 meters apart measured from their whirled by an instructor in a physics class, the
centers. Calculate the force in Newtons with which centripetal force is applied by the instructor as he
the two bodies attract each other. pulls on the string and causes the stone to move in
We substitute in the equation for Newton's law of a circle (figure 18-1).
gravitation. Also note that we can cancel units. If the body is the moon as it moves in a circular
path about the earth, the centripetal force is the
gravitational attraction that the earth exerts on the
F = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 (20 kg) (50 kg) moon (figure 18-2).
kg 2(5 meters) 2

127
 We will use Newton's law of gravitation to calculate about the earth just as your instructor keeps pull-
this force: ing a stone into a circular path as he whirls it in a
circle in your classroom.
m1m2 There is a relationship between g (the accelera-
FG tion of a freely falling body) and G (the gravita-
R2
tional constant). In figure 18-4, we show a body of
mass (m) at or close to the surface of the earth. We
See the Table of Astronomical Data (figure 18-3).
note that "close to" means that the distance of the
body above the surface of the earth is negligible
F
relative to the radius of the earth.
Nm 2 (5.99 x 10 24 kg) (7.36 x 1022kg)
6.67 x 10-11 In figure 18-4 we use the notation:
kg2(3.84 x 10 8 m) 2
ME = mass of the earth
0.2
248 lb. R E = average radius of the earth
F = 19.9 x 1019N x 4.48 x 1019 lbs.
1N
m = mass of a body at or close to
The moon experiences this enormous force the surface of the earth
which keeps pulling the moon into its circular path
Newton's law of gravitation tells us that the force
with which the earth pulls on mass (m) is:

F=G
M ME
RE 2

PULL OF However, we also know that this force is, by def-

INSTRUCTOR inition, the weight of a body (mg). Therefore, we
ON STRING
can equate the weight (mg) to the right member
of the equation above.
Therefore, we have:

M ME
Figure 18-1. mg = G 2
RE

PHYSICAL AND ASTRONIMICAL DATA

Acceleration Due to Gravity, g 9.80 misec.2

Average Earth-Moon Distance 3.84 x 108m

Average Earth-Sun Distance 1.49 x 1011m

I
MOON) Average Radius of the Earth 6.37 x 106 m
Mass of the Earth 5.99 x 1024kg

Mass of the Moon 7.36 x 1022kg

Mass of the Sun 1.99 x 1030kg

Gravitational Constant, G 6.67 x 10 -11

Nm 2
kg2

Figure 18-2. Figure 18-3.

128
 We note that the mass (m) cancels giving us: Earth Satellites
Newton's law of gravitation enables us to understand
ME the motion of man-made earth satellites. We note
g G ,
RE that the moon is also an earth satellite but it is not
man-made.
Therefore, the equation relating g to G can be In our discussion below, we will use the symbol
written: m for the mass of the satellite, r for the radius
of the path of the satellite, and v for the speed
of the satellite in its path.
g R E 2 = GME
The gravitational attraction supplies the force
which keeps the satellite moving in its circular path
Substitute the values from figure 18-3 to verify
about the earth. Thus, we can equate the grav-
that this equation makes sense!
itational force to the centripetal force.
We recall that the acceleration due to gravity,
G MM E mv2
g = 9.80 m/sec. 2 = 32 ft./sec.2 = r
r2

is the rate at which any body of any mass accelerates

We note that the mass of the satellite (m) drops
as it falls to the earth at a distance close to the
out of this equation and that one of the r's cancels
surface of the earth. In the preceding sentence, the
also. We are left with the equation:
words "close to" mean that the distance of the falling
body from the surface of the earth is negligible
relative to the radius of the earth. The radius of the G ME v2

earth can be expressed in various units. On the

table, we see that this radius is 6,370,000 meters.
Using conversion factors we can also say that: We can also write this equation:

R E = 6,370 km = 3,960 mi. - 20,000,000 ft. r v2 G M E

Therefore, if a body falls to the surface of the We note that for a satellite of any mass the product
earth from a distance of, say, 5,000 ft. (approx- of the radius of the path and the square of the
imately one mile) this distance is still negligible speed remains constant. This constant is the prod-
relative to the radius of the earth and the body uct of the constant G and the constant mass of
would still accelerate at a rate of 32 ft. / sec.2 the earth.
Usually, when we are discussng satellites and
the radii of their orbits we use the term altitude,
the distance of the satellite above the surface of
the earth. We recall that the radius of the earth
in large metric units is 6,370 km. Therefore if the
altitude of an earth satellite is 3,000 km, the radius
of the orbit of the satellite (r) in the above equation
is 9,370 km.
Let us calculate the speed in m/ sec. of an earth
satellite if it is circulating the earth at an altitude
of 3,000 km.
We use the equation:

r v2 = G ME

Figure 18-4.

129
 We note that in this case: hours (8.64 x 104 sec.). Such a period has an advan-
tage for "spy satellites". A satellite in a geosynchro-
r = 9,370 km = 9,370,000 m = 9.37 x 10 6 m nous orbit remains above the same place on the
earth's surface at all times in its motion. It is thus
Therefore: able to continuously obtain data regarding what is
occurring at a certain place on earth!
Two different equations are needed to obtain the
(9.37 x 106 m) v2 =
necessary launching altitude for a geosynchronous
(6.67 x 10-11 N n122 ) ( 5.99 x 10 24 kg) satellite. These equations are two equations from
kg this chapter:

m2 2 it r
v2 = 4.26 x 107 r v2 = G M E and T=
S2

Let us square the second of these two equations:

We now take the square root of both members of
this equation.
T2 - 47t212
v2
v = 6.53 x 103 12

Next we multiply numerator and denominator of

We can also find the period (T) for this satellite. the right member of this equation by r.
The period is defined as the time for the satellite to
complete one complete motion of its orbit. It fol-
lows that one circumference equals the speed (v) T2 - 4 Ir2 r3
r v2
times the period (T).
Therefore, the period is the circumference of the Now we can substitute G M E in the denominator
orbit divided by the velocity of the satellite in its of this equation.
orbit. We can write the equation: Finally, we obtain the equation we need:

2 it r
T= 4 ir2r3
T2 =
G ME

We now substitute the values:

Solving this equation for the cube of the radius
of the orbit we have:
2 (3.1416) (9.37 x 106)
T=
(6.53 x 103)
T2 G M E
r3 =
4 it2
T = 9.02 x 103 sec. = 9,020 sec.
= 150 min. = 2.5 hr. We now substitute our known values:

We have learned a great deal about a satellite

launched from earth to an altitude of 3,000 km. r3 (8.64 x 104) 2 (6.67 x 10-11 ) ( 5.99 1024)
4(3.1416) 2
Its speed in its orbit is 6.53 x 103
The radius of the orbit is 9.37 x 106 m.
The time for a complete orbiting of the earth is 2.5 hr. r3 = 75.5 x 1021 m3

Satellites In Now we must take the cube root of each member

Geosynchronous Orbits of the equation. We obtain:
A satellite in a "geosynchronous" orbit is one which
is launched at such an altitude that its period is 24 r = 4.23 x 107 m = 42.3 x 106m

130
 Note that this number is the radius of the orbit. The National Weather Service also uses satellite
We must still subtract the radius of the earth to in geosynchronous orbits to obtain weather infor-
obtain the required altitude. mation. These weather satellites stay in fixed orbits
above the United States.
Altitude = 42.3 x 10 6 m — 6.4 x 106m
Weightlessness
= 35.9 x 106m
We experience "weight" when we feel the floor (or the
seat of our chair or bed) pushing up on our bodies.
We can change this altitude to miles.
This is our psychological experience of weight. If we
do not experience such a feeling of an upward push
1 mile or force, we say that we feel "weightless". Note that
Altitude = 35.9 x 10 6 m x
1,609 m the word is put in quotation marks since we are
= 22,300 miles never really weightless, since the earth is always
pulling on us. However, there are several times that
We can now understand the problem with "spy" we, at the surface of the earth, feel "weightless". One
satellites. A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit example of "weightlessness" occurs when we jump
stays above the same place on the earth's surface off a diving board. As we are descending to the water,
at all times. However, it has to be so far above the we feel "weightless" since there is no upward push
earth's surface that very powerful optical equip- on us during this brief period of time.
ment must be provided so that the satellite's "eye" Whenever a person is in a "freely-falling" state,
can see anything! he experiences the condition known as "weightless-
Because of the problem discussed above, most ness". Circus performers, daredevils, people who jump
"spy" satellites are in low earth orbits because the from burning buildings to a safety net below all have
power of surveilance equipment has to be so great experienced "weightlessness". It is important to realize
for geosynchronous orbits. Of course for low earth that in all of these cases these people do have weight
orbits the surveilance isn't continuous. U.S. "spy" (the earth is pulling on them). However, they do not
satellites are launched from the West Coast into a feel, during the seconds they are falling, the upward
more North-South orbit to cover the whole earth push of the earth's surface on their bodies. Hence,
on a more regular basis than they would get from a during these brief seconds, they feel "weightless".
Florida launch which is more East-West. When an astronaut is in a spacecraft he is a
Satellites used as television relays use geosyn- mini-satellite himself. He is a body circling the earth
chronous orbits so that the "dish" antennae on in such a way that the equation r v2 = G M E applies
earth can be kept fixed on one point and don't to him as well as to the whole spacecraft. The
have to "track" the satellite. earth is exerting a force on him of just the right
amount to keep him moving about the earth in
Intelstat, a telecommunication satellite, was a circular orbit of radius (r) and speed (v). When
launched by a consortium with 122 member na- we see pictures of astronauts sent to us from an
tions. This 157 million dollar satellite was left in a orbiting spacecraft we see the astronauts "floating"
uselessly low orbit by a mis-wired Titan rocket. In about the cabin. They are not "sitting" or "standing"
May, 1992, spacewalking Endeavor astronauts or experiencing an upward push of a chair seat
plucked the satellite from space and attached a or a floor on their bodies. They feel "weightless".
motor to boost it to its proper geosynchronous Try to observe this "floating" condition the next
orbit, 22,300 miles high. This operation was time you see pictures sent to earth from an orbiting
shown on national TV. spacecraft.

131
Chapter XVIII Problems
What is the magnitude (in Newtons) of the grav- At what altitude will a spacecraft have a period
itational attraction between the sun and the of 6 hours? Hint: Recall the calculation that was
earth? Look up the needed constants in the table necessary to determine the altitude of a space-
of physical and astronomical data. craft having a period of 24 hours. Do the same
type of calculation.
A spacecraft is in circular orbit about the earth
at an altitude of 500 km. What is the orbital At what altitude will a spacecraft in a circular
speed of this spacecraft? Be sure to obtain the orbit have a speed of 15,000 MPH?
correct radius of the orbit by adding the altitude
to the radius of the earth. 6. The Space Shuttle was launched at an altitude
of 400 km. Calculate its speed in m/ sec. and its
3. What is the period of the spacecraft as described period in hours.
in the preceding problem?

132
Chapter XIX
Momentum and Collision Problems
Definition of Momentum After cancelling the times, we obtain:

Momentum is a vector quantity (p) defined as the

product of mass times velocity. Note that velocity (v) m 1 (v 1 " v1') = —m 2(v2 " v2')
is also a vector quantity. We write the defining
equation as: If we remove the parentheses, transpose terms,
and switch left and right members we obtain:
p = mv
M 1 V1 ' M2V2' = M 1 V 1 " M2V2"
Momentum is a very important quantity when
we are dealing with collisions, because it is con- The equation tells us that the total momentum
served in all such cases. before the collision is equal to the total momentum
after the collision. Sometimes we say simply that
Conservation of Momentum "momentum is conserved".
In a collision, there are always at least two bodies
that collide. We will deal only with collisions of two Recoil Problems
bodies. We will also limit our discussion to collisions The simplest example of the conservation of momen-
occurring in one dimension. Such collisions are tum is in recoil problems.
called "head-on" collisions.
At this time, we need to recall two of Newton's
laws. We need Newton's second law, F = ma, and EXAMPLE 19-A.
Newton's third law, which tells us that if two bodies A boy and a man are both on ice skates on a
collide, the force that the first body exerts on the sec- pond. The mass of the boy is 20 kg and the mass
ond body is equal in magnitude and opposite in di- of the man is 80 kg. They push on each other
rection to the force that the second body exerts on and move in opposite directions. If the recoil
the first body. Also recall that the acceleration (a) velocity of the boy is 80 m/sec., what is the recoil
equals the change in the velocity (symbolized by the velocity of the man?
Greek letter Delta, A) divided by the time (t). First we note that both the man and the boy are at
Now let us visualize two bodies of masses, mi rest before the collision occurs.
and m2, on a one dimensional track.
m i Vi ' + rn2V2 ' = M i V i " + M2V2"
If these two bodies collide, we have four different
velocities to consider. We will name these velocities
very carefully. (20) (0) + (80) (0) = (20) (80) + (80)v2"

v / ' = the velocity of body one before the collision

0 = 1,600 + 80v2"
= the velocity of body one after the collision
v2 ' = the velocity of body two before the collision —1,600 = 80 V2"
= the velocity of body two after the collision
V2 " = —20 m/sec.
From Newton's two laws, we can conclude that:
The negative sign indicates that the man recoils in
A vi A V2 the opposite direction from the boy.
mi t = t

133
 Collision Problems v2' = —90 m/sec.
Whenever two bodies collide, momentum is always
conserved. This is simply the result of applying m 2 = 1,250 kg
Newton's second and third laws as we have done in
the preceding discussion.
m i v i + m 2 v2 = (m 1 + m2)v"
Sometimes kinetic energy is also conserved in
a collision. This happens when the bodies are so
hard that there is very little deformation of the We will not include units in our substitution. How-
bodies in the actual collision process. Billiard balls ever, we will note that the velocity, when we obtain
are a good example. These collisions are know as it, will be in m/sec.
elastic collisions. We will derive a formula for de-
termining the velocities of the bodies after the col- (1,550) (60) + (1,250) (-90) = (1,550 + 1,250)v"
lision has occurred.
Another type of collision that we will discuss is —19,500 = 2,800 v"
the perfectly inelastic collision. In this type of col-
lision, the bodies are deformed so much that they v" = —6.96 m/sec.
actually stick together after the collision. An example
would be the collision of two masses of putty. We Since the calculated velocity has a negative sign,
will also do some problems for this type of collision. we conclude that the combined mass is traveling
Of course, there are collisions which are neither west after the impact has occurred.
elastic nor inelastic. We will leave the discussion Our answer is that the wreckage starts moving
of these collisions to your next physics course. west with a speed of 6.96 m/sec.

Inelastic Collisions
Sometimes the principle of conservation of mo-
We use the conservation of momentum for dealing
mentum in the case of an inelastic collision can
with this type of collision. As we have said, the
be used by the police to determine the speed of
colliding bodies stick together after impact. There-
a vehicle engaged in a head-on collision.
fore, the equation is simply:
Suppose that a large truck with a weight of 12,000
lbs. (mass of 375 slugs) traveling east with an
mivi' m2v2' = ( m1 + m2) v"
unknown velocity enters into a head-on collision
with a smaller truck of weight 6,400 lbs. (mass
Note that we use the symbol v" for the common of 200 slugs) initially traveling west with a speed
velocity of the two bodies (which are now one body) of 30 MPH (44 ft./sec.). The trucks stick together
after the collision. in the collision and marks on the highway indicate
It is important to include the signs of the velocities that the wreckage traveled a distance of 120 feet
of the bodies in setting up momentum equations. east. The condition of the roadway (amount of fric-
As usual, we use a positive sign for east and a tion) indicates that the wreckage would travel for
negative sign for west, a positive sign for north a time of 4 sec. Determine the initial speed of
and a negative sign for south. the large truck.
The equation:

EXAMPLE 19-B. Vf Vi
A truck of mass 1,550 kg is moving east at 60 s ( ) t
2
m/sec. A car of mass 1,250 kg is traveling west at
90 m/sec. The vehicles collide and stick together can be used to determine the initial velocity of the
after impact. What is the velocity of the combined wreckage. Note that the final velocity of the wreckage
mass after the collision has occurred? is zero.

v1' = 60 m/sec.
2S 2(120 ft.)
v.t 4 sec. = 60 ft./sec.
m 1 = 1,550 kg

134
 Next, we can use the conservation of momentum Divide (1) by 1/2:
equation to determine the velocity of the large
truck at the instant of the impact. We will use the ,2 ,2
(3) M1 V1 M2V2
symbol V to represent this velocity.
,, 2
= m 1 v1 ,, 2 M2V2
(375 slugs) (V) + (200 slugs) (-44 ft./sec.)
Now in both (2) and (3), we will transpose some
= (575 slugs) (60 ft./sec.)
terms:

375 V = 43,300 m1 v1 , — m V1 " = M V " — M V '

1 2 2 2 2
V = 115 ft./sec.
, 2 ,, 2
M1 V1 M1V1
V = 78.4 MPH , 2 ,2
= 1 "2"2 -2'2

Elastic Collisions Factor (4) and (5):

Elastic collisions are collisions that occur between
bodies that deform very little in the collision. There- m1(v1' — v 1 ") = m2( v 2 " v2')
fore we assume that no energy is lost. An example of
such a collision is the collision between pool balls.
In elastic collisions, both kinetic energy and mo- M1(V11 2 — V 1 " 2)
mentum are conserved. In an ordinary elastic colli- = m2(v2" 2 — V 2 ' 2)
sion problem, we know the masses and the
velocities of two bodies that will collide. We want to In (7), factor again:
predict, by a mathematical calculation, the veloci-
ties the bodies will have after the collision has oc-
curred, the two unknowns. If we write the two
m1(v1'- v 1") (v1' + v1")
conservation equations, we have two equations in = m2(v2" - v2') (v2" + v2')
these two unknowns. It is possible to solve these
two equations for these two unknowns. However, Divide (8) by (6):
one of the conservation equations, the energy
equation, is a "second order" equation. A "second
order" equation contains the squares of the un- xrit(vi ' — v 1 ") (v 1 ' + v1")
knowns. This makes the solution more difficult. In- vif)
stead, we will use an algebraic trick! The two
4:112(v2 " — v2 ') (v2 " + v2')
conservation equations can be solved together pro-
ducing a third equation. This third equation and 311202" — V2')
the momentum conservation equation provide the
two first order equations that we will use in solving After cancelling common factors, we obtain:
elastic collision problems.
We will write the two conservation equations: v i ' + v i " = v2 " + v'
2

Conservation of Energy Again we transpose terms:

1 2, 2
—2 m i v i ' 2 + —
; M2 V
— V2 = V2 " — v1"
1 ,, 2 1 ,, 2
=—
2 mivi + —
2 m2v2 In words, this equation says that the relative
velocity of the balls before the collision is equal
Conservation of Momentum to the relative velocity of the balls after the collision.
m t v i' m 2 v2 1 = m i v i" m2v2" Equation (9) has been obtained algebraically from
two equations, the conservation of momentum and
the conservation of energy. We use equations (2),

135
the conservation of momentum equation, and equa- (10) 2 v1 " + 3 v2 " =
tion (9), called the relative velocity equation, to solve
for the velocities of the two bodies after an elastic
collision. - v 1 " + V2 " = 7
We will rewrite these two important equations
for future reference: We now have two equations in two unknowns.
There are several methods of solving such a sys-
tem of equations. We will use the method of addi-
(2) M1V1i M2V21 = M 1 V1 " m2\12" tion. In this method we multiply either or both of the
equations by constants to make the coefficient of
(9) v1' - v2 ' = v2 " - v1" one of the unknowns in one of the equations a
positive number and to make the coefficient of this
In using these two equations, the two unknowns same unknown in the other equation a negative
are usually " and v2 ", the velocities of the two bod- number of the same magnitude. We then add the
ies after the collision has occurred. The known quan- two equations to eliminate one of the unknowns.
tities are usually the two masses and the velocities of We then solve for the other unknown by substitut-
the bodies before the collision. Also be careful to in- ing in either equation.
clude the signs of the velocities. If you forget to do We will multiply (11) by the number 2.
this, you will always end up with incorrect results.

(12) -2 v1 " + 2 v2 " = 14

EXAMPLE 19-C.
Add (10) and (12):
A billiard ball of mass 2 kg is moving east at 3
m/sec. and undergoes an elastic collision with
another billiard ball of mass 3 kg moving west at 4 5 v2 " = 8
m/sec. Find the velocities of the two balls after the
collision. v2 " = 1.6 m/sec.

ml = 2 vi = 3 (east) Substitute this value back into (11):

m2 = 3 v2 ' = -4 (west)
-v1 " + 1.6 = 7
Substitute in equation (2):
-v 1 " = 7 - 1.6
(2) (3) + (3) (-4) = 2 v 1 " + 3 v2"
-vi " = 5.4
-6 = 2v 1 " + 3v2"
v 1 " = -5.4 m/sec.
Substitute in equation (9):
We note that we interpret a positive sign for the
velocity as motion east and a negative sign as
3 - (-4)= v2 " - v1"
motion west.
Our final result is that the 2 kg ball is moving west
7 = v2 " - vi" with a speed of 5.4 m/sec. after the collision and
the 3 kg ball is moving east with a speed of 1.6
Rewrite equations (10) and (11) putting the un- m/sec. after the collision.
knowns in the left members and in order.

136
Chapter XIX Problems
A gun of mass 5.6 kg fires a bullet of mass 24 Two large trucks undergo a direct head-on colli-
grams. The velocity of the bullet after firing, is sion. One truck of mass 556 slugs was originally
755 m/ sec. What is the recoil velocity of the gun? travelling north at 88 ft. / sec. The other truck of
mass 785 slugs was originally traveling south at
An astronaut on a space walk has a mass of 5 55ft. /sec. What is thefinal velocity of the wreck-
slugs and is at rest relative to the space station. age after the collision has occurred if the two
She is working with a tool having a mass of 0.5 trucks stick together in the collision?
slug. She accidentally throws this tool awayfrom
herself with a speed of 6 ft. /sec. With what Due to a controller's error two aircraft are di-
speed does the astronaut recoil? rected to land in opposite directions on the same
runway in afog. A Cessna 150 of mass 50 slugs
An automobile having mass 1,500 kg is traveling and a Beechcraft Bonanza of mass 80 slugs
east on an expressway at 30 m/ sec. It overtakes undergo a direct head-on collision. The Beech-
a truck of mass 2,000 kg also traveling east and craft Bonanza was originally traveling north at
moving with a speed of 25 m/ sec. The automo- a speed of 30 MPH and the Cessna was traveling
bile read-ends the truck. The vehicles become south. The wreckage travels a distance of 20 ft.
locked together in this collision and continue south during a time of 3.6 sec. What was the
east. What is the velocity of this combined mass? original speed of the Cessna?

Two balls of putty become one mass of putty in A 3-kg ball is moving right with a speed of 3
a collision. The first, of mass 6 kg, was originally m/ sec. before a collision with a 2-kg ball origi-
moving east at 10 m/ sec., and the second, of nally moving left at 2 m/ sec. What are the direc-
mass 4 kg, was originally moving west at 9 tions and speeds of the two balls after the
m/ sec. What is the velocity of the total mass after collision?
the collision has occurred?
A 2-kg ball is moving east with a speed of 4
5. A wooden block of mass 30 kg is resting on an m/ sec. It collides with a 1-kg ball moving west
ice rink. A bullet of mass 20 grams and speed with a speed of 2 m/ sec. What are the directions
150 m/ sec. is fired into this wooden block. It and speeds of these balls after the collision has
becomes imbedded in the block. With what occurred?
speed do the block and bullet combination begin
to move on the icy surface? 10. A 2-kg ball moving right at 5 m/ sec. overtakes
and impacts a 1-kg ball also moving right at 2
m / sec. What are the speeds and directions of the
two balls after the impact?

137
Chapter XX
Statics
sum of force components up
Statics is a subject that all mechanical and aeronau-
tical design engineers must take. The word "static"
sum of force components down
means that each part of the body is not moving
relative to other parts of the body.
sum of force components left
We recall from Newton's second law that, if a
particle (some small part of a structure) is at rest,
sum of force components right
the vector sum of the forces acting on this particle
must be zero. This means that there is no net or
unbalanced force acting on the particle. These two equations could be written:

If the vector sum of all the forces acting on a

particle is zero, the vector sum of all the forces or E Fup = I Fpown
components of forces in the x-direction is zero and and
similarly, the vector sum of all the forces or com- E Fieft = I Fright
ponents of forces in the y-direction is also zero.
We use the Greek letter Sigma (E) to mean "the
sum of ". With this notation, we can write:
Tension in Cables and
Compression in Beams
Fx = 0 and F=0 If an agent pulls on a cord or cable attached to a
body, this cord or cable can exert a pull on this body.

Also, for the x-direction, we note that forces to An agent can exert either a push or a pull on a
the right would have a positive sign, forces to the body by using a solid rod or beam.
left would have a negative sign. For the y-direction, We can summarize this by saying:
forces up would have a positive sign and forces
A beam can push or pull.
down would have a negative sign.
A cord can only pull.
Since, in both cases, the negative terms can be
transposed to the opposite member of the equation, Equations (1) and (2) can be used to determine
the two equations above can be written as follows: the tensions in supporting cables or the compres-
sions in beams in certain physical situations. Sev-
eral examples will follow. These examples are
typical of many problems in statics, a topic com-
monly studied in engineering courses. The design
engineer must know how strong a cable or beam
must be for a certain physical structure. Statics
solves the problem mathematically before the
structure is actually built.
Before we consider our first example, we review
a theorem from plane geometry (figure 20-1). This
theorem states that if two parallel lines are cut by
a transversal, the alternate interior angles are
equal. A diagram shows such angles. We will refer
to this theorem as the "Z" rule.

Figure 20-1.

139
EXAMPLE 20-A.
Now we use our two force equations:
Determine the tensions in the cables.

The first step in the solution is to note that the knot

F up F down (1) T2 sin 55° = 800
is at rest. A new diagram, called a "free body
diagram", is drawn to the right. This diagram shows
a point of the structure that is at rest. In this case, F right (2) T 1 = T2 cos 55°
Fleft
we choose the knot since we know that it is at rest
and all of the forces, the weight of the body and
We now have two equations in the two unknowns:
the tensions in the two cords act at this point. In
T 1 and T2. Since equation (1) involves only one
the free body diagram, two little lines have been
unknown, we solve this equation first.
drawn through T to indicate that T has been re-
placed by its two components.
= 800 =
Note that the horizontal component of T is T cos T2 977 lbs.
sin 55°
55°, since this component is next to the 55° angle.
The vertical component of T is T sin 55°, since this
component is the same length as the vector com- Now we substitute this result into equation (2).
ponent which is opposite the 55° angle.
T i(977) cos 55°

T 1560 lbs.

/ / / / / / / / / / /;/
/ 55°
/ T1 sin 55
/
55°
/ •
T1 T2 cos 55
T1 55°

800 LBS' 800 LBS

140
EXAMPLE 20-B.
First solve equation (1) for T.
Sometimes it is important to know the compression
that will exist in a solid beam. Recall that a cable 700
can experience only a tension. On the other hand, T=
sin 47°
a beam can experience either a tension or a com-
pression. In the following example, the beam is
compressed. It pushes out at the point where the T = 957 lbs.
cable and the weight are attached. The free body
diagram is shown to the right. Substitute this value into equation (2).

C = 957 cos 47°

Fup = Fppwn (1) T sin 47° = 700

C 653 lbs.
Fieft = F r•ight (2) T cos 47° = C

T sin 47

47°
C
T cos 47

700 LBS
700 LBS

141
EXAMPLE 20-C. Solve equation (2) for T:
A more complicated algebraic problem arises
cos 40°
when the beam is not in a horizontal position,. In T=C
cos 55°
this case, each of the equations that we write
contains both unknowns. We must therefore solve
either equation for either unknown and then sub-
(3) T = 1.34 C

stitute this value into the other equation. An exam- We next substitute this value of T into equation (1)
ple will clarify this method. and solve for C.
In the left diagram, we have put in a perpendicular
(1.34 C) sin 55° + C sin 40° = 600
and found the values of the angles it makes with
the beam and the cord. 1.098 C + 0.643 C = 600
Note that there are two upward forces. We must
1.741 C 600
add these two forces and set the sum equal to the
downward force. C = 345 lbs.

T sin 55° + C sin 40° = 600 Now we substitute this value in equation (3) to
solve for T.
T cos 55° = C cos 40°
T = 1.34 (345)

T = 462 lbs.

T cos 55 C cos 40

In the problems that follow, find the tensions help. A clear, carefully drawn diagram leads to
in the cords and the compressions in the beams. correct results!
Be sure to draw a free body diagram in each case. The preceding work on statics is typical of the
This may seem unnecessary but it is a great practical type of problem that needs to be solved by any design
engineer including aeronautical design engineers.

142
Chapter XX Problems
Find the tensions in the cords and the compresions in the beams.

1. 3.

300 N

955 LBS

2. 4.

46°

C
1500 LBS

500 LBS

143
 7.

1000 LBS

144
Chapter XXI

Torque, Moment of Inertia

and Angular Momentum
Torque EXAMPLE 21-A.
Consider the diagrams shown below. We define A worker is using a wrench to tighten a bolt. The
torque as the force (F) applied to a body that is bolt is a distance of 9" from the place where the
pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by the distance from worker applies a force of 40 lbs. The force is
the pivot point to the place where the force is applied, applied at right angles to the wrench. What is the
and multiplied by the sin of the angle between r and torque?
F. We will use the Greek letter Tau (t) for torque. The
T = ( 40 lbs.) (0.75 ft.) sin 90°
distance mentioned in the preceding sentence is
called the lever arm and symbolized by the letter r.
T = 30 lb.-ft.
The defining equation is:
If, in the above example, the worker, because of
an obstruction, must apply his force at an angle of
T = r F sin 0
70°. What is the new torque?

In the diagram below, we note that 0 = 90°. This T = (40 lbs.) (0.75 ft.) sin 70° = 28.2 lb.-ft.
is by far the most common case. Since sin 90° = 1,
this common case reduces to the more simple The concept of torque is important in the study of
equation: "statics". We recall that we studied some aspects
of statics in chapter 20. In chapter 20, we used two
T = rF principles of equilibrium:

The sum of the forces in

However, it must be remembered that in those
the x-direction must be zero.
cases where 0 is not 90°, the full equation must be
used. Note also that the unit for torque is the lb.-ft. The sum of the forces in
the y-direction must be zero.

Now we have an additional condition for equilibrium:

The sum of the torques must be zero.

We summarize these three equations as follows:

Fleft mFright

Fup = Fdown

T == i ccw

We note that a clockwise torque tends to cause the

beam to rotate in a clockwise sense and a coun-
terclockwise torque tends to cause a counterclock-
wise rotation. The use of these three equations to
Figure 21-1. solve problems dealing with static equilibrium will
be illustrated by the example which follows.

145
EXAMPLE 21-B.
A light of weight 200 lbs. hangs at the end of a horizontal beam of weight 60 lbs. and length 6 ft. The beam is
uniform and has its center of gravity at its center. This means that the total weight of the beam acts as if it were
concentrated at its center. A supporting cord makes an angle of 40° with the beam. Find the tension in the cord
(T) and the horizontal force (H) and the vertical force (V) which the building exerts on the beam.

/ T sin 40°
/
/
/
/
/
/
/ T cos 40°

/
/
/
/ 60
/
/
200

We resolve the tension in the cord into a vertical 180 + 1200

=T
component (T sin 40°) and a horizontal component (sin 40) (6)
(T cos 40°).
We now apply the three conditions for equilibrium: T = 358 lbs.

Fie = Fright (1) T cos 40° = H We next substitute this value for T into equa-
tions (1) and (2).
E F up = E Fdown (2) V + T sin 40° = 60 + 200
H = (358) cos 40°
In using the torque equation we assume that the
pivot point is at the left end of the beam. The lever H = 274 lbs.
arm for each torque can be found be finding the
perpendicular distance from the pivot point to the V + (358)sin 40° = 260
line of action of each force. Note that forces are in
pounds and distances are in feet. For simplicity we
V = 260 — 230
will not include units in the equation.

V = 30 lbs.
I ccw = t ccw
(3) (60) (3) + (200) (6) = (T sin 40) (6) We have found the tension in the cord (358 lbs.),
the vertical force the building exerts on the beam
The three forces, V, H and T cos 40°, all have zero (30 lbs.) and the horizontal force the building ex-
lever arms and therefore produce zero torque. erts on the beam (274 lbs.). Construction engi-
Equation (3) has only one unknown and can neers need to know the sizes of these forces to
easily be solved. form safe construction designs.

146
Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia is the angular analog of mass.
Moment of inertia is to rotational motion what mass
is to linear motion. We recall that mass is a measure
of the resistance of a body to a change in its state of
motion. The greater the mass (number of neutrons
and protons in a body), the greater the force needed Figure 21-2.
to change the linear velocity of that body. Compare
in your mind the forces needed to impart to a bowling
Next, recall that rF equals the torque and that
ball and a golf ball the same acceleration. The key
at equals ra.
equation here is Newton's second law of motion.

Fa ma
rF r m(ra)

We have already discussed angular acceleration, (mr2 ) a

the angular analog of linear acceleration, and
torque, the angular analog of force. We now need We will introduce the symbol I for the quantity
to examine the angular analog of mass. in parentheses and call it the moment of inertia.

T (?) a - la

In order to find this analog, let us consider the For this one point mass body, we have the relation
most simple body possible — a point mass (m). I = mr2. We note that the r in this equation is the
Let us attach to it a "weightless" rod of length distance of m from the pivot point, the center of
( r) pivoted at the point (0) as shown in the diagram. the rotation.
Assume that a force (F) is applied to this mass For a body containing many point masses. the
(m). The mass will initially accelerate with a tan- moment of inertia is the sum of each tiny mass
gential linear acceleration (at) . The equation F = of the body multiplied by the square of its distance
ma, will hold. to the axis of rotation. Symbolically, we write:

F mat I • I mr2

Let us multiply each side of this equation by r: For each different geometrically shaped body there
is a formula for the moment of inertia. These for-
rF a r mat mulas are found by using integral calculus. We
note that we do not have to derive these formulas.
We accept them from the mathematicians!

147
Important Moments of Inertia
1. A thin circular hoop of mass (M) and radius (R) 3. A sphere of mass (M) and radius (R) about an
about an axis through the center and perpen- axis through the center of the sphere:
dicular to the plane of the hoop:
2 2
I = - MR
I = MR2

2. A circular cylinder or disk of mass (M) and 4. A rod of mass (M) and length (L) about an axis
radius (R) about an axis through the center and perpendicular to the rod and through its center:
perpendicular to the plane of the disk:
1 2
I= ML
I - -1 MR 2 12
2

148
 5. A rod of mass (M) and length (L) about an axis Angular Momentum
perpendicular to the rod and through its end:
We recall the definition of linear momentum. You may
wish to review the material discussed in chapter 19.
1
I= — ML,
momentum = mass x velocity
In symbols, we write:
p = mv
The angular analog of linear momentum is angu-
lar momentum (L). The defining equation for angu-
lar momentum is:
L = ko
This equation was easy to write because we
know that the angular analog for mass is moment
of inertia (I) and the angular analog for linear ve-
locity is angular velocity (w).
In chapter 19 we discussed a basic law of phys-
ics, the conservation of linear momentum. This law
tells us that, in the absence of external forces, the
momentum of a system is conserved.
There is a similar law dealing with rotational mo-
The angular analog of F = ma is: tion. In the absence of external torques the angu-
lar momentum of a system is conserved. In
symbols we can write:
= la
I 1 c° 1 = 12w2
In this important equation we note that a must be You will be surprised to discover that you have
in rad. isec. 2 The equation requires radian measure! seen this law in operation many times!
Consider a disk of total mass (M) and radius (R) A figure skater is rotating is such a way that his
and compare it to a hoop (all the mass at the edge) arms are extended away from his body. As he pulls
of the same mass and radius. We apply to each in his arms so that his moment of inertia is de-
body the equation: creased, his angular velocity must increase so that
his angular momentum will remain constant!
= la An Olympic diver is rotating rapidly during one
of his high dives. Before he enters the water, he ex-
We note that the disk has one-half the moment tends his arms away from the axis of rotation. In
of inertia of the hoop. Therefore, it would require a this way, he increases his moment of inertia and
torque twice as great to give the hoop the same an- thus he decreases his angular velocity before en-
gular acceleration as the disk. We can say that it is tering the water.
harder to accelerate the hoop than it is to acceler- The conservation of angular momentum in ac-
ate the disk. This is understandable since more of tion can be seen in many sporting events. Look for
the mass of the hoop is further from the axis of ro- examples of this important law of physics as you
tation than in the case of the disk. watch your television set!

149
Chapter .X.XI Problems

I. A uniform horizontal beam of length 4 ft. and A torque of 75 lb.-ft. is applied to a disk of
weight 500 lbs. supports a weight of 200 lbs. at moment of inertia of 100 slug-ft. 2 What is the
its end. There is a supporting cord that makes an angular acceleration?
angle of 30 ° with the horizontal beam. Find the
tension in the cord and the vertical and horizon- An Olympic skater is rotating with arms ex-
tal forces that the building exerts on the beam. tended so that his moment of inertia is 4 slug-ft2.
and his angular velocity is 2 rad. /sec. He pulls
A uniform horizontal beam of length 8 ft. and in his arms so that his moment is decreased to 3
weight 800 lbs. supports a weight of 500 lbs. at slug-ft.2 What is his new angular velocity?
its end. There is a supporting cord that makes an
angle of 40 ° with the building. Find the tension A diver has angular velocity 4 rad. / sec. while his
in the cord and the vertical and horizontal forces moment of inertia is 3 slug-ft. 2 He spreads out
that the building exerts on the beam. his arms so that his new moment of inertia is 3.5
slug-ft.2 What is his new angular velocity?
What is the moment of inertia of a hoop of mass
4 kg and radius 3 m? The rotor of a 400 Hz alternator can be consid-
ered to be a cylinder for purposes of calculating
4. What is the moment of inertia of a disk of mass its moment of inertia. If the mass of the rotor is
6 kg and radius 2 m? 1.5 slugs and its radius is 6 ", what is its moment
of inertia?

150
 Chapter XXII
Some Properties of Solids and Liquids
Stress and Strain Various materials deform more or less as lon-
gitudinal forces are applied to them. Handbooks
Consider a metal rod suspended from an overhead
of physics list a table of Young's Modulus (Y). See
support as shown in figure 22-1. The cross-sectional
figure 22-2. Young's Modulus is defined as follows:
area of the rod is A. A force (F) is applied to this rod
in a downward direction. This can easily be done by
hanging a weight at the lower end. Such a force is Y=
Stress = F/A
Strain
called a longitudinal force since it is directed along A L/L,
the length of the rod.
We define the stress applied to the rod by the A rearrangement of the complex fraction gives:
following equation:
F Lo
Stress =
F Y
AAL
A

A longitudinal force could also be applied in such This equation is more useful in the form:
a way that the rod would be compressed instead.
The equation is the same. F Lo
AL =
If the stress tends to stretch the rod it is called AY
a tensile stress. If the stress tends to compress
the rod it is called a compressional stress. This equation is important because it gives us
The strain is defined as the change in length a means of predicting how much a body will stretch
divided by the original length: (or compress) when a longitudinal force is applied
to the body.
AL
Strain =
Lo
EXAMPLE 22-A.
A copper rod having a cross-sectional area of
0.0033 in. 2 and a length of 24 in. is subjected to a
longitudinal force of 500 lbs. How much will the rod
stretch?

(500 lbs.) (24 in.)

AL =
(0.0033 in. 2 ) (16 x 106 lbs./in. 2)

AL = 0.227 in.

The above material deals with rods or one-di-

mensional solid bodies. Such rods can be sub-
jected to a tensile stress where the length is
increased or a compressional stress where the
length is decreased. Solid bodies can also be
subjected to compressional pressures on all sides,
as in the case of a body under water. In the case
of liquids, only compressional stresses are possi-
ble. We can't stretch a liquid! Therefore for liquids
Figure 22-1.

151
 and solid bodies, we discuss change of volume Elastic Limit and
relative to the initial volume. Ultimate Strength
The equation is similar: The elastic limit, is defined as the maximum stress
F Vo that can be applied to a material before it will be
AV = permanently deformed. Within the elastic limit a
AB body will return to its original size and shape after
In this equation, B is the "bulk modulus". Tables of the stress has been removed.
B are also listed in handbooks of physics. The The ultimate strength is defined as the maximum
equation is more practical if we note that pressure stress that can be applied to a material before it
is F/A. Usually we know the pressure rather than will rupture.
the force and the area.
The useful form of the equation is:
EXAMPLE 22-C.
p Vo The elastic limit for copper is 2.3 x 104 lb./in. 2 and
AV =
the ultimate strength is 4.9 x 104 lb./in. 2 Suppose
that a copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.5
It should be noted that AV is always a decrease in in. 2 A force of 11,500 lbs. applied longitudinally to
volume. this rod would just be within the elastic limit. A force
of 12,000 lbs. would deform the rod in such a way
that it would not return to it original size after the
EXAMPLE 22-B. force is removed. A force of 24,500 lbs. would
A brass body of volume 460 in. 3 is subjected to a cause the rod to rupture.
pressure of 50 lb./in. 2 What is the decrease in
volume of this body?
Torsion Forces
(50 lb./in. 2) (460 in.3) Torsion forces cause rods to twist.
AV -
8.5 x 106 lb./in.2
Ductility
AV = 0.0027 in.3 Substances that can be drawn out into thin wires
are said to be ductile.

Malleability
Substances that can be hammered into thin sheets
BULK
YOUNG MODULUS, Y are said to be malleable.
MODULUS, B
MATERIAL (LB./IN.2) (LB./IN.2)
Aluminum 10 x 10610 x 106

Brass 13 x 106 8.5 x 106'

ULTIMATE
Copper 16 x 10617 x 106'
ELASTIC LIMIT STRENGTH
Glass 7.8 x 106 5.2 x 106 MATERIAL (LB./IN.2) (LB./IN.2)

Iron 13 x 1061.45 x 106 Aluminum 1.9 x 104 2.1 x 104

Steel 29 x 106 23 x 106 Brass 5.5 x 104 6.6 x 104

Ethyl Alcohol 0.16 x 106 Copper 2.3 x 104 4.9 x 104

Oil 0.25 x 106 Iron 2.4 x 104 4.7 x 104

Water 0.31 x 106 Annealed Steel 3.6 x 104 7.1 x 104

Mercury 4.0 x 106 Spring Steel 6.0 x 104 10 x 104

Figure 22-2. Figure 22-3.

152
Chapter XXII Problems
I. A steel bolt with a cross-sectional area of 0.067 (a) If a compressive force of 35,000 lbs. causes
in. 2 and a length of 6.0" is subjected to a force of an aluminum brace inside the wing of a plane
450 lbs. What is the increase in length of the bolt? to rupture, what is the cross-sectional area of
the brace?
An iron body of volume 67 in. 3 is subjected to a (b) What cross-sectional area is necessary so
pressure of 670 lb. / in. 2 What is the decrease in that the brace will neither rupture nor be
volume of this body? permanently deformed when such a force is
applied?
A copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.046 A steel hydraulic piston has a cross-sectional
. 2 area of 0.355 in. 2 and a length of 21.3". A com-
in. and a length of 24". What longitudinal force
must be applied to cause this rod to stretch by pressive force of 4,800 lbs. is applied to the
0.0056 in.? piston. What is the decrease in length of the
piston?
A brass rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.25
. 2 A steel body is lowered into ocean water. Its
tn. What longitudinal force must be applied to
cause this rod to rupture? volume at sea level is 250 ft. 3 What is the de-
crease in volume when the body is at a depth of
An aluminum brace inside a wing of a plane has 12,000 ft.? (Hint: see pg. 74 and figure 2-3)
a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in. 2 What is the
greatest longitudinal force that can be applied to An aluminum body is lowered to a depth of 2,000
the brace without causing the brace to be perma- ft. in ocean water. If its volume at the surface of
nently deformed? the ocean is 35 ft. 3, what is its volume at this new
depth? (Hint: see pg. 74 and figure 2-3)
6. A steel hydraulic piston has a cross-sectional
area of 0.4 in. 2 and a length of 20 inches. A 11. A brace made of spring steel ruptures when a
compressive longitudinal force of 5,000 lbs. is compressive force of 45,000 lbs is applied to it.
applied to the piston. What is the decrease in What is the cross-sectional area of this brace?
length of the piston? What cross-sectional area is necessary so that
the brace will neither rupture nor be permanently
deformed when a force of this magnitude is
applied?

153
Chapter XXIII
Wave Motion
There are many types of waves: light waves, sound the stone hits the water, an observer would see
waves, radio waves, cosmic rays, x-rays, communi- the water surface disturbed in such a way that
cation waves, waves on cords, etc. In our first dis- a curve would be visible. This curve would have
cussion of waves, we will deal with that type which a shape as shown in figure 23-1.
is called just "wave", that is, a water wave. In figure 23-1 it is important to note that the
Let us assume that a stone is thrown into the pattern of crests and troughs is moving. If the stone
middle of a large, calm pond on a day when there hits the water surface at the point (P), the pattern
is no wind. If there is a perpendicular plane surface is moving to the right in the diagram above. Of
cutting the water surface through a point where course, the entire pattern is moving out from point
(P) in all directions, but we are looking in only
one direction. We should also note that the pattern
is moving with a definite speed, called the wave
speed (v).
The amplitude (A) of the wave is the greatest
displacement from the rest position. The amplitude
is shown in figure 23-1.
Figure 23-1.

y = SIN e
1

AL.
90. ° A
360° A 720°

-1

180°
360° A
II
y = COS e

Figure 23-2.

60° 1111r 4111, Aln

180°

-1 360° 111,

Figure 23-3.

155
 Another distance that we will need in our dis- Your calculators know all about these two curves.
cussion of waves is the wavelength, X (Greek letter Try out some of the calculations which produce
lambda). The wavelength is defined as the distance points for the graphing of these two curves.
from one point on the wave pattern to the next Note that, for the sine curve, the vertical axis
point in a similar position. The distance from the occurs at a point where y = 0. For the cosine
top of a crest to the top of the next crest is a curve the vertical axis occurs at a point where y
wavelength. Also the distance from the bottom of = 1. There is a more general curve, called "sinus-
one trough to the bottom of the next trough is oidal", where the shape of the curve is the same
also the same distance, one wavelength. The dis- as in the case of the sine or cosine curve but the
tance (X) is also shown in the diagram. vertical axis has a general orientation. We would
In our study of wave motion we need to describe like to have a mathematical representation for
this wavy pattern with an exact mathematical ex- this general case. Figure 23-3 is a graph of the
pression. There are two curves that are well known more general case.
from our study of trigonometry. In figure 23-2 are The equation is:
the graphs of the two important equations y = sin 0
and y cos 0. In these two equations, 0 can be in y = sin (0 + 30°)
degrees or in radians. We will use degrees since
most of us think more readily in these units! Try out some values on your calculator!

EXAMPLE 23-A.
The graph of the equation y = 2 sin (0 + 60°) is shown below:

The graph of the equation y = 3 sin (0 + 45°) is shown below:

Sometimes we want to express y as a function of the distance from the origin (x) instead of a function of the
angle (0). The equation for this case is as follows:

y A sin ( 360 x
+ (1) )

156
 In figure 23-3, 30° is known as the "phase angle". 360(20)
Of course, the phase angle can be any other angle y = 0.6 sin [+ 30°]
0.8
as well. Usually, we use the symbol 0 (Greek letter
Phi) for the phase angle. To be more general, we
y = 0.3 ft.
should write the equation in the following manner:

y = sin (0 + (I))
From our observations of real water waves, we
There is one other modification that we should know that the wave gradually dies out due to fluid
make in the equation. The greatest y value may friction of the water. In our problems, we have ne-
not be one. We can modify our equation by inserting glected this attenuation of the amplitude.
the factor A, representing the amplitude, into the We now have the mathematical tools to represent
right member. Our equation now has the most gen- the one dimensional instantaneous equation of a
eral form: wave that is moving in the positive x-direction. This
equation is:
y = A sin (0 + (13)
360 x )
y = A sin ( + (13

EXAMPLE 23-B.
The above equation applies to all types of waves.
A stone is thrown into a pool of water. This causes
a water wave to move out in all directions. In one Let us next consider sinusoidal wave motion im-
direction, the water wave has amplitude 0.6 ft. and pressed on a very long flexible cord by an oscillating
wavelength 0.8 ft. Write the equation of this wave. body. Assume that the oscillating body is a sphere
attached to a vertical spring. After the spring has
been oscillating for some time, the physical situation
y = 0.6 sin ( 360 x + (13) is as shown in figure 23-4.
0.8
The frequency (f) of the oscillating body is defined
At an instant after the stone has been thrown into as the number of complete oscillations in one sec-
the water, the phase angle has the value 30°, what ond. Frequency is expressed in cycles /sec. or Hertz.
is the equation of the wave at this instant? The period (T) is defined as the time for one complete
oscillation. It is expressed in seconds.
Let us suppose that the oscillating body completes
( 360
0.8 x _
y = 0.6 sin 30°) 6 oscillations in one second. It follows that the
time for one oscillation is one-sixth of a second.
At this same instant, a floating leaf is 20 ft. from In this case:
the source of the disturbance. What is the dis-
placement (up or down from its rest position) of this 1
f = 6 Hz and T = — sec.
leaf?

Figure 23-4.

157
 From this example we see that f and T are re- Resonance
ciprocals of each other.
In the case of water waves and in the case of waves
on a very long cord, we were able to neglect waves
T = -and that were reflected back along the medium. We now
f f= 1 must consider reflected waves.
The most common example is the case of waves
We next seek a relationship between wave speed
originating in a disturbance impressed on a cord
(v), frequency (f), and wavelength (?.).
or string of a definite length. Many musical in-
We note that the wave moves forward a distance struments depend on such vibrations.
of one wavelength in a time of one period. Of course,
If a sinusoidal disturbance is impressed on a
the wave moves with speed (v).
very long cord a sinusoidal wave travels contin-
Since the distance equals the speed times the uously along the cord. However, if the sinusoidal
time, we can write the equation: wave meets a fixed end, a reflected wave moves
back along the cord.
X. = v T The wave patterns which are observed are called
the normal modes of vibration of the cord. In
From this equation, we have: figure 23-5, the length of the cord is L. The wave-
length in the various modes of vibration are k.
The n is the index of the mode. In the equations
-=v
T which follow, n has an integral value, that is
n = 1, 2, 3, 4. . .
And finally: We can write a general relation as follows:

f =v 2
n=- L
v=f
The vibration where n = 1 is called the fundamental
mode of vibration of the body. The other vibrations
EXAMPLE 23-C. are called overtone vibrations. Every body which can
A body oscillates with a frequency of 8 Hz, and vibrate has a certain fundamental mode of vibration
sends out a wave having a wavelength of 0.2 of a definite frequency. If this frequency is impressed
ft. What is the speed of the wave? on the body, it will vibrate with a relatively large
amplitude. We say that the body is vibrating in res-
onance with the impressed frequency.
v = (8 cycles
) (0.2 ft.) = 1.6 ft./sec. Designers of aircraft must be seriously concerned
sec.
about the phenomenon of resonant frequency because
What is the wavelength of a wave moving with if a certain component of an airplane or helicopter
a speed of 5 ft./sec. if the frequency of the is caused to vibrate at its resonant frequency the
oscillating body which is the source of the amplitude of the vibration can become very large
wave is 12 Hz? and the component will destroy itself by vibration.
Let us examine the case of a helicopter which
v 5 ft./sec. has a tail boom with a natural or resonant frequency
=- = of 1 Hz. That is, if you were to strike the boom
f 12 cycles/sec. = 0.417 ft.
with your fist it would oscillate once each second.
(c) An observer times the speed of a water wave The normal rotational speed of the main rotor is
to be 2 ft./sec. and notes that the wavelength 400 RPM and the helicopter has 3 blades on its
is 0.5 ft. What is the frequency of the distur- main rotor. Each time a rotor blade moves over
bance that gives rise to this wave? the tail boom the blade is going to cause a downward
pulse of air to strike the tail boom. The designer
must determine the speed at which the pulses will
2 ft./sec. cycles
f = v=
- - 4 = 4 Hz be equal to the resonant frequency of the boom.
0.5 ft. sec.
One cycle per second is equivalent to 60 cycles/min-
ute. Since each of the three blades causes a pulse

158
each revolution, there will be 3 x 60 or 180
pulses/minute. Therefore a rotor speed of 180 RPM
would be critical and the pilot would be warned
against operating at that speed. Since the boom
also has a secondary, or overtone, resonant fre-
quency of twice the fundamental resonant fre-
quency, 360 RPM would also have to be avoided
but would not be as critical as 180 RPM. The third , 2,
=
frequency of concern would be 3 x 180 or 540,
but that is above the rotor operating speed, so
is not a problem.
The natural frequency of vibration is also an ex-
tremely important consideration in designing the
wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers of an air-
plane. The designer must be certain that the res-
onant frequency when the surface is bent is different
from that resonant frequency when it is twisted.
If that is not the case, an aerodynamic interaction
with the elasticity of the surface can result in "flut-
ter" which can cause the surface to fracture in
a fraction of a second after it begins.

Figure 23-5.

159
Chapter XXIII Problems
A water wave has amplitude 1.5 ft. and wave A water wave is set up by a source oscillating at
length 1.1 ft. What is the equation of this wave 13 Hz. The speed of the wave is 15 ft. /sec. What
at an instant when the phase angle is 25°? is the wavelength?

At this same instant, what is the displacement An observer notes that a water wave has an
of afloating body that is 40 ft. from the source of amplitude of 0.2 ft. and a wavelength of 0.8 ft.
the disturbance? What is the equation of the wave if we assume that,
at the time in question, the phase angle is 0 0?
A water wave has a wavelength of 0.9 ft. and
the wavespeed is 4ft. /sec. What is thefrequency 7. In the above problem, what is the displacement
of the disturbance setting up this wave? of afloating leaf at a distance of 11.9 ft. from the
source of the wave?
A wave on a cord is set up by a body oscillating
at 12 Hz. The wavelength is 0.25 ft. What is the
wavespeed?

160
Chapter XXIV
Light
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. There is times the wavelength. Therefore, for light, we have
a certain band of frequency of electromagnetic radi- the relation:
ation that affects the retina of the human eye. We
call this band of radiation "visible light". Sometimes c = f A.
the word "light" means only visible light and some-
times the word "light" is used as a generic word to
mean any kind of electromagnetic radiation. Electro-
magnetic radiation is a type of wave. As in the case FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
of all wave motion, the wave moves with a definite IN HERTZ IN METERS
speed (c) called the speed of light. The speed of light -14
1023 10
has been measured many times and has the value, COSMIC RAYS
to three significant digits, 3.00 x 10 8 m/sec. 1022 10-13
The wavelength of visible light is usually measured
in a unit called the Angstrom (A). 1021 10-12
GAMMA RAYS
1020 10-11
1 A = 10-10m
1018 10-1°
X-RAYS
Various colors of visible light have characteristic
1018 10-9
wavelengths.
Figure 24-1 is a list of some colors and their 1017 10-8
ULTRAVIOLET
approximate wavelengths.
Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation shorter 1018 10-7
than 4,000 A are not visible and are called "ul-
1015 10-6
traviolet" and wavelengths longer than 7,000 A are VISIBLE
also not visible and are called "infrared". 1014 10-5
We also note that "colors" such as "blue-green"
also exist. The wavelength would be about 5,000 1013 10-4
INFRARED
A. Colors gradually change as the wavelength
1012 10-3
changes.
As in the case of all wave motion, the speed 1011
of electromagnetic radiation equals the frequency 10
10 MICROWAVES/ 10-1
RADAR
109 1
VIOLET 4500 A
108 TELEVISION/ 101
BLUE 4800 A FM RADIO
lo' SHORTWAVE 102
GREEN 5200 A RADIO

YELLOW 5800 A 106 103

AM RADIO
105 MARITIME 104
ORANGE 6000 A
COMMUINICATIONS
RED 6400 A 104

Figure 24-1. Figure 24-2.

161
 In figure 24-2, we list some common types of be pictured by drawing electric lines of force (see
electromagnetic radiation with ranges of frequency figure 24-5).
and wavelength. Note that the above equation is We have just noted that charges at rest set up
always satisfied. As the frequency increases, the electric fields which are pictured by means of electric
wavelength decreases in such a way that the product field lines called E lines. We next consider charges
equals the speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec.). in motion. Charges in motion set up magnitic field
In order to obtain a visual picture of electro- lines called B lines.
magnetic radiation, we need to review what we al- In figure 24-6, we see the cross section of a wire
ready know about electric and magnetic fields. carrying a current of electrons into the paper. The
An electric field can be pictured by considering circular magnetic field lines (B lines) are shown.
first a single positive charge in space. Such a charge We review that charges at rest set up electric
at rest sets up what is called an electric field. The field lines (E lines) and that charges in motion set
electric lines of force give the direction of the force up magnetic field lines (B lines).
on a very small positive test charge placed in the
Electromagnetic waves originate always in
vicinity of the charge (Q). See figure 24-3.
charges moving back and forth in some type of
If we have an electric dipole, equal positive and a transmitter. We can think of a transmitter as
negative charges, the electric field is somewhat more a straight line conductor along which electric
complicated and is pictured in figure 24-4. charges move up and down or back and forth. As
More complex combinations of charges at rest the charges change direction at the ends of the
also have in their vicinity electric fields which can transmitter, they are momentarily at rest. And of
course, at other times, they are moving and always
accelerating. In a transmitter, therefore, charges
are both sometimes in motion and sometimes at
rest. A transmitter is therefore a source of both
E lines and B lines. The electric and magnetic field
lines escape from the transmitter and move into
free space with speed (c).

Charge on Left = + 20
Charge on Right = —Q

Figure 24-3.

Figure 24-4. Figure 24-5.

162
 Figure 24-7 is an instantaneous picture of elec- A= 0.6 x 10-10m
tromagnetic radiation.
The direction of propagation is to the right. We
X = 6 x 10-11m
see that both the electric field lines and magnetic
field lines vary sinusoidally. The electric field lines
(b) An FM radio wave has a wavelength of 6 m.
lie in a plane that is perpendicular to the plane
What is the frequency in megahertz?
of the magnetic field lines. All light radiation, or
electromagnetic (EM) radiation, consists of these
patterns of electric and magnetic field lines moving f=
in free space (vacuum) with speed (c) or in some
other transparent medium. We note that the fre-
quencies and wavelengths of the various types of
f=
3 x 108m/sec.
EM radiation vary greatly. 6m

1 megahertz
EXAMPLE 24-A. f = 50 x 106 Hz x
106 Hz
(a) The frequency of an x-ray is 5 x 10 Hz. What
is the wavelength of this radiation?
f = 50 megahertz

c=f X,

c 3 x 108m/sec.
The Speed of Light
=
f
=
5 x 1018c/sec.
in Various Substances
We have already stated that the speed of light in
vacuum (free space) is, to three significant digits,
3.00 x 108 m/sec. The speed of light is less in various
transparent substances. We define the "index of
refraction" (n) as the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to the speed of light in the substance (v).

n = -9-
v

From this equation, we see that we can find the

speed (v) in various transparent substances by using
the relation:

v=—
n
Figure 24-6.

IN- X

Figure 24-7. The direction of propagation is to the right.

163
EXAMPLE 24-B. INDICES OF REFRACTION
Find the speed of light in water.
FOR VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

3.00 x 108m/sec. MATERIAL (INDEX OF

v REFRACTION)
1.33

Air 1.00029
v 2.25 x 108m/sec.
Benzene 1.50

Carbon Dioxide 1.00045

Diamond 2.42

Ethyl Alcohol 1.36

Glass, Crown 1.50

Glass, Flint 1.70

Ice 1.31

Water 1.33

Figure 24-8.

164
Chapter XXIV Problems
What is the wavelength in meters of an FM radio Find the speed of light in crown glass.
wave having a frequency of 95 MHz?
The speed of light in carbon tetrachloride is mea-
What is the frequency of an x-ray having a sured to be 2.05 x 10 8 m/ sec. What is the index
wavelength of 4 x 10 -1 ° m? of refraction of carbon tetrachloride?

3. What is thefrequency in kilohertz of an AM radio 6. Find the speed of light in a diamond.

transmission if the wavelength is 500m? (1 kHz
= 1,000 Hz)

165
Chapter XXV
The Doppler Effect
The "Doppler effect" is named after Christian Dopp-
ler (1803-1853), the American physicist who first f' =
v — vs
named the effect.
The effect is present for all wave motion. However, In the above equation, note that the denomina-
we will describe it for sound waves since it is most tor of the fraction in the right member is smaller
easily understood for a case where it can be observed than the numerator, (v - vs) is less than v. The
(heard might be a better word). magnitude of this fraction is more than one, and
Whenever you have stood on a railway platform therefore, f ' is greater than f. The observed fre-
and a train blows its whistle as it approaches, passes, quency is greater than the frequency emitted by
and recedes, you have heard the Doppler effect. the source. Also note that the wavelength received
In this case, the sound suddenly changes from a by the ear is less than the wavelength emitted by
higher pitch (frequency) as the source of sound ap- the source.
proaches to a lower pitch as the source of sound
Now assume that the ear is still at the right of
recedes from your ear at rest on the station platform.
the diagram. However, the source is moving to the
The change in pitch occurs at the instant the train
left. The source is receding from the ear (see figure
passes. Before this instant the source of sound was
25-2). The equation is:
approaching your ear and after this instant, the
source of sound is receding from your ear.
In figure 25-1, the source of sound is at the f' =
v + vs
point (P) and is moving toward an ear at rest at
the right of the diagram.
In this case, the denominator of the fraction is
Let the speed of the source be called vs and the
greater than the numerator and value of the frac-
speed of sound be v. Also let the frequency of the
tion is less than one and f ' is less than f. Also, the
source be f. Since the ear receives move waves
wavelength received by the ear is greater than the
per second because of the approaching source the
wavelength emitted by the source.
frequency that is heard by the ear is not the same
as the frequency of the sound that is emitted by There is still one other problem to be considered.
the source. The frequency that is heard will be Suppose that the source is at rest and the ear is
symbolized by f'. The equation is as follows: moving. Consider the figure 25-3.

Figure 25-1. Figure 25-2.

167
 EXAMPLE 25-A.
On a day when the temperature is 85°F, a factory
worker is traveling toward his place of employment
at a speed of 55 MPH. The factory whistle is blowing
and emitting a sound of frequency 256 Hz. What
frequency is heard by the worker?
In this case, the velocity of the source (vs) is zero
(the factory whistle is not moving). The velocity of
the sound (v) can be calculated. We recall the
formula for the calculation of the speed of sound
at various temperatures (see chapter 13).

v= 1087 + 1.1 (85 — 32)

Figure 25-3. v = 1145 ft./sec.

The velocity of the observer must also be ex-

As the ear moves to the left, it picks up more pressed in ft./sec.
waves than it normally would if it were at rest. Let
vo be the velocity of the observer. The equation is: 1.47 ft./sec.
vo = 55 MPH x = 81 ft./sec.
1 MPH
v + vo
f' f We choose the top signs in the numerator and
denominator of the formula because the source
Note that the value of the fraction is more than and observer are approaching each other (the
one and f ' is greater than f. worker is on his way to work).

If the observer moves away from the source„ the

= 1145 + 81
ear picks up less waves than it would if it were 1145 — 0 (256 Hz) = 274 Hz
at rest.
The equation is:
We note that the worker hears a higher sound than
that actually emitted by the factory whistle.
v — vo
f' f

EXAMPLE 25-B.
As a conclusion, note that the ear hears a higher A Lewis University aviation student stands at a
frequency if source and observer approach each railway crossing watching a train go by. The train,
other. Also, the ear hears a lower frequency if the traveling at 70 MPH, is blowing its whistle at a
source and observer recede from each other. frequency of 400 Hz. It is winter and the tempera-
One equation is sufficient for all cases: ture is 10°F. What frequency does the student hear
as the train approaches? What frequency does he
f' v vn f hear as the train recedes?
v T. vs The speed of the sound (v) is calculated:

The upper signs in the numerator and the de- v = 1087 + 1.1 (10 — 32)
nominator refer to the case where the observer and
source approach each other. Similarly, the lower v = 1063 ft./sec.
signs refer to the case where observer and source
recede from each other.
vo = 0 (the student is at rest)

168
 1.47 ft./sec. We will assume that the car whose speed is to be
v = 70 MPH x = 103 ft./sec. determined is traveling toward the patrolman.
1 MPH
Since the car is the reflector, we will call its speed vR.
When the train is approaching (using the top
signs): c+vR
f' f
c - 0
1063 + 0
f' = (400 Hz) = 443 Hz For the reflected wave:
1063 - 103

c +0
When the train is receding (using the bottom f„ f'
c - vR
signs):

1063 - 0 We next substitute the value of f' from the first

f' = (400 Hz) = 365 Hz equation into the second equation.
1063 + 103

C ) (C VA
f" = )f
- VR
Doppler Radar
The Doppler effect also occurs when the waves are After cancelling c, we obtain:
radio waves instead of sound waves. The equations
are the same. However, in this case, the speed of the f„ C + VA
wave is the speed of an electromagnetic wave. c - VA
We express this wave speed as c and note that c =
3 x 108 m/sec.
Now Af = f" - f. Therefore, to find Af, we subtract f
The Doppler formula becomes: from each member of the above equation:

c v, f C + VA
f' = Af f"-f f - f
C vs c - VA

The Doppler effect with radio waves is used by We factor the right member of this equation and
state patrolmen to determine the speed of fleeing or obtain:
approaching automobiles! The radio wave (of a
known frequency) is sent out by the patrolman toofthec + v R
f( - 1)
car under inspection. During this process, the c - VA
source is at rest and the car is a moving observer (or
reflector). When the wave is reflected by the car, the Next, we find a common denominator for the terms
Doppler formula is used again. However, in this re- in the parenthesis in the right member:
turn case, the source (the moving car acting as a re-
flector) is in motion and the observer (the patrolman c + v R - (c - vR)
in his patrol car) is at rest. Af f[
c-vR
We will define our frequencies carefully:

f = radio wave frequency sent out by the patrolman R

f ' = radio wave frequency arriving at and reflected by Af f(
C 2 -v vR
the car
f " = radio wave frequency arriving back at the In the denominator, we neglect vR relative to c
patrolman since it is so very much smaller. We finally write the
Af = the difference in frequency between the wave relationship:
sent and the wave arriving back at the patrolman
Af = f " - f ofa 2 f vR
C

169
 In the above derivation, the car whose speed was will indicate the relative velocity of source and
to be determined was approaching the patrolman. reflector.
The frequency difference was a positive number. Ground speed measurements are made by using
That is, f " was greater than f. the Doppler method. Of course, in this case, the
If the car is fleeing from the patrolman, the frequency source of the radiation (the plane) is in motion,
difference (Af = f " - f), will be a negative number. and the v of the Doppler formula indicates the
That is, the returning frequency (f ") will be less than velocity of the plane relative to the ground.
f (the frequency sent out by the patrolman). The Doppler theory also assumes that the di-
Since we want to know the speed of the car, rection of the emitted electromagnetic radiation and
it is more helpful to write to solve the equation the direction of the moving source are along the
for vR• same straight line. Some modification must be made
We write: in the Doppler formula if it is to be used to determine
ground speed! If the radiation is sent in the same
direction as the direction of travel of the plane,
v." = c 2fA f no radiation would be reflected by the earth, and,
therefore, no measurements could be made. The
problem is solved by emitting the radiation at a
We review the meanings of the above symbols:
depression angle (0) and incorporating the cosine
of 0 into the Doppler formula. If v is the speed
c = the speed of light = 3 x 10 8 m/sec. of the plane, v cos 0 is the component of this velocity
f = the frequency of the radio waves sent out by the is the direction of the emitted radiation. The diagram
patrolman is shown in figure 25-4.
Af = f" - f= the difference between the frequency sent The Doppler formula holds as before with one
and the frequency received at the patrol simple substitution. The component of the velocity
car of the plane in the direction of the emitted radiation
If Af is positive, the car is approaching. becomes the new left member of the Doppler formula.

If Af is negative, the car is fleeing. The modified Doppler formula is as follows:

A
v cos 0 = c2 f
EXAMPLE 25-C.
A state patrolman on Interstate 80 sends out a
If we solve for v (the ground speed of the plane)
radio wave signal of frequency 2 x 10 9 Hz. He
we obtain:
points it at an approaching car. The returning
signal is greater than the signal sent. The fre-
quency difference (Af) is 533 Hz. What is the speed c Af
v=
of the car? 2f cos 0

(3 x 10 8 m/sec.) (533 Hz
VR = 40 m/sec.
2(2 x 10 9 Hz)

1 MPH
VR = 40 m/sec. x - 89 MPH COS,e
0.447 m/sec.

Ground Speed Measurement

Using the Doppler Effect
The above theory assumes that the source of radia- GROUND
tion is at rest and the reflector is moving. The
derivation could be applied to a case where the
source of radiation is moving and the reflector is at
rest. In this case, the symbol v will replace and Figure 25-4.

170
EXAMPLE 25-D. Weather Prediction Using
An aircraft uses Doppler equipment with an angle the Doppler Effect
of depression of 60°. The frequency of the emitted The National Weather Service uses the Doppler Ef-
radiation 7,500 MHz and the observed frequency fect in the Nexrad (Next Generation Radar) weather
shift is 6 kHz. What is the ground speed of the prediction system. Microwaves are bounced off tiny
plane in m/sec. and in MPH? droplets in the center of a cloud. The reflected waves
First we must change the frequency difference are picked up by the radar system. In this way, it is
from kHz to MHz. Details of this change of units possible to measure the velocity of wind currents
will be shown: within the clouds. The formation of a tornado can be
predicted by using such measurements.
103 -Hz- 1 MHz One location for a Nexrad system operated by the
Af = 6-kHz- National Weather Service is at the Lewis University
x 1 -kHz- x 106 -Hz-
Airport in Romeoville, Illinois. This location services
the entire greater Chicago area. Lewis University is
Af = 0.006 MHz the home school of the authors of this text.

Next, we substitute into the modified Doppler

equation:

x 108 m/sec.) (0.006 MHz)

v = (3
2(7500 MHz) cos 60

v = 240 m/sec.

1 MPH
v = 240 mi-see. 537 MPH
0.447 rise,

171
Chapter XXV Problems
In all cases, the temperature is 68°F and the source If a patrolman on Interstate 255 sends out a
is emitting afrequency of 440 Hz (A above middle C). radio wave signal offrequency 1.5 x 10 9 Hz, and
What frequency is heard f the source is at rest receives back a larger signal offrequency differ-
and the observer moves away from the source ence 380 Hz, what is the speed of the approach-
with a speed of 60 MPH? ing car?

What frequency is heard f the source is at rest An aircraft uses Doppler equipment to measure
and the observer moves toward the source with ground speed. The angle of depression is 60 °
a speed of 60 MPH? and the frequency of the radiation 7,800 MHz.
The observed frequency shift is 8.2 kHz. What is
Whatfreguency is heard if the observer is at rest the ground speed of the plane in MPH?
and the source moves toward him at 60 MPH?
8. A plane is traveling at 600 mPH. The frequency of
Whatfrequency is heard if the observer is at rest the radiation used in the Doppler equipment is
and the source moves away from him at 60 MPH? 8,000 MHz and the angle of depression is 60 °.
What frequency shift (in kHz) will be observed?
5. A state patrolman on Interstate 55 sends out a
radio wave signal of frequency 2 x 10 9 Hz to
determine the speed of ajleeing car. The return-
ing signal is less that the signal sent out. The
frequency difference is 580 Hz. What is the
speed of the fleeing car?

172
Answers to Problems
Chapter I 15. 49.5 lb./in.2
7.22 14.7 lb./in.2
7.03 52.5 lb./in.2
7.65 68°F
1.70 5°F
8.83 30°C
4.56 x 105 -20°C
4.57 x 10-4 560°R
2.37 x 104 -10°F
23,400 373°K
0.000234 110°C
490 15°C
0.0000782 752°F
35.6 ft. 28. 1,930°C
0.914 m
Chapter III
511 m2
0.45 m3
1140 ft.2
405 lb./in.2
66.2 ft./sec.
76.7 lbs./in.2
80.0 ft./sec.
7.05 ft.3
282 km/hr.
1.86 atmosphere
226 MPH
3.26 m3
21. 19,800 seconds
7. -135°F

Chapter II 8. 50.1 lb./in.2

4.59 kg 9. 97.71b./in.2
225 N 10. 25,100 ft.3
10.9 slugs 11. 221 lb./in.2
755 lbs. 12. 0.387 ft.3
1.5 lbs. 13. 0.00750 slug/ft.3
1140 g 14. -4°C
564 lbs. 15. 0.163 kg/m3 , 679 kg
17.1 gal. 16. 0.00188 slug/ft.3
16,900 lbs. 17. 24,400 ft.3
422 gal. 18. 1.01 ft.3
0.8 19. 0.00751 slug/ft.3
2.7 20. 0.327 ft.3
0.922 21. 0.161 ft.3
2.6

173
Chapter IV 2150 ft./sec.
About 18,000 ft. 1980 lb.
About 14,000 ft. 16,400 N
67% 89% 3640 N
63% 5.2% 214,000 N
6. 96% 51% Yes 47,500 N

Chapter V Chapter VII

260 ft. 3370 ft.-lb.
131 ft. 15,000,000 J
-16.1 ft./sec.2 3180 ft.-lb.
55 ft./sec. -270 ft.-lb. (Note the negative sign!)
-6.29 ft./sec2 5750 ft.-lb.
38.3 ft./sec. 1,700 lbs.
60 m 140 lbs. 100 lbs.
244 ft. 5180 ft.-lb.; 20,700 ft.-lb.
3.91 sec. 39.2 J
100 ft. 43.8 ft./sec.
253 ft. 13.9 ft./sec.
165 ft. 29.3 sec.
6.17 ft./sec.2 0.182 HP

15.5 sec. 8.18 HP 6.10 kW

203 ft./sec. 32.6 sec.
140 ft. /sec.2 8670 HP

17. 16.7 ft./sec.2 6930 HP

477 MPH
Chapter VI 6190 lbs.
0.2 kg
4 ft. /sec.2 MODEL MODEL MODEL
0-235 C 0-235 H 0-235 L
15 lb.
24 lb. indicated. HP
115 109 105 HP
(HP)
16 ft./sec.2
23,300 slugs; 746,000 lbs.
P
132 PSI 135 141
(PSI)
25,400 N
L
544 lb. 0.323 ft. 0.323 ft. 0.323 ft.
(ft)
5680 N
A
257 kg 15.9 in. 2 15.9 In. 15.9 in.2
(in.2)
132 ft./sec.
N
16.8 slug strokes 1400 1300 1200
13. 976 lb. min.
K 4 4 4

174
Chapter VIII Chapter XI
1. 2.81 1. 0.0632 ft.
2. 3.14 2. 3.92 gal.
3. 74% 3. 29.4 gal.
4. 83% 4. 0.099 ft.
5. 15.8 ft. 5. 250°F
6. 36.8 lbs. 6. 49 gal.
7. 12.1 lbs. 7. 1951 gal.
8. 101 1bs. 8. $117.45
9. 1,650 lbs. 9. 0.20 ft.
10. 90.9% 10. 34.6 gal.
28.3 lbs.
836 lbs.
Chapter XII
1. 1,710 Btu
13. 25.1 in.
2. 3,860 Btu
14. 14.9 lbs.
3. 60.5°F
15. 78.4%
4. 184°F
16. 2.85 lbs.
5. 110°F
17. 58.3 lbs.
6. 103°F
18. 14.1°
82.4 lbs
0.23 in.
128,000 Btu
2.99 in.
776,000 Btu
21. 9.9°
485,000 Btu
Chapter IX 39.5°F
480 rev./sec. 28,800 rev./min. 27.8 lbs.
22.5 rev. 2.51 lbs.
219 rev. /min. 8.74 x 10 6 Btu
24 sec. 6.11 lbs.
56.3 rev. 133 therms
89,000 ft. 13,500 Btu/hr.
23.8 mi. 12 lbs.; 13 lbs.
2.34 rev./min. 19. 4.74 lb.
9. 0.00199 rev. / sec.2
Chapter XIII
Chapter X 1,134 ft./sec. 771 MPH

26,200 lbs. 1,035 ft./sec. 704 MPH

53,100 lbs. 1,008 ft./sec. 686 MPH

89% 90 db
8.81 ft.3 50 db
274 lbs. 1.11
18,500 lbs. 7. 1.25
7. 54.8 ft.3

175
Chapter XIV 458 ft.2
2870 ft. 86.6 lb./ft. 20.367
9.66 ft. 1,760 N/m22.56
13 mi. 1.79
6.72 mi. 22.0 mi. 65,000 lb.
8.69 m 253 MPH

2860 km 0.724 4520 ft. 196 knots

15.9 km 0.373 5140 ft. 183 knots
7.7 mi.
17.6 km
Chapter XVIII
3.56 x 1022 N
1 hr. and 20 min. = 80 min.
17,000 MPH
33.7° 12.3 cm
95 min.
51°
6,400 mi.
13. 81°
1,550 mi.

Chapter XV 7700 m/sec. 1.5 hrs.

C: 106 m, 52.5°
E: 13.9 mi., 178°
Chapter XIX
3.24 m/sec.
H: 52.5 m, 265°
0.6 ft. /sec.
N: 443 cm, 134°
27.1 m/sec., East
D: 37.6 cm, 30 N of W or 60 W of N.
The answer can also be expressed D: 37.6 2.4 m/sec., East
cm, 150° 0.0999 m/sec.
188,000 lb., West 4.29 ft./sec., North
37,000 lb., West 67.7 MPH

453 N, 22° S of E The 3-kg ball is moving left at 1 m/sec. and

the 2-kg ball is moving right at 4 m/sec.
Chapter XVI The 2-kg ball is at rest and the 1-kg ball is
1.93 MPH, 8.9° W of N moving east at 6 m/sec.
181 MPH, 12.5° W of S The 2-kg ball is moving right at 3 m/sec. and
the 1-kg ball is moving right at 6 m/sec.
190 MPH, 13.3° N of W
174 MPH, 11.2° W of S Chapter XX
232 MPH, 41.6° N of E T i =300 N and T2 = 424 N
236 MPH, 46.2° N of W T = 695 lb. and C = 483 lb.
155 MPH, N T = 1,250 lb. and C = 802 lb.
215 MPH, N T = 1,960 lb. and T = 1,260 lb.
140 MPH, 6.6° N of W C = 549 N and T = 599 N
223 MPH, 38.4 N of E T = 805 lb. and C = 805 lb.
11. 186 MPH, 11.5°N of W 7. Ti = 979 lb. and T = 725 lb.

Chapter XVII Chapter XXI

40,000 lb. T = 900 lbs. H = 779 lbs. V = 250 lbs.
17,000 lb. T = 1170 lbs. H = 755 lbs. V = 404 lbs.

176
 36 kg-m2 4.44 Hz
12 kg-m2 3 ft. /sec.
0.75 rad. /sec.2 1.15 ft.
360 x)
2.67 rad. /sec. y = 0.2 sin
' 0.8
3.43 rad. /sec.
7. -0.141 ft. The leaf is below the water level.
0.188 slug/ft.2

Chapter XXII Chapter XXIV

3.16 m
0.00139 in.
7.5 x 10 17 Hz
0.0310 in.3
600 kilohertz
172 lbs.
2 x 108 m/sec.
16,500 lbs.
1.46
4,750 lbs.
1.24 x 108 m/sec.
0.00862 in.
1.67 in. 2 1.84 in.2
Chapter XXV
0.00993 in. 407 Hz
0.0583 ft.3 474 Hz
0.00313 ft.3 477 Hz
11. 0.45 in. 2 0.75 in.2 408 Hz
97 MPH
Chapter XXIII
85 MPH

y = 1.5 sin ( 360

1.1
x
+ 25°) 705 MPH

7.15 kHz
0.61 ft.

177
 TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS
LENGTH VELOCITY

1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 MPH = 1.47 ft./sec.

1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft. 1 m/sec. = 3.281 ft./sec.

1 ft. = 0.3048 m 60 MPH = 88 ft./sec.

12 in. = 1 ft. 1 knot = 1.688 ft./sec.

3 ft. = 1 yd. 1 knot = 1.151 MPH

1 yd. = 0.9144 m 1 knot = 1.852 km/hr.

1 km = 0.621 mi. 1 MPH = 1.61 km/hr.

1 mi. = 1.609 km = 5,280 ft.

PRESSURE

AREA 1 atm = 76.0 cmHg

1 m2 = 10.76 ft.21 atm = 14.7 lb./in.2

1 m2 = 10,000 cm21 Pa = 0.000145 lb./in.2

1 ft.2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in.21 bar = 14.5 lb./in.2

1 in.2 = 6.452 cm2
TIME

VOLUME 1 year = 365 days

1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm 3 1 day = 24 hr. = 1,440 min.

1 ft.3 = 1728 in.3 = 0.0283 m3

1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 1.0576 qt. ENERGY

1 ft. 3 = 7.481 gal. 1 J = 0.738 ft. lb .

1 gal. = 3.786 liters = 231 in.31 cal = 4.186 J

1 Btu = 252 cal.

MASS

1 amu = 1.66 x 10 -27kg POWER

1000 kg = 1 metric ton 1 HP = 550 ft. lb./sec.

1000 g = 1 kg 1 HP = 0.746 kW

1 slug = 14.59 kg 1 W = 1 J/sec.

1 W = 0.738 ft. lb./sec.

FORCE AND WEIGHT 1 Btu/hr. = 0.293 W

1 N = 0.22481b.

1 lb. = 4.448 N FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANT

1 lb. = 16 oz. g = 321b./slug

= 9.8N/kg